26 Grain Structure, Composition, and Properties called the thermal conductivity) is a measure of the resatance to the condition of thermal energy (heal) Site individ- tit grain Kernels, In grain with high conductivity the thetmal gradients in vain ie isappeat faster during drying than in equal sized kernels of fanother grain with lower conductivity. Pre) ~ (3-22) ‘The rate of energy required for the evaporation is hphbAMe Aa (Prous ~ Pr Bolom : 2) moby = (3-23) are equal. Thus, : WAT ~ Tas) = By G29 The partial vapor pressure terms in equation (3-24) can be expressed in terms of the corresponding humidity ratios (see equation (3-12)). Under train drying conditions, Pyyws and Py= are small compared with atmos- pheric pressure, so P — Paya and P — Pr» can be replaced by the partial pressure of the dry air (,) in the airstream. Then ‘Combining equations (3-24) and (3-25) and rearranging gives hyMee p Me hale p, Me ww... — W, Rin, en HO) fsb Pit (Way — Wa)38 _Drying-Air Properties where p, is the density of the dry air. The convective transfer coefficients for heat (h') and mass (Hip) depend on the flow rate of the air past the wick. At normal atmospheric conditions, the ratio h'/h'p for a water-wetted wet-bulb tMermometer has been found to be 0.24 and almost independent of air velocity. if the velocity is at least 4,6m/s (1Sftis) and the radiation and conduction effects are minimal. The value of A'Jiip can be calculated from the following empirical relationship (Holman 1986): 627) where Sc is the Schmidt number and Pr is the Prandk] number. Values for Pr and Sc are given in Table 3-3 as functions of temperature, Equations (3-25), (3-26), and (3-27) allow vapor pressure, humidity ratio, and relative humidity of moist air to be calculated after the dry- and wet-bulb temperatures have been obtained with a sling psychrometer. Vapor pressure and humidity ratio are calculated directly (values for Pru and Wa, can also be found in Tables 3-1, 3-2a, and 3-26); equation (3-10) must be employed in conjunction with equations (3-24) and (3-26) to obisin the relative humidity. Brunt (1941) developed an equation for the wet-bulb temperature that can be used instead of equation (3-26) 1 Fp Penis — P+ T z ‘ ; (3-28) TABLE 33. Schmidt and Prandul Numbers of Air between 178°C and 121°C (0-280°F) Temperature Temperature cc) cB Pr 0 fen 0720 2 0.589 ons 0 605 O73 n 0.596 0708 10 en 70s 150 608 070 200 012 aes 250 0.816 0.692 va Pr Han, 1906, Heat Troms jor ye, Meroe Hil. New York, opyeght © 186. MeGeaw- Hil Seance Repricd wath petmsion perfect Gas Law Relationships of Moist-Air Properties 39 where . 1,006.9254( Perm — P) (1 + 0.15577 P.IP) (0.62194 hig (28) Substitute jy for Hip where Toy < 273-16. Also note that 255.38 < T (K) $533.16. Here, B’ is the slope Since Prout and Hf are equation (3-28). . ae ree the thermodynamic properties of moist iris utraed in the following example. of the wet-bulb line on the psychromerrie chart functions of Tan, iterations are required to solve Example 3-1 sea st air at 4.6mis indicates a dry- sling psychrometer moving through moist air t cs A ee gare anda woul tempers of 21°C The ameasherie pressure is 1.0113 x 10°Pa. Calculate the Yall pressure, aie humidity, humidity ratio, dew point temperature, ‘enthalpy. ani specific volume of the moist air. From equations (3-24) and (3-27), we have val) (r= Solution 3-2: waluated at the he only unknown is Pym. The properties are evalua aaa eniperatins between the wet-bulb and free-stream ait condit- ions, 25.8°C. Thvs. 20kg/m? (from Equation [3-3]) ce os kJ/kg + °C Se/Pr = 0,60/0.71 = 0.845 Posug = 2,802.8Pa (from Equation [3-6a]) Pu” w 4,109.3Pa (from Equation (3-6a)) T. = 294°C Toy = 2IC . hg? = 2432.1 kiMkg (from Equation [3-7a)) ‘Thus, Py is 1,971.9 Pa40 Drying-Air Properties Since the saturated vapor pressure at 29.4°C is 4,109.3Pa, the relative humidity of the aie is 1,971.94,109.3 = 0.479, or 479m according to equation (3-10). The humidity ratio is obtained from equation (3 1,971.9 = 0.623 x . W082 GSR IO = LaTES 7 OOM Ags The dew point temperature can be caleulated from equation (3-66) Because the saturated vapor pressure at the dew point known (P, 971.9 Pa), Thus, of i} 2 ASBT+ CT? + DT 4 ert - FT ~G; PY using a numerical technique for finding the root of this equation, we find the absolute temperature to be 289.8K. Thus the cen point tempera- ture & 289.8 ~ 273.0 = 16.8°C. If equation (3-60) is use 290.4K. ‘The enthalpy of the moist air is obtained direety from equation (3-18): (1,006.9}(29.4) + 0.012412.512,131 9 + ( 1.200Jkg dry air = 61.2 kI/kg dry ait 522.4}(20.4) ‘The specific volume is caleulsted from equation ( 20): (287.09)(302.6) oid se ape + 1.608(0.0124)) = 0.87 mkg NONIDEAL GAS LAW BEHAVIOR OF MOIST AIR in deriving the relationships forthe vetiousthermodynamis properties of Tom can bene Previous sections, we assumed tha the perfec oe equa- rena pe used without introducing a significant een a question jaumains about the size of the error that results fran neglecting the drying probleme, °°” (© "*i0uss8scous molecules in mois si for ere drying problems, sr S0rOus equations have been developed by Gott (1948) trom statis- saa inechanics concepts for valeulating the thermodyecde Properties of “Sturated moist sir. When the theory of statistical mechanie ie sec Psychrometric Chart 4 instcad Of the perfect gas law, the following relationship for moist air is predicted: PV = RoTam ~ [XpAag + 2X Xow + X2Ace|P ~ XtAass + 343K Asaw + 3X KA + XDA sen] P? (829) Where X is the mole fraction and the subscripts @ and w refer to dry ait and water vapor, respectively. The A values are coctficients, The subscript aa refers to the effect of one molecule of dry ait on one molecule of dry air. In a similar way, A,. is the eocthtient for the interaction between one molecule of dry ait and one molecule of water vapor. The meanings of the other subscripted A's are similar. Goff and Grateh (1945) used equation (3-29) and similar equations for Guxt thermodynamic properties of moist air t0 calculate and tabulate {he humidity ratio, specific volume, and enthalpy of saturated ait froma SOME to 100°C (-160~212°F). After comparing the statistical meehn anics data with those calculated from perfect gus aw relations, Barwick Reet (1967) concluded that use of the ideal gas lows causes an error of less than 1% in the thermodynamic property values of moist ait frog *C to 93°C (0-200°F). This means that the thermodynamic rela ships of moist air presented in the previous sections’ are sulfeleny a ts 0 allow thelr use in practical gran drying calculations (compare also Example 3-1), PSYCHROMETRIC CHART Construction To avoid time-consuming psychometric calculations, investigators have Prepared special charts that contain values of the most common thermos ynamic properties of moist air. They are called psychrometsie charts, Different psychrometric charts are used. They differ with respect {0 barometric pressure, temperature range. number of thermodynamic Properties included, and choice of coordinates. In the United Staves the Grewwenor-type chart, in which the humidity ratio is plotted versus the fprbulb temperature, has, until recently, been the most populat, Ia Elepe, however, the Moilier chart with the absolute humidity and Tnalby a coordinates has always been used. The American Society of HesGne, Refrisesating and Air-Conditioning Engincess (ASHRAE 198) has developed various Mallier-type psychrometric charts in the iO. GUC (-40-250°F) range. The charts have been constructed from the Goff and Gratch (1945) thermodynamic data for standard atmospheriePsychrometric Chart 43 pressures and use oblique-angle enthalpy-humidity ratio coordinates Two.of the ASHRAE charts covering the 0-S0°C and 10-120°C ranges are feproduced as Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2, respectively; the same two charts in English units (32-120"F and 60-250°F) are contained in the appendix to this chapter as Figure 3-12 and 3-13." "The vertical axis on the ASHRAE chart represents the humidity