The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Appendix 2
There are many codes and specifications which control
the design and construction of boilers, steam generators,
pressure vessels and piping. Two of the most important
are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) and the
ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code. Pressure-containing
components may be required by law to meet the require-
ments of these codes. In the United States (U.S.) and
Canada (and recently in some other countries), state, city
and provincial laws, enforced by local jurisdictions (see
Note below), require new pressure parts to comply with
the ASME BPVC. The rules of design and construction of
pressure parts for repair or replacement are established
by the local jurisdiction and/or insurance carrier
generally following the National Board Inspection Code
(NBIC) in the U.S.
In addition to the BPVC and B31 Pressure Piping
Codes, the ASME Performance Test Code (PTC) provides
uniform procedures for the testing and performance
evaluation of power plant equipment. This code is
frequently used to establish contract compliance of a
particular component.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
The ASME BPVC establishes rules of safety governing
the design, fabrication and inspection during construction
of boilers, pressure vessels and nuclear power plant
components. The objectives of the rules are to assure
reasonably certain protection of life and property and
to provide a margin for deterioration in service. These
rules do not provide criteria for thermal performance, but
rather set minimum necessary guidelines for structural
integrity to ensure safe operation during the expected
component life. The BPVC provides a systematic ap-
proach to evaluating the stresses and applying material
properties in a way which provides a safe pressure vessel
design. The rules are established through a structured
voluntary consensus code writing system and are
implemented through specific contract terms and/or
adoption by various jurisdictions.
ASME BPVC history
To understand why the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Note: Local jurisdiction refers to the municipal, state, provincial
or federal authorities enforcing boiler and pressure vessel laws of
regulations at the boiler location.
Steam 42 / Codes and Standards
Codes and Standards
Vessel Committee was formed and how it operates, some
historical background is necessary.
During the mid-1880s, explosions in fire-tube boilers
were common. Therefore, in 1887, the American Boiler
Manufacturers Association (ABMA) was organized to
develop general rules for design and construction of
boilers and pressure vessels. However, participants
were reluctant to give up trade secrets and the effort to
develop rules or standards failed. There was, however,
some exchange of technical information such as materials
data, riveting methods, design factors, head and flange
design rules, and hydrostatic testing which helped
manufacturers improve the safety of their products.
From 1898 to 1903, more than 1900 separate boiler
explosions caused numerous injuries and fatalities in
the U.S. In 1905, a catastrophic explosion of a fire-tube
boiler in a factory in Brockton, Massachusetts, killed 58
people. This tragedy led the governor of Massachusetts to
request and obtain the first legal set of rules for the design
and construction of boilers. The next year a similar set
of boiler design and construction rules was issued by the
State of Ohio. Other jurisdictions followed with their own
rules. This wide array of rules and regulations caused
problems for manufacturers and users because equipment
which was acceptable and met the rules of one state was
frequently not acceptable in another.
Colonel E.D. Meier, a founder of the ABMA, cam-
paigned for acceptance of uniform boiler laws. In 1911,
he was elected president of the ASME. On February
13, 1915, the first ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code was issued. It was 147 pages long and titled Boiler
Construction Code, 1914 Edition.
ASME BPVC additions
After the 1914 Edition, the following major changes
were issued:
1921 Section III – Boilers for Locomotives. (With the
1962 Edition, this Section was integrated into
Section I and the Section III designation was later
reassigned.)
1922 Section V – Miniature Boilers. (With the 1962 Edi-
tion, this Section was integrated into Section I and
the Section V designation was later reassigned.)
1923 Section IV – Low Pressure Heating Boilers.
1924 Section II – Material specifications. (Until 1924,
materials were included as part of Section I.)
1925 Section VIII – Unfired Pressure Vessels. (With
the 1968 Edition, this title was changed to Rules
A2-1
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

for Construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 1.

Also, Division 2 was first issued.)
1926 Section VI – Rules for Inspection (of Power Boil-
ers). (With the 1970 Addenda, this section was
reassigned with a new title.)
1926 Section VII – Suggested Rules for Care of Power
Boilers.
1937 Section IX – Welding Qualifications. (This section
was originally a supplement to Section VIII, but
with the 1941 Edition, the section was published
separately.)
1963 Section III – Nuclear Vessels. (Now Rules for
Construction of Nuclear Facility Components.)
1968 Section VIII, Division 2 – Alternative Rules for
Pressure Vessels.
1968 Section X – Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure
Vessels.
1970 Section XI – Rules for Inservice Inspection of
Nuclear Power Plant Components.
1970 Section VI – Recommended Rules for Care and
Operation of Heating Boilers.
1971 Section V – Nondestructive Examination.
1974 Section IX – Welding and Brazing. (Renamed.)
1975 Section III, Division 2 – Code for Concrete Reac-
tor Vessels and Containments. (Now Concrete
Containments.)