ratio Lines of constant humidity ratio run horizontally across the chart. “The horizontal axis gives values for the dry-bulb temperatures. The constant-dry-bulb lines run straight and upward, but are not parallel and fre not exactly perpendicular to the horizontal axis. The wet-bulb lines (also called the adiabatic cooling lines) are straight and make sherp angles of slightly unequal magnitude with the vertical axis. The enthalpy lines are oblique, parallel fines drawn in a direction slightly different from that of the wet-bulb lines. The values of the enthalpy lines are indicated on a scale on the upper left-hand side of the chart and on the horizontal axis. ‘The horizontal axis represents the 0% relative humidity line (dry air) ‘The lines for higher constant relative humidities are curved and swing upward, beginning at the lower left-hand corner of the chart. The 100% relative humidity curve is the saturation curve. Values for the dew point, et-buld, and dry-bulb temperatures are indicated on the saturation curve. The three temperatures are equal at saturation. ‘The specific volume lines are straight, not precisely parallel, and are obliquely drawn across the chart at steeper slopes then those of the enthalpy and wet-bulb lines. The specific volume lines also represent constant-density values, since the density is equal to the reciprocal of the specific volume. The ASHRAE psychometric charts are drawn from thermodynamic data of moist air calculated by statistical mechanics methods. Thus. the values on the psychrometric charts are slightly more accurate than those computed from the equations based on the perfect gas laws. As explained in the previous section, the difference between these two sets of values is Jess then 1%. It is doubiful that this kind of accuracy ean be obtained in reading the charts of is necessary for grain drying calculations, The payehromeire charts shown in Figures 31. 3 3 have teen reduced t0 the extent that dey have limited use in solving problems. Fullsized chars (1Y" 17) con be obtained from ASHRAE. 1791 Tulle Circle, NE, Avtanta. GA 30329-2805. Dakettes are avaable that are prozrammed to calculate all psychrometric properties if two unique peopenies are known. One such diskette is Pychor (MS-DOS, 54° diam SEK. public domain) availble from A. W. Blair, Research Assoc., Cl. Agr. and Geol Engineering, Box 50001, Las Cruces. 8M $8003-0001,44 Drying-Air Properties FIGURE 32. ASHRAE paychrometrie chart no. 3,51. units. High temperature (10°C 10 120°C) at sea level with a barometric pressure of 10L.325KPa._ (Reprinted with germiision: sgezrhe © 98 yt American Sosy of ean, Refer nd Ar Cnatonng inineers, Ine.) Paychrometrie Chart 45 'A psychrometrie chart is drawn and is therefore applicable only at one atmospheric pressure. The ASHRAE charts ate for standard barometric (Gea level) pressure. At significant elevations such as 1500m (4,921 ft), the standard charts cannot be used, and the thermodynamic equations or special psychrometric charts must be used. Use Paychrometric charts give the following thermodynamic properties of moist air at one atmospheric pressure: (1) dry-bulb “temperature, Q) wet-buld temperature, (3) dew point (or saturation) temperature, (4) humidity ratio, (5) relative humidity, (6) specific volume, and (7) enthalpy. If two of these properties are known, the state point of the air ‘can, in general, be determined on the chart; the other properties are found by reading the values of the appropriate Jines that pass through the point. Dew point temperature and humidity ratio are not independent states and a state point cannat be found if these are the only properties given. Several processes relative to grain conditioning can be represented con- veniently on the psychrometrie chart Sensible Heating and Cooling During sensible heating and cooling of the air at constant humidity ratio, heat is added to or withdrawn from the drying air in a heat exchanger as in an indirect heater (for grain drying) or in an evaporator (for grain chilling). ‘The processes of sensible heating and cooling are represented on the psychrometrie chart by straight lines parallel to the cbscissa (Fig. 3-3); both result in changes in dry- and wet-bulb temperatures, enthalpy, specific volume, and relative humidity of the moist air. No changes occur in the humidity ratio, dew point temperature, and vapor pressure of the moist air, Heating with Humidifying In most hested-air grain drying systems, energy is added to the air by direct combustion of gas in the air. During this process, not only heat but also a small amount of water vapor is added to the air. The result of the heating and humidifying process is that the enthalpy, the humidity ratio, the vapor pressure, the dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and dew point temperatures, and the specific volume of the air are increased (see Fig. 3-4). The change in relative humidity is determined by the relative amounts of energy and water vapor added to the air. In grain drying installations, the relative46 Drying-Air Properties FIGURE 33. _ Representation on the piychrometric chat ofthe senile heating and cooling process of moist ar. cooling heating FIGURE 34, _Represemation on the peychrometrc chart ofthe process of eating and humidiging most ai, freoting and humidtfying FIGURE 35. _ Representation on the psyehrometcic chart ofthe process of Cooling and dehumidilying moist sir. cooling and dehumidifying humidity of the drying air decreases during the combustion of a fossil fuel in the heater, Cooling with Dehumidifying In the process of grain chilling, air is often cooled to below the dew point temperature by passing it over an evaporator. Since the air is saturated with water vapor at the dew point temperature, water condenses out of the air as soon as its temperature drops below Ty,. The humidity ratio of the air will then be decreased, as will the dew point, wet-bulb, and dry-bulb temperatures, enthalpy, and specific volume. The cooling and dehumidifying process is illustrated in Figure 3-5, Drying The drying of a column of grain can be considered an adiabatic process This implies that the heat required for evaporation of the grain moisture is supplied solely by the drying air, without transfer of heat by conduction or radiation from the surroundings. As the air passes through the wet grain mass, a large part of the sensible heat of the air is transformed into latent heat as a result of the increasing amount of water held in the air as vapor, During the adiabatic drying process, there is a decrease in the dry bulb temperature, together with an increase in the humidity ratio and Psychrometris Chart 47 |48 —_Drying-Air Properties FIGURE 3-6. _ Representation on the psychrometric chart the process of ain drying adiabatically ve humidity, the vepor pressure, and the dew point temperature. ‘The enthalpy and the wet-bulb temperature remain practically constant uring the adiabatic drying process. The process of grein drying is illus- trated in Figure 3-6 Mixing of Two Airstreams In a number of continuous-flow grain dryers, two streams of air with different mass flow rates, temperatures, and humidity ratios ate mixed. The condition of the resulting mixture can be determined directly on the psychrometric chart. Consider two aitstreams with mass flow rates my and mz, temperatures 7, and Tz, and humidity ratios W, and W>. The mixture hes @ mass tlow rate of ms, a temperature of Ts, and a humidity ratio of Ws. The mass and energy balances for this process are mW, + mW (G0) mgliy + mh = shy Eliminating ms yields | eens ee cP nM LR Psychrometric Chart 49 smi{hy = fs) = mala ~ As) oy W,) = ma(Ws ~ Ws) ey) and thus my mm, Tig G35) The condition of the mixture of the two sirstreams therefore lies on a straight line joining (Fy, W,) end (Pz, Ws) on the #-W psychrometri chart. The point (lis, Ws) can be found algebraically or by applying the rule of congruent right triangles directly on the psychrometrie chart. The mixing process is illustrated in Figure 3-7 Under special conditions when high-temperature, high-humidity air is mixed with low-temperature. low-humidity air, condensation can occur; this phenomenon can sometimes be observed in an air recirculation dryer during cold ambient conditions. raples of Use of the Psychrometric Chart Specific examples of the use of the psychrometsic charts in grain condit- joning problems follow. FIGURE 37. _ Representation on the payetromesie chart ofthe process of ing two streams Of WO! ai. mixing w50 Drying-Air Properties Example 3-2 Determine from the psychrometric chart the thermodynamic properties of moist air at 29.4°C dry-bulb, 21.1°C wet-bulb, and barometric pressure (Qatm). . Solution 3-2: Find the state point where the 29.4°C dry-bulb line inter- sects with the 21.1°C wet-bulb line (see Fig. 3-8). Follow the constant humidity-ratio line to the ordinate and read 0.0124kg water vapor/kg dry air. “The dew point temperature is obtained by following the constant-W line to the 100% relative humidity line. Read Tap = 17.2°C. + The enthalpy is found by drawing a line through the state point parallel to the enthalpy lines and reading the value on the enthalpy scale. The enthalpy of the moist air in this example is 61.543/kg dry air. The relative humidity curve intersecting the state points Tap = 17.2°C and Tuy = 21.1°C may be determined by linear interpolation. Thus, = 48%. ‘The specific volume of the moist air can be read as v = 0.87m"Vkg dry air ‘Note: There is excellent agreement between the property values of moist air calculzted in Example 3-1 and those found on the psychrometric chart in this example, Example 3-3 A bin of grain is to be chilled with air at 100% relative humigity, a dry- bulb temperature of 4.4°C, and an airflow rate of 1,699.2m°/hr. If the ambient air conditions are 29.4°C dry-bulb and 21.1°C wet-bulb, deter- mine the amount of heat and moisture that has to be removed per hour from the inlet air by a grain chilling unit Solution 3-3: State points 1 and 2 represent the air properties before and after the cooling and dehumidifying process (see Fig. 3-9). The specific volume of the air reaching the cooler is 0.87m°/kg. The mass flow rate of the air is thus (1,699.2.°ar)/(0.87 m?skg) = 1,953.1 kg/tur Since the enthalpy of the air at 1 and 2 is 61.5 and 16.6kJ/kg dry air, respectively, the total amount of energy to be removed from the air is (1,953.1 kgihr)(61.S — 16.6) keg = 87,694.34) /he seth: Psychrometsic Chart SL h= 61.5 Kikg 0.9124 ka/kg v20.87kg/m. 29.4°C FIGURE 3S, _tlustation of the use ofthe psyehrometric chart for Example 32 “The humidity ratio of the air is decreased from 0.0124 kg to 0.0052 kg water vapor/kg dry air during cooling and dehumidifying. The total amount of water condensed is (2,953.1 kg/hr)(0.0124 ~ 0.0052) kg/kg = 14.06 kg/hr Example 3-4 A bin of grain is to be dried with air at a dry-bulb temperature of 43.3°C and an airflow rate of 1,699.2m°/hr. If the ambient air conditions are 39.4°C dry-bulb and 24.1°C wet-bulb, determine the amount of sensible hheat required per hour to heat the air if the average outlet relative humidity of the air after it has passed through the grain is 85%. Find the amount of moisture removed from the grain per hour. Solution 3-4; State points 1 and 2 represent the air properties before and after the process of sensible heating (see Fig. 3-10). The specific Volume of the inlet air is 0.87m*/kg. The mass flow-rate of air is (1,699.2? fhe}/(0.87 m?rkg) = 1,953.1 kg/h dry airfhr Since the enthalpy of the air at state points 1 and 2 is 61.5 and 76.6K1/kg ‘ry air, respectively, the amount of heat required for heating the air is52 Drying-Air Properties nests gL he 166 bieg Ta \. 00124 ake 0.0052 ke/eg aac 20.40 FIGURE 39, Iusration of Example 33. (1,953.1 ke/ht)(76.6 ~ 61.5) kI/kg = 29,591.81 kJihe The humidity ratio of the air betwe i pxsses through the grain is 0.0124kg water/kg dry air. After passing through the grain mass, the humidity ratio of the air has increased to 0.0192kg water/kg dry ait, At an airflow rate of 1,953.1 kg/hr, the amount of moisture removed from the grain is (1,953.1 kgfhr)(0.0192 ~ 0.0124) keskg = 3.28 kg/hr Example 3-5 Ina concurrent-flow grain dryer the stream of moist air exiting the cocl- ing section (1,699.2m'/hr, 35.0°C dry-bulb temperature, 31.1°C wet-bulb temperature) is mixed with ambient air (1,699.2m°shr, 12.8°C dry-buib temperature, 10.0°C wet-bulb temperature) before the mixture is directed to the burner. Determine the éry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the mixture before it reaches the burner. Solution 3-5: Locate state points 1 and 2 on the psychrometric chart and raw a straight ine between them (see Fig. 3-11). The specifi volumes at those points are vj.= 0.912 m?/kg and vy = 0.8i8m'/kg, Thus, the mass flow rates are Psyctrometric Chart 53 be 766 keg be 61S Wig 0.0192 kg/kg 2) 0.0124 ka/eg Shor /ins 29.40 ase FIGUR 10. Iustration of Example 34 1 912 mag W = 0.0276 kolkg he 29.4 W= 0.0164 kgikg W = 0.0085 kgikg vaasreqtag 128 = 23.9'C 35'S FIGURE 3.11. Iusteation of Exemp54 Drying-Air Properties 1,699.2 ty kg dry airs ny = HE = 1,868.2 ke dey ahr and = m= 2,077 3kg dry air/he Calculating the mixture conditions algebraically by using equations (3-30) to (3-35) yields mW, + mgWa _ (1.863.2)(0.0276) + (2,077.3)(0.0055) my + my 1,863.2 + 2,077.3 = 0.0165 kg water vapor/kg dry air myhy + (2,863.2)(108.5) + (2.077.3)(29-4) mm + my 1,868.2 + 2,077.3 = 65.4KIIkg The drs- and wet-bulb temperatures of the mixture can now be read irectly from the psychrometric chart: T = 23.5°C and Ty = 22.3°C. The state point of the mixture can also found directly on the psy- chrometric chart by locating it at a distance of —M__ (aistance between 1 and 2) im + oma from point 2 on the line between points 1 and 2. Thus, if the distance between points 1 and 2 is measured and the length multiplied by the ratio myi(m, + m2), the distance between points 1 and 3 or 2 and 3 can be determined. Note that the shorter length corresponds to the larger mass flow rate, Psychrometries Problems 1, Moist air exists under conditions of 75°F (23.89°C) dry-bulb tempera~ ture, 55°F (12-78°C) wet-bulb temperature. and atmospheric pressure. Determine (a) the humidity ratio, (b) enthalpy, (c) volume, and (4) relative humidty, using the psychrometric chart sien . Calculate the moist-air properties at the inlet conditioas of an in: . A bin of gral . Air at 20°C and 80% ' Psychrometic Chart $5 grain dryer (i.c., 50°C, 15% RH). using the thermodynamic equations. is to be dried with air at a dry-bulb temperature of 43.9C and an airflow rate of 28.3m®/min. If the ambient ait conditions are 29.4°C dry-bulb and 21.1°C wet-bulb, and the average outlet air relative humidity of the air after passing through the gi is 85%, determine the amount of sensible heat required per hour to heat the air. Also, calculate the amount of moisture removed from the grain per hour. Yo RH is cooled with an air chiller to 11°C wet-bulb, temperature at saturation. If the airflow rate is 1.275 kgihr. find (a) the moisture removed from the air per hour; (b) the heat removed to condense the moisture; (c) the sensible heat removed, and (d) the total amount of heat removed. In a crossfiow dryer, 142m"/min of air from the cooling section are mixed with 227m?