1977 Section I – Power Boilers. (Renamed.)
1980 Section I – Rules for Construction of Power Boilers.
(Renamed.) Organization of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
1997 Section III, Division 3 – Containment Systems Vessel Committee
for Storage and Transport Packagings of Spent In 1911, the first ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Nuclear Fuel and High Level Radioactive Material Committee was formed and included seven members. By
and Waste. (Now Containments for Transportation the early 1990s, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
and Storage.) Committee had grown to about 800 people. The members
1997 Section VIII, Division 3 – Alternative Rules for were involved at all levels, from working groups to the
Construction of High Pressure Vessels. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Main Committee. With the
2004 Section XII – Rules for Construction and Continued 2010 BPVC publications, the Main Committee was
Service of Transport Tanks. effectively replaced by the Technical Oversight Manage-
2004 Section II – Metric values of material properties ment Committee (TOMC). The BPVC tries to maintain
were added as Part D. balance on the committees with representatives from
2009 The 2013 Edition of ASME Section I Foreword manufacturers, users, insurance carriers, jurisdictions
describes the 2009 ASME organization changes. and other areas. However, the representatives from these
The Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee was groups may maintain their position within the Boiler and
superseded by the following committees: Pressure Vessel Committees, subgroups and task groups,
even if they change their affiliation.
(a) Committee on Power Boilers (I)
The administrative structure of the ASME Boiler
(b) Committee on Materials (II)
and Pressure Vessel Standards Committees follows. The
(c) Committee on Construction of Nuclear
Administrative Committee, the Conference Committee
Facility Components (III) and the Headquarters Staff Committees report to the
(d) Committee on Heating Boilers (IV) TOMC. Also, there are three different types of groups
(e) Committee on Nondestructive Examination (V) reporting to the TOMC. First, there are the component or
(f) Committee on Pressure Vessels (VIII) book committees which are responsible for all the rules of
(g) Committee on Welding, Brazing, and Fusing (IX) design and construction for a particular type of component
(h) Committee on Fiber-Reinforced Plastic and for that Section of the BPVC in which the rules are
Pressure Vessels (X) given. Presently, the book Committees are:
(i) Committee on Nuclear Inservice Inspection (XI)
(j) Committee on Transport Tanks (XII) Section I – Committee on Power Boilers (BPV I)
Section III – Committee on Nuclear Power (BPV III)
2013 Section IX – Welding, Brazing, and Fusing Section IV – Committee on Heating Boilers (BPV IV)
Qualifications. (Renamed.) Section VIII – Committee on Pressure Vessels (BPV
VIII)
As of 2010, the current sections of the BPVC are Section X – Committee on Reinforced Plastic Pressure
summarized in Table 1. Vessels (BPV X)

A2-2 Steam 42 / Codes and Standards

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Section XII – Committee on Transport Tanks (BPV XII)
Second, there are the service book committees. These
committees are responsible for developing a specific set of
rules which may be used by the component committees.
Currently, these are:
Section II – Committee on Materials (BPV II)
Section V – Committee on Nondestructive Examina-
tion (BPV V)
Section IX – Committee on Welding (BPV IX)
Section XI – Committee on Nuclear Inservice Inspec-
tion (BPV XI)
Finally, there are the service committees which are
each responsible for a specific area of technology or
administration of the BPVC that may be applied to the
book sections. In early 2009, the Service Subcommittee on
Design was eliminated. The current service Committees
are:
Committee on Safety Valve Requirements (BPV SVR)
Committee on Boiler and Pressure Vessel Conformity
Assessment (BPV CBPVCA)
Committee on Nuclear Certification (BPV CNC)
Code Editions, Code Addenda and Code Cases
The 2010 edition of the BPVC was issued including a
2010 addenda. This was followed with the 2011a addenda,
which was printed as a complete replacement to the 2010
edition. The plan was to have no 2012 code issue, but
to issue a 2013 edition which includes a 2013 addenda.
Thereafter, a new edition with included addenda is to
be issued on the odd numbered years and no separate
addenda will be issued. The frequency and terminology
used for the release has changed many times over the
years. The following list shows the ASME Section I
releases from the first 1914 edition to the 2013 edition.
The first edition (1914) was approved by Council on
10/9/1914 and had no addenda. All changes were kept
for the next edition. Edition 1918 (12/3/18) contained all
the changes since the 1914 edition. These changes were
not mandatory until 6/3/19, six months after the edition
was approved. The six months before the changes become
mandatory provide a time span for code subscribers to
make changes in procedures to meet the new require-
ments. Whenever there are included changes that have
not been previously approved by Council, six months prior
to an edition release, those changes are not mandatory
until six months after the changes have been approved.
This is the current code release process. Subsequent
editions follow:
• Edition 1924 (3/19/24). The first separately approved
and released addenda was approved 12/6/26 which
became mandatory six months after approval on 1/6/27.
• Edition 1927 (10/4/27) included addenda 12/6/26,
followed by addenda approved 1/10/28 and 7/1/29.
• Edition 1930 (1/1/30) has one addenda approved
7/7/31.