/min of air from the second drying section. The air from the cooling section is at 27°C and 70% relative humility; the air from the drying section is at 46°C and 60% relative humidity. Calculate the (a) enthalpy, (b) absolute humidity. (c) dry-bulb tem- perature, and (d) wet-bulb temperature of the air mixture. |. Air to be used for grain chilling enters a refrigeration evaporator at 32°C dry-bulb temperature and 18°C wet-bulb temperature at a flow rate of 40m"/min, The refrigeration unit removes 11kW of energy from the air as it passes over the eveporator coils. Find the dry-bulb and wet-bull temperatures of the air leaving the evaporator. Assume atmospheric pressure at sea level . Two sirstreams, both at standard atmospheric pressure, are mixed adiabatically. One stream is at 38°C dry-bulb temperature and has a humidity ratio of 0.01 kg/kg, the other stream is at 118°C dry-bulb temperature and has a humidity ratio of 0.0Skg/kg. If the resultant mixture has a humidity ratio of 0.05 ka/kg, (a) what is the proportion in which the two streams are mixed? (b) what is the :emperature of the mixture? Ambient air at a dry-bulb temperature of 20°C and a wet-bulb tem- perature of 18°C is cooled to a wet-bulb temperature of 11°C at Saturation by passing it through a refrigeration unit. The airflow rate is 17.43m‘lmin, Regarding the air as itis cooled. find (c) the moisture removed per hour, () the latent heat removed to condense the moisture, (6) the sensible heat removed to cool the air. and (4) the total amount of heat removed. A farin shop with a heat loss of $9 kW is heated by air that has a dry- bulb temperature of 54.5°C and a humidity racio of 0.006kg water/kgI _—_ —e—<<—eeecec 56 Drying-Air Properties - Symbols $7 py air. Air returns to the furnace at 18°C without a significant change Ca concentration of water vapor in free airstream, kg/m? (Ib/f) in humigity ratio. Find (a) the amount of air (kg) that must be circu. M, molecular weight of water (=18.01) lated for heating, and (b) the amount of air (m/min) measured at the Mq molecular weight of dry air (=28.96) inlet conditions. P atmospheric pressure (= total pressure of moist ait), Pa (psi, py a or in. Hg) Symbols P, partial pressure of dry air, Pa (psi, psf, or in. Hg) y P, partial pressure of water vapor, Pa (ps, psf, or n. Hg) © specific heat of moist air, J/kg «°C (Btullb - °F) Powe partial pressure of water vapor at saturation at wet-bulb + specific heat of dry air, Jikg °C (Btu/ib - *F) temperature, Pa (psi, psf, or in. Hg) specific heat of water vapor, J/kg» °C (Btuilb -*F) Pee partial pressure of water vapor at saturation, Pa (psi psf or C» specific heat of liquid water, J/kg - *C (Btuilb - *F) in. Hg) enthalpy of moist air, kg (Btu/lb) Pra partial vapor pressure of water vapor of the free airstream, hy specific enthalpy of dry air, J/kg (Btu/lb) Pa (psi, psf or in. Ha) ‘iy specific enthalpy of saturated liquid water, J/kg (Bru/Ib) Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless ‘he specific enthalpy of saturated water vapor, Jkg (Btu/lb) Ro universal gas constant, 8,314.34 kg m2/s? ke K ‘ity ip~ hy = heat of vaporization at saturation, 1>kg (Btu/lb) (1,544.0 ftIbimote*R) ‘go heat of vaporization at the reference temperature Ty, I/kg Re gas constant for dry air, 287.09 kgm*/s? kek (Bub) (53.35 fib/mole*R) ‘ify heat of vaporization at dew point temperature, J/kg (Btu/lb) Ry gas constant for water vapor, 461.91 kem?s? ky K ‘ie heat of vaporization at wet-bulb temperature, Jikg (Btu/lb) (85.81 ftIb/mole*R) fgg ‘heat of sublimation, J/kg (Btu/lb) Se Schmidt nemaber, dimensiontess hig Reat of sublimation at wet-bulb temperature, J/kg (Bru/tby FT dey-bulb temperature, °C (°F) ‘hy specific enthalpy of water vapor, Sky (Btu/9) To reference temperature for dry air, “C (°F) ftw specific enthalpy of water of any phase added to moist air, 1hkg To reference temperature for saturated liquid water, °C (*F) (Biuiib) Top, absolute dry-bulb temperature, K (°F) ‘specific enthalpy of water added to moist air at Te, J/kg (Ltu/ib) Tep dew point temperature, °C (°F) fr Sonvective heat transfer coetficient, Wim? °C (Btu/it?-"F- hr) Teo psychrometric wet-bulb temperature, °C (°F) ky convective mass transfer coefficient, mit (ftlhe) Se thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature, °C (F) k thermal conductivity, W/m °C (Biu/hr -ft-*F) Ts — free-stream moist-air temperature, °C (°F) ‘mq mass flow rate of dry air, kg/hr (lb/hr) V- volume occupied by moist air, m? (£0) Mw mass flow rate of water of any phase, kg/hr (Ib/he) V, volume occupied by dry air, m (ft) 2 rate of heat transfer, Wim® (Siu «fe V. volume occupied by water vapor, m* (ft3) time, he W humidity ratio of moist air, kg water/kg dry air (Ib water/b dry % specific volume of moist air, m’/kg (fe?) air or grains water/Ib dry air) Ya specific volume of dry air, m’/kg (ft/lb) W, humidity ratio of moist air at saturation, kg water/ke dry aie Y specific volume of water vapor, m'/kg (C/Ib) (lb wateritb dry air) Ww mass of moist air, kz (Ib) We humidity ratio of moist air in the freestream. kg water/kg dry ait Wy mass of dry air, kg (ib) (lb water dy air) We mass of water vapor, kg (Ib) % relative humidity, decimal Co» concentration of water vapor, boundary layer at wick, kg/m? viscosity, kg/sm (Ibyhr - ft) (bite?) Pe density of dry air, kgim? (Ib/ft)dee Psychrometrics in English Units $9 Appendix Psychrometries in English Units In this section, the equations of the moist-air properties are given in English units when they differ from the $.1. equations (3-1) to (3-35) presented inthis chapter. Thus, the equations not given are the same in 8.1. and in English units. Only equations for heat of vaporization, the vapor pressure, and enthalpy require modification. Psychometric charts in English units for approximately the same temperature ranges as those in Figures 3-1 and 32 are shown in Figures 312 and 3-13. Sauurasion Vapor Pressure 11,286.65 tn Pa (ps) = 23.39 - =P 0.46 nT, 459.69 < TER) < 491.69 om) A+ Br+ CT + DT + Er In( Pu) (psi Fr oor 491.69 < T (PR) < 959.69 6) where R = 3206.18 t 27,405.53, 5419) 0.045 D = 0.215 x 107 E = ~0.462 x 10 } 0.09 < P, = 680 (G63) 0,00386583 0.249018 x 10°? 0.684016 x 105 0.157816 Heat of Vaporization digg (Bruilb) = 1,075.90 ~ 0.37(T ~ 491.69], 491.69 = TR) < 609.69 678) 'Psyehrometrics in English Units 61 FIGURE 313. _ASHRAE psyehrometric chart no. 3, U.S. customary units. High temperature at sea level wth barometric pressure of 29.921 inchesof mercury. [Reprinted with persion; copyright © 1963 by the American Society of Hea, Refrigerating and Air-Condivoning Engineers, Pa.) ‘yg (BtvMb) = [1.35 x 10° — 0.91755, 609.69 < TCR) < 959.69 G7) ‘hg (Btulb) = 1,200.84 ~ 0.0S[T — 459.69], 459.69 € T (/R) < 491.69 68) Enihalpy ‘h (BtuMo) = 0.2405(7 ~ 459.69) ~ WI143.35 + 0.485(491.69 ~ 7,,)] + hg + O.MBW (T= Tip), 459.69 < Tap (*R) © 591.69 (G-18) + (Brule) = 0.2405(T ~ 459.69) + W(Typ ~ 491.69) + hygW + 0448W(T — Typ), 491.69 < Typ (*R) < 671.69 (156) where fig and fgg are evaluated ai the dew point temperature fh, (Btulb) = 1,061.0 + 0457 (A), 32 wscer vapor dry air. -serature is obtained by following the constant humidity iaive humidity line. Read Typ = 63°F, - sd by drawing a line through the state point parallel to the the value on the enthalpy scale. The enthalpy of the 3 34.1 Buu/lb dey ait. ve intersecting the state point Typ = 63°F and Tay = ' Hnear interpolation. Thus, @ = 48%. ae 7 Psychrometrics in English Units 63 “The specific volume of the moist air in this example can be read as ¥ = 14.080 ry ait Note: There is excellent agreement between the property values of moist air celeulated in Example 3-1 and found on the psychrometric cart in this example. Example 3.3 A bin of grain is to be chilled with air at 2 dry-bulb temperature of 40°F at Saturation and an airflow rate of 1,000cim (cubic feet per minute). Ifthe ambient ‘ir conditions are 85°F dry-bulb and 70°F wet-bulb, determine the amount of heat and moisture that have to be removed per hour from the air by a grain chilling Solution 3-3: State points 1 and 2 represent the air properies before and after the cooling and dehumidifying processes. The specific volume of the air reaching the cooler is 14.0f07b. The mass flow rate of the air is thus (1,000 cfm)(60:min)/(14.0f%Nb) = 4.2801b dry airthe Since the enthalpies of the air at 1 and 2 are 34.1 and 15.2Btu/lb dry air, respectively, the total amount of energy to be removed from the (4.290 1bmr)G4.1-15.2) Bru/d = 81.000 Bruhr “The humidity ratio of the air is decreased from 0.01241b water vaporilb dry ait to 0.00521 water vaporib dry air during cooling and deiumidifying, The tot condensed is thus amount of wa (4,2801b/hr(0.0124 ~ 0.0052) bth = 30.81bvhr Example 34 |A bin of grain is to be dried with air at a dry-bulb temperature of 110°F and an airflow rate of 1,000cfm, If the ambient air conditions are 85°F dry-bulb and 70°F wet-bulb, determine the amount of sensible heat required rer hour to heat the air, Ifthe average outlet relative humidity of the aie after it has passed through the grain is 85%, find the amount of moisture removed from the grain per hour Solution 3-4 State points 1 and 2 represent the air properies before and after the process of sensible heating. The specific volume of the inlet au is 14.0117 “The mass flow rate of sir is 4.2801 dry aiethe (1,000 cfm) (60 min)(14.0ft%b) Since the enthalpies of the air at stare points 1 and 2 are 34.1 and 40.6 Btu/lb dry air, respectively. the total amount of heat required for heatirg the air is; 64 Drying-Air Properties (4.280 tbh) (40.6 ~ 34.1) Bruflb = 27,800Bruhhr ‘The humidity ratio of the air before it passe through the grain is 0.012415 i waterfib dry air. After it has pasced through the grain mass, the humidity ratio has increased to 0.0192 b waterflb dry air. At an aiow rate of 4,280|b/hr, the amount of moisture removed from the grain is (4.28016) (0.0192 ~ 0.0124)IbAb = 29.10 1bine Example 3.5 Jn @ concurrent-fow grain dryer the stream of moist air exiting from the cooling ! section (1,000cKm, 95°F dry-bulb temperature, 88°F wer-bulb temperature) is mixed with ambient air (2,000cim, 35°F dry-bulb temperature, 30°F we-bulb temperature) before the mixture is directed to the burner. Determine the dry. bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the mixture before it reaches the burner. Solution 35: Locate state points 1 and 2 on the psychrometrie chart and draw & steaight line between them. The specific volumes at those points are ¥ = 14,780 and vy = 13.1 fb. Thus the mass flow rates are 6.31b dry airimin Calculating the mixture conditions algebraically by using equations (3-30) to (335) yields Wy = AWA mas _ (68.50.0275) + (76.3}0.0068) mm > m 685+ 763 = 0.0164 1b water vapor/lb dry air hy = MUA nics _(68.5)(53.2) + (76.3202) my + ms 5+ 763 35.8 Btw dry air Thus, T= 74.5°F. Ton 2.0°F. References ASHRAE, 1989. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. Am. Soe. Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, New York. - spate References 65 Barwick, J. A., K. A. Jordan, and A. D. Longhouse. 1967. Accuracy of com: puter evaluation of moist air properties. Trans. ASAE 10: 579-583. Brooker, D.B, 1967. Mathematical model of the psychrometric chart. Trans ASAE 10: 558-560. Brooker, D. B., F. W. Bakker-Arkema, and C. W. Hall, 1974, Drying Cereat Grains. AVI, Westport, CT. Brunt, D. 1941. Physical and Dynamical Meteorology. Cambridge University Press, Bentley House, London. Goff, J. A. 1949. Standardization of thermodynamic properties of moist aif. Trans. ASHVE $8: 463-464 Goff, J. A. and $. Gratch. 1945. Thermodynamic properties of moist air, Trang, Holman, J. P. 1986. Heat Transfer, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Howel, J. R. and R, ©. Buckius. 1987. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York. Keenan, J. H. and F, G. Keyes, 1936. Thermodynamic Properties of Steam. Wiley, New York. Stel, W. G. and G. J. Silvestri. 1988. The formulation of steam properties for digital computer application. Trans. ASME 80: 967, ‘Threlkeld, 1. L. 1982. Thermal Environmental Engineering, 3rd ed, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.z : 4 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content ‘The concept of equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is important in the study of grain drying because the EMC determines the minimum mois. ture content to which grain can be dried under a given set of drying conditions. The EMC of grain is defined as the moisture content.of the material after it has been exposed to a particular exvironment for an infinitely long period of time. Alternatively, the EMC can be defined as the moisture content at which the internal product vepor pressure is in equilibrium with the vapor pressure of the environment. The EMC de- pends on the humidity and temperature conditions of the environment as well as on the species, variety, and maturity of the grain. This section considers the EMC values of the major grains. In addition, a number of EMC prediction equations are examined." ‘Sinee the main interest in this book is focused on moisture desorption (érying) rather than on moisture adsorption, the first sections of this chapter pertain to desorption characteristics of grains unless specifically mentioned otherwise, EMC VALUES Each grain displays a characteristic water vapor pressure at @ certain» temperature and moisture content. For example, at 30°C (86°F) and 16% moisture content, wet basis, the vapor pressure of the moisture in wheat ig 3,061.0 Pa (0.444 psi), whereas in oats it is 3,289.0 Pa (0.477 psi), Thus, Tika explanation ofthe symbols used in this chapter appears atthe end of the chapter, o68 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content the vapor pressure of a cereal grain at the various moisture contents and temperatures determines whether it will desorb (lose) or adsorb (gain) moisture when exposed to moist air. . Now suppose the wheat and oats are placed in a moist-air environment of 30°C (86°F) and 75% relative humidity. From the psychrometric equa- tions in Chapter 3 the vapor pressure of the water vapor in the air under these conditions is found t0 be 3,178.0Pa (0.461 psi). Therefore, the wheat adsorbs moisture because its vapor pressure [3,061.0Pa (0.448 psi)] is less than that of moist air, whereas the oats lose moisture because their vapor pressure [3,289.0Ps (0.477 psi)] is greater. ‘When the vapor pressure of the water in a grain kernel is equal to the water vapor pressure of the surrounding air, the moisture content of the Kernel is equal to the equilibrium moisture content. Stated differently, the EMC is the moisture content reached by a hygroscopic product after its vapor pressure has attained equilibrium with the surrounding air. The relative humidity of the air surrounding cereal grain in equilibrium with the environment is called the equilibrium relative humidi Because of the practical importance of the equilibrium moisture con- tent in the drying of cereal grains, moisture equilibria have been deter- mined experimentally for many grain species. Specific values obtained rom the ti Ne grains (e.g., corm and wheat) a number of values are listed for the same environmental conditions (temperature and humidity). The variation in EMC values is caused by a difference in (1) the grain variety, (2) the grain maturity, (3) the grain history, (4) the relative humidity measuring technique, and (5) the EMC determination method. There is a lack of EMC values at relative humidities above 98% because mold develops before equilibrium is attained, Grain varieties differ slightly in their chemical analyses. The same is tue for grains of different maturity. A change in the chemical composi tion or ia the history of the product may affect the EMC of « biological product significantly. Artificial drying lowers the EMC of corn by 0.5% to 1.0% as a result of slight chemical changes that occur during the drying process when kernels reach temperatures above 60°C (140°). The EMC Of grain also depends on its desorption and adsorption history; the dif ference between desorption and adsorption EMC is discussed later in the chapter. Grains with a high oil content are in equilibrium with a given set of air conditions at a lower moisture content than are seeds high in starch content, Table 4-1 shows, for example, that at 25°C (77°F) and 70% relative humidity soybeans have an EMC of 11.5% and wheat kernels an EMC of 13.9%, Thus, for safe storage, soybeans should be stored at Grains and Seeds (96 ws PALE 44 50 30 » 0 GC) wet nasa 2 mS 98 “769A 3 2" 149 26 io bs 8s ss as 326 a a7 sk 2s 150 126 1a 1 94. 14 159 153 us 167 D6 6 aa ws 5 169 163 M6 be O48 yo. 46 1 4s Legume, x” ” « co 189 na na m0 mn ay 52 27 182 = aod a8 # z Sn = ences * £2 3 S38823 & zs i 2 a 27 = 4 _ 2 22 4 2 a © 2 4 tHenee 8203 sggaz9 4s 3.4 * & | 5 3} 8 & oO q @ 124 * oS amnans a j 48 cous 2 oJ 2] ~ 64 a } . 