• Edition 1931 (11/30/31) has one addenda approved
8/17/32.
• Edition 1933 (9/30/33) has addenda approved 7/23/35.
• Annual addenda are usually issued starting in 1936.
• Edition 1935 (1/23/36) addenda 8/31/36 and 8/31/37.
Steam 42 / Codes and Standards
• Edition 1937 (1/31/38) addenda 8/15/38, 8/18/39,
3/1/40 and 9/27/40.
• Edition 1940 (1/31/41) addenda 9/30/41, 9/16/42 and
9/3/43.
• Edition 1943 (1/30/44) addenda 5/19/44, 8/25/44,
7/18/45 and 6/4/46.
• Edition 1946 (12/4/46) addenda 6/27/47 and 7/26/48.
• Edition 1949 (1/26/49) addenda 8/9/49, 8/3/50, 8/8/51,
8/1/52, and 2/2/53.
• Edition 1952 (2/2/53) addenda 7/30/54 and 9/2/55.
• The Editions continue to show approved by Council
date but addenda show Date of Issuance/Issue.
• Two addenda are prepared and issued annually
starting with 1957.
• Edition 1956 (9/2/55) addenda 12/21/56, 7/25/57,
12/30/57, 5/20/58 and 12/4/58.
• Edition 1959 (8/30/58) addenda 8/21/59, 11/10/59,
5/10/60, 11/1/60, 6/1/61 and 12/29/61.
• Edition 1962 (8/30/61) addenda 7/16/62, 12/1/62,
6/30/63, 12/31/63, 6/30/64 and 12/31/64.
• Edition 1965 (8/11/64) addenda 6/30/65, 12/31/65,
6/30/66, 12/31/66, 6/30/67 and 12/31/67.
• Edition 1968 (8/15/67) addenda 6/30/68, 12/31/68,
6/30/69, 12/31/69, 6/30/70 and 12/31/70.
• The Editions are now release dated and addenda
show Date of Issuance/Issue.
• Edition 1971 (7/1/71) addenda 6/30/71, 12/31/71,
6/30/72, 12/31/72, 6/30/73 and 12/31/73.
• Edition 1974 (7/1/74) addenda 6/30/74, 12/31/74,
6/30/75, 12/31/75, 6/30/76 and 12/31/76.
• Edition 1977 (7/1/77) addenda 6/30/77, 12/31/77,
6/30/78, 12/31/78, 6/30/79 and 12/31/79.
• Edition 1980 (7/1/80) addenda 6/30/80, 12/31/80,
6/30/81, 12/31/81, 6/30/82 and 12/31/82.
• Edition 1983 (7/1/83) addenda 6/30/83, 12/31/83,
6/30/84, 12/31/84, 6/30/85 and 12/31/85.
• The Editions and addenda are marked with Date of
Issue. One addenda is prepared and issued annually
starting with 1986.
• Edition 1986 (7/1/86) addenda 12/31/86, 12/31/87
and 12/31/88.
• Edition 1989 (7/1/89) addenda 12/31/89, 12/31/90
and 12/31/91.
• Edition 1992 (7/1/92) addenda 12/31/92, 12/31/93
and 12/31/94.
• Edition 1995 (7/1/95) addenda 12/31/95, 12/31/96
and 12/31/97.
• Edition 1998 (7/1/98) with changes since 12/31/97
addenda, addenda 7/1/99 and 7/1/00.
• Edition 2001 (7/1/01) with changes since 7/1/00
addenda, addenda 7/1/02 and 7/1/03.
• Edition 2004 (7/1/04) with changes since 7/1/03
addenda, addenda 7/1/05 and 7/1/06.
• Edition 2007 (7/1/07) with changes since 7/1/06
addenda, addenda 2008a (7/1/08) and 2009b (7/1/09).
• Edition 2010 (7/1/10) with changes since 7/1/09
addenda, and addenda 2011a (7/1/11).
• Edition 2013 (7/1/13) with changes since 7/1/11
addenda; the 2013 changes are not fully addressed
within this Appendix.
• New editions with changes are to be prepared and issued
bi-annually starting in 2013 (2013, 2015, 2017, …). This
is true for all the ASME Section numbered codes.
A2-3
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
For a particular contract, with the exception of Sec-
tion III, the date of the appropriate BPVC edition and
addenda is the date on which the contract is negotiated
or signed. Most sections indicate that the appropriate
year and addenda is determined by the inception date
of the contract. The actual signing of the contract may
come some time later. For some applications, Section
III permits the use of an edition and addenda which
are not the latest versions. In general, this is used for
construction of a component which will be used for
repair or replacement. The other sections of the BPVC
do not control the repair or replacement of components
after the product has been installed; consequently, the
decision of the date of the edition and addenda is the
responsibility of the owner, the local jurisdiction and/
or the insurance carrier.
Code Cases are contained in two special volumes
independent from the BPVC Sections. Code Cases are
issued four times a year after each TOMC meeting and are
subject to the same approval procedures as