0 i ‘ 3 gue 4 Plotting EMC Curves 71 Jower moisture contents than wheat and other starchy grains. This topic is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. ‘Temperature has a significant effect on the EMC of a grain, For shelled com the EMC at 70% relative humidity is 15.6% at 4.4°C (40°F) and 10.3% at 60°C (140°F) (see Table 4-1). Other grains behave similarly: an increase in temperature at constant relative humidit PLOTTING EMC CURVES Plotting the EMC versus relative humidity (holding temperature con- stant) for any of the grains listed in Table 4-1 results in a sigmoid-type (S-shaped) curve that rises sharply above 85% relative humidity. The S-shaped curve is characteristic for biological products, including cereal grains. In Figure 4-1 the equilibrium moisture content curves (also called — corn hard wheat soybeans 1020 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Relative Humidity, % ilibriom moisture content curves for wheat, yellow dext comm, and E soybeans a $0°C (122"F) decreases the EMC.| 72 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content 30. — 44 (40 F) 274 26.7 C (80F) 50 C (122 F) 24. 21 Moisture Content, % w.b. O-prrreperreperreprreeprreepreprerrpeeepeerepered 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 a 90 100 Relative Humidity, % FIGURE 42, Equilibrium moisture coment curves for yellow dent com at thece temperatures, moisture equilibrium isotherms) are drawn for whest, yellow dent corn, and soybeans at 50°C (122°F). Figure 4-2 shows the EMC curves for corn at three temperatures. EMC DETERMINATION A variety of methods have been employed for determining the EMC values of cereal grains. Most of the available data have been obtained by exposing a grain sample to water vapor in a moist-air environment. Atmospheric EMC determination techniques are either static or dy- namie, Inthe state method a grain sample allowed to come to equi bbrium in still, moist air. In the dynamic method the air is mechanically moved. The static method requires several weeks before equilibrium is feached. At high relative humidities and temperatures, the grain may EMC Models 73 mold before equilibrium is attained, The dynamic method is quicker and, thus, preferred. In determining an experimental EMC isotherm, keep the thermo- dynamic conditions of the air constant. The temperature of the air is thermostatically controlled; saturated salt solutions regulate the vapor pressure of the air surrounding the sample. If water evaporates, some salt precipitates, but the relative humidity above the solution does not change. It is necessary to use a variety of salts to obtain a relative humi dity range from 0% to 100%. Table 4-2 lists the relative humidity values obtained by seven salt solutions at four temperatures. EMC MODELS Several theoretical and empirical models have been proposed for caleu» lating the moisture equilibria of grains. The theoretical EMC models are based on capillary condensation (Kelvin mod:!), kinetic adsorption (Langmuir, BET, GAB), or field-sirength potentiat (Harkins—Jura), Only the GAB equation among the theoretical EMC models is capable of predicting accurately the moisture equilibrium isotherms of grains over the full temperature and relative humidity ranges encountered in practical grain drying situations. However, the lacs of knowledge of the product constants tor grains in the GAB equatica engineers 4 employ purely empirical equations (Henderson or Chung) in dryer design calculations. Kelvin Equation Kelvin (1871) modeled moisture adsorption in a solid by considering the capillary condensation within the pores. The relationship between the vapor pressure over a liquid in a capillary (P,) ard the saturated vapor pressure at the same temperature (P,,) is the basi of the capillary cone densation theory. The Kelvin equation has the form Rola ey w(t) = 20s where P, is the water vapor pressure of the product (grain), Py, is the saturated water vapor pressure at the equilibrium temperature of the system, o is the surface tension of the moisture, V is the volume of the moisture.in liquid form, r is the cylindrical cepillary radius, and a is the contact angle between the moisture and the capillary wall The practical use of the Kelvin equation for cereal grains is limited toSe K50, KNO, (nH, 80, Nact 156 ma ma ato. 1 above a Number of Saturated Salt Solutions Ma(NO)). M2 6 36 (60) at Dittereat Te bs 2 oy EMC Models 75 the very high relative humidity range (>95%) where capillary conden: ser on securs. Even in this humidity range the Kelvin equation gives questionable results because of the nonideal behavior ofthe moisire it ‘he mnieropores of a grain kernel. However, the Kelvin equation is useful for interpreting the hysteresis effect in cereal grains. Langmuir Equation “The classic Kinetic model of adsorption developed by Langmuir (1918) xplains the adsorption of a monolayer of water vapor on the interna) sFaces of a grain kernel in terms of unbalanced chemical forces. The EMC equation is derived from a balance of the evaporation and conden- sation rates of the vapor. The Langmuir isotherm equation is of the form op, v= volgen) wn where V is the volume of water vapor adsorbed isothermally by the grain wr the vapor pressure Py, Vo iS the vapor volume adsorbed when the iM remal surfaces are totally covered with a monolayer cf molecules, and ig a constant dependent on the temperature and type of solid (@.8.» grain). ‘The Lang physical model does not account suir EMC equation is not valid for cereal grains because the for interaction between the adsorbed Payeticlecules or for multilayer adsorption. In spite othe limitation of qhe Langmuir equation, itis important in grain drying because it serves ag ctarting point in the derivation of a number of frequently used semi: theoretical EMC equations of cereal grains BET Equation Brunaver, Emmett, and Teller (1938) proposed the so-called BET equa- tion for multilayer molecular adsorption, also based on the Kinetic energy In the model the internal surfaces of a grain kernel are regarded as an array of specific adsorption sites, each site being capable of adsorbing tnote than one water molecule. The BET equation can be written as ee Phas wef Ee & V(P, = Pe) Vine \ Vine 7 Pet a related to the heat of adsorption of the where ¢ is a product constant veneer vapor (Iglesias etal. 1975). The other quantities are defined in theA 76 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content previous EMC equations. The BET equation results in the sigmoid-type curves shown in Figure 4-1 ‘The BET equation has only successfully predicted EMC values of grains below 20% wet basis (Pixton and Howe 1983). Hark ~Jura Equation Several EMC models are based on the concept of an electric potential field existing above the surfaces of a solid, The total work required to adsorb (or desord) a molecule can be considered to be equal to the sum of the work required for a vapor molecule to overcome the field strength, plus the work of condensation. Harkins and Jura (1944) proposed the following EMC equation based on potential theory: where d and ¢ are product constants dependent on the grain temperature ‘The Harkins—Jura equation predicts the grain moisture equilibrium nis satisfactorily at relative humidity values above 30% (Gustafson hitife and Iglesias 1978). wy GAB Equation ‘A consensus has developed among food scientists of the superiority of the Guggenheim Anderson~de Boer (GAB) equation for the prediction of the equilibcium moisture content of food products (van den Berg 1984). The GAB sorption isotherm equation is developed from the Langmuir and BET theories of physical adsorption, and has the form a (1 PPIPLO = fPlPax + BfPiP os) (43) where M is the moisture equilibrium content (decimal d.b.) and My. is the moisture content (decimal d.b.) when each sorption site in a grain kernel contains one water molecule (a monolayer), and f and g are tem- perature-dependent product adsorption constants. Lomauro ct al. (1985) evaluated the GAB equation for about 150 biological products. including the major grains. and concluded that it accurately describes the moisture isotherms of at least 50% of the foods. Use of the GAB equation for the design of grain drying systems awaits the determination of the functions of f and g of the various grains. es) EMC Models 77 Henderson Equation One of the best-known relationships for predicting the EMC of grains is the semiempirical model proposed by Henderson (1952). Using Gibbs's sdsorption equation, Henderson derived the following equation for the moisture equilibrium curve of biological products, including grains 1 = PulPux = exP(~hTaigM) (69) where M is the moisture equilibrium content (% d.b.), and h and i are product constants. Henderson's original equation (4-6a) is inadequate for grains. An accurate representation of the EMC values of grains is obtained by em- pirically modifying equation (4-62) to the so-called modified Henderson EMC equation (Thompson 1967): 1 = PUP. = expl-K(T + C)(1004)%] (44) where Mis the moisture equilibrium content (decimal 4.b.) and Tis the temperature (°C); K, N, and C are product constants. The values of Ky N and C for different grains are tabulated in Tal TABLE 43 Modifies Henderson Eguilibrlum Mesture Content Equation (460) Constants K, N, and C for Various Grains Grain Barley Beans, edible Corn, gellow dent Peant. kernel Peanut. pod Rice, ough Sorghum Soybean ‘Wheat. durum Wheat. hard Wheat, soft Somer, ASAE (88)78 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content (Chung Equation ‘Along with the modified Henderson equation, the empirical Chung equation (Chung and Pfost 1967) is frequently employed to predict the EMC values of grains. The Chung equation has the form M = E = Fin{-(T + C)In(P!P.)] o where M is the moisture equilibrium content (decimal 4.b.) and Tis the temperature (°C); C, E, and F are product constants. The values for the constants of the major grains are tabulated in Table 4-4 EMC Models Evaluation ‘The adsorption of moisture by a capillary-porous product such as grain is due to a combination of the physical mechanisms of capillary condensa- tion, kinetic adsorption, and field-strength potential. Four of the theor- ‘tical EMC equations presented (i.e., the Kelvin, Langmuir, BET, and Harkins—Jura) are mainly of historical value. The theoretical GAB equation might become of practical importance in grain dryer modeling after the necessary product constants in the equation have been determined for the various grains. Thus, at the present time the empirical Henderson and Churg EMC equations are recomended for use in grain drying culations. - - ‘An empirical EMC equation is only as good as the empirical data used to calculate the constants. Since few experimental EMC tests have been TABLE 4-4 Chung Equilibrio Moisture Content Equation (47) Constants C, E, and F for Various Grains Gain ¢ E F Barley 1323 0.38363 Beans, edibte 160.629 Corn, yellow dent 30.205, Peanut, kernel Peanut. pod Rice, rough f 0.06015 Sorghum 0.080007 Sortean omm1ss3 Wheat, doram O37 0.085318 Wheat hard 035615 0.086788 027908 0.082360 Desorption versus Adsorotion 79 TABLE 43 Desorption and Adsorption ‘Moisture Equilibrium Contents (6 dsb.) for Yellow Dent Corn arc 727) RH Ce) Desorption ‘Adsorption ss 742 BA 06 165 152 465 ne us 258 38 80 94 70 56 Sources Chang and Pow (96) conducted successfully at relative humidities above 90%, the equations soasfuspect in that region. AS better data become available at highes arr nethumidties, the Henderson and Chung EMC equations for cereal grains will be updated and modified. DESORPTION VERSUS ADSORPTION ‘A product that attains its moisture equilibrium by losing mosture & & id A tree reached the desorption EMC. When a relatively dry materia} to art smoisture from a bigh-humidty environment, it reaches the a¢- Sorption EMC. There may be a significant difference at cenain relative WeiPitities and temperatures between the desorption and adsorprion MMC values of cereal grains; the desorption moisture contents are alvays figher then the adsorption values. Table 4-5 shows the difference beret The desorption and adsorption isotherms for corn, and Figure +3 shows the same data as plotted curves. “The difference between the desorption and adsorption isotherms is called the hysteresis effect. Several theories have been advanced to explain the hysteresis phenomenon in grains. The “ink boots” theory Gerscmer and Taylor 1931) is probably the best known. This theory (Seumes that grain kernel is 2 porous body with capillaries Consisi08 see smatidiameter necks with large-diameter tubes. During desorption the small radii of the necks control the emptying of the “Pl Heats esulting in a lowering of the relative humidity above the caper porous kernels (eq, (4-1) In contrast, during adsorption Ie capillaries sero completely fil until the relative humidity corresponding t0 the farger radi of the larger tubes is reached. The “ink bore” theory has only been partially successful in explaining hysteresis i cereal grainsthe pti bart ide SG a 1 @ 78 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content (Chung Equation Along with the modified Henderson equation, the empirical Chung equation (Chung and Pfost 1967) is frequently employed to predict the EMC values of grains. The Chung equation has the form M = E- Finf-(T + C)in(P.IP,,)] “sy where M is the moisture equilibrium content (decimal d.b.) and T is the temperature (°C); C, E, and F are product constants. The values for the constants of the major grains are tabulated in Table 4-4. EMC Models Evaluation The adsorption of moisture by a capillary-porous product such as grain is due to a combination of the physical mechanisms of capillary condensa- tion, kinetic adsorption, and field-strength potential. Four of the theor- etical EMC equations presented (ie., the Kelvin, Langmuir, BET, and Harkins-Jura) are mainly of historical value. The theoretical GAB equation might become of practical importance in grain dryer modeling after the necessary product constants in the equation have been determined for the various grains. Thus, at the present time the empirical Henderson and Churg EMC equations are recommended for use in grain drying calevlation: ‘An empitical EMC equation is only as good as the empiri to caloulate the constants. Since few experimental EMC tes I data used have been TABLE 44 Chung Equilibrium Moisture Content Equation (47) Constants C, E, and F for Various Grains Gn Z Bavey ‘sia Beas, eile Sess Com yelowsee ‘399052 foams bem 192 less Doses Peanst pod R38 oles bones fee, ism ames Dots Sonu wins 03569 sor Sohn Wma ale aren West dram mes Ome Wen hd oon oisees Wet st sea dose Soe ASAE Desorption versus Adsorption 79 TABLE 4S Desorption and Adsorption Moisture Equilibrium Contents (5 .b.) for Yellow Dent Corn 220 (27) RH (%) Desorption Adsorption 885 262 24 66 165 152 465 ns 13 38 98 80 3 10 56 ‘Soarce Chung ond Pow 67), conducted successfully at relative humidities above 90%, the equations are suspect in that region. As better data become available at higher relative humidities, the Henderson and Chung EMC equations for cereal grains will be updated and modified. DESORPTION VERSUS ADSORPTION 'A product that attains its moisture equilibrium by losing moistute is said to have reached the desorption EMC. When a relatively dry material adsorbs moisture from a high-humidity environment, it reaches the ad- sorption EMC. There may be a significant difference at certain relative humidities and temperatures between the desorption and adsorption EMC values of cereal grains; the desorption moisture contents are always. higher than the adsorption values. Table 4-5 shows the difference between the desorption and adsorption isotherms for corn, and Figure 4-3 shows, the same data as plotted curves. The difference between the desorption and adsorption isotherms is called the hysteresis effect. Several theories have been advanced to explain the hysteresis phenomenon in grains. The “ink bottle” theory (Kraemer and Taylor 1931) is probably the best kncwn. This theory assumes that 2 grain kernel is a porous body with capillaries consisting of narrow, small-diameter necks with large-diameter tubes. During desorption the small radii of the necks control the emptying of the capil- laries, resulting in a lowering of the relative humidity above the capillary- porous kernels (eq. (4-1)). In contrast, during adsorption the ca do not completely fill until the relative humidity corresponding to the larger radii of the larger tubes is reached, The “ink battle” theory has only been partially successful in explaining hysteresis in cereal grains. 0$0 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content 20. te desorption ‘adsorption Moisture Content, % w.b. O10 20°30 40 50 60 70 BO 80 1b0 Relative Humidity, % rioure Desorption and adsorption moisture equilibrium cures for yellow dest (ort) It has been hypothesized that the hysteresis effect in grains may also be due to the molecular shrinkage of the grain, thereby reducing the availability of water-binding polar sites on the grain surface following desorption (Ngoddy 1969). Because of the complicated nature of the hysteresis theories, they are not treated here quantitatively HEAT OF VAPORIZATION The equilibrium moisture content values of a grain at different relative humidities and temperatures can be used to calculate a thermodynamic grain property important in the drying process, the heat of vaporization (ty). Wis defined as the energy required to vaporize moisture from grain at a certain moisture content and temperature. From the Maxwell relations of the properties of saturated liquids, such as the moisture in grain that is undergoing an isothermal phase change, the so-called Clapeyron equation can be developed (Howell and Buckius 1987): aP, hg aT TY = Vy) as) Heat of Vaporization 81 Because the volume of the liquid (V,) is much smaller than the volume of the vapor (V,) and V, = mRTIP,, equation (48) becomes hyp aT _ dP, fa aT _ oP, mk? P, «9 When moist grain is placed at two temperatures, 7 and T;, and the vapor pressures of the moisture in the grain P,, and P,2 are known, then hig [aT _ (PAP, mR Jy, T? Ip Py (0) 4| = InPyy = InP th en) Similar expressions can be derived for pure water by using the saturated vapor pressures Py and Py at temperatures 7, and Ty aa ae mR J, 7 (stay or bag [_ i mala tz] =a Poa ty Dividing equation (4-11) by equation (4-13) gives _ Py = In fig W9Pyss — 0 Pras (oy hig _ Wns Post) — 1(O2P usa) his InPya — InPra (41s) Equation (4-15) expresses the ratio of the heat of vaporization of the moisture in a grain at a particular moisture conten: to that of the heat of vaporization of pure water at the same temperature. When the ratio ig82 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content € g established, the heat of vaporization of the moisture in the ‘grain at that = moisture content can be found for any temperature T3 as long as T; < T; e < Tz. The computation is illustrated in the following example. siz z Example 4-1 * Calculate the heat of vaporization for the moisture in sorghum at a mois- i 2 5 ture content of 15% (d.b.) and 21°C (70°F), using the modified Henderson s\e|2 = ‘equation (4-6a) and the constants for sorghum in Table 4-3, S18 Solution 4-1: Choose Ty = 37.8°C (00°F) and Tz = 10°C (50°F). The FE] | seg 4 au8 é saturated vapor pressures at 37.8° and 10°C can be obtained from Table Pls gaa BESS Sada me r 24 P, 545 kPa (0.9492 psi) and P,,2 = 1.228kPa (0.1781 psi). Also, : g at Ty = 21.1°C (70°F), Ay = 2,451.6 kJ/kg (1,055 Btu/lb). a F The values of $1 and 2 are obtained from the modified equation il oye £955 w (4-6b) with the constants for sorghum from Table 4-3: Fl ol3 x ele}Fl . 5 o exp [-K(T + €)(100M)%} (4-66) a 2 2 = Baie = g) 7 8832 x 10-$ | 4757 4 C= 113.725 4|_|é g 2 Flelé Since M = 0.15 and T = 37.8°C and 10°C, $57, = 0.6517 and dio = 3 0.5774, Equation (4-15) then gives ale . o — . ylz] |gaee g |S8ee |& In(0.6517 x 6.545) ~ (0.5774 x 1.228) _ | 9g a In(6.545) ~ In(1.238) i and s| |€| |#a2 g Ag = 1.073 X 2,451.6 = 2,630.6 kiskg (1,131 Btu/lb) 3/8 The hests of vaporization of com, sorghum, and wheat are tabulated S|®)z| jasee [gene 5 in Table 4-6 for moisture contents from 5% 10 20% (d.b.); the values of 3 5 Roos Sea ot Pure water are also given. Equation (4-15) and the modified Henderson = equation (4-60) have been employed to calculate the hj data for the : srains, The data show that the heats of vaporization of sratns increase ox a] 07 ‘moisture content and grain temperature decrease, and are always higher 2] gs 28 than that of pure water. There is a slight difference between the values of é za 84 Grain Equilibrium Moisture Content ‘fg of the three grains: corn consistently has the highest values, sorghum the lowest, Symbols b constant in Langmuir equation (4-2) constant in BET equation (4-3) constants in Harkins—Jura equation (4-4) constants in GAB equation (4-5) constants in Henderson equation (4-6a) heat of vaporization for free water (kI/kg) heat of vaporization for grain (kJ/kg) radius of capillary (m) constants in Chung equation (4-7) constants in modified Henderson equation (4-6b) vapor pressure (N/m?) saturated vapor pressure (N/m?) moisture content, dry basis, decimal universal gas constant (8,314.41 kg ms?keK) Tay absolute temperature (K) T” temperature °C) v volume (m") Vm volume in monolayer (m") « angle of contact (degrees) ° surface tension (N/m) References ASAE. 1965. Agricultural Engineers Handbook, 35th ed. Am. Soe. Agr. Eng. St. Joseph, ME Bronauer, S., P. H, Emmett, and E. Teller. 1938. Adsorption in multimolecular layers. J. Am. Chem, Soc. 60; 309-319, Chirife. J., and H. A. Iglesias. 1978. Equations for ting water sorption isotherms (of foods: Part 1—a review. J. Food Technol. 13: 150~174 ‘Chung. D. S., and H. B. Pfost. 1957. Adsorption and desorption of water vapor by cereal grains and their products. Trans. ASAE 10: 552-575. Gustafson, R. J. 1972. Equilibrium moisture content of shelled corn from S0°F to 1SS*F. Unpublished M.S. thesis. University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, Harkins, W. D.. and G. Jura, 1944. A vapor adsorption method for the deter- mination of the area of a solid. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 66:1366- 1371 Henderson, 8. M. 1982, A basic concept of equilibrium moisture. Agr. Eng. 33 29-31 References 8 Howell. J. R., and RO. Buckius. 1987. Fundamental of Engineering Thermo dynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York Inlesias, H.A., J, Chitife, and J. L. Lombardi. 1975. An equation for correlating equilibrium moisture content in foods. J. Food Techrol. 10; 289-297 Kelvin, W, T, 1871. Cited by S. J. Gregg and K. S. W. Sing, 1967. Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity, Academic Press, New York. Kraemer, E. 0. and H.S. Taylor. 1931. A Treavse on Physical Chemistry. MacMillan, New York, Langmuir, 1. 1918. The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of glass and mica and platinum, J. Am, Chem. Soe. 0: 1361-1365 Lomauro, C. J.. A. S. Bakshi, and T. P. Labuza. 1985. Evaluation of food mois ture sorption isotherm equations, Parts 1, 2. Lebensm. Wiss. U. Techaol, 18(2): 111—117, 118-124, Ngoddy, P, ©. 1969. A generalized theory of sorption phenomena in biologi ‘materials. Unpublished Pb.D. thesis. Michigan State Univ, East Lansing, Mi, Pixton, $. W., and R. W. Howe. 1983. The suitability of verious linear trans formations to represent the sigmoid relasionship of humidity and moisture content. J. Stored Prod. Res, 19: 1-18 ‘Thompson, T. L. 1967. Predieted performances and optimal designs of convection ain dryers. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Purdue Unis., West Lafayette, IN van den Berg, C. 1984. Description of water activity of foods for engineering purposes by means of the G.A.B. model of sorption, In Engineering and Foods. wl i, B. M. MeKenna, ed. Elsevier Applied Science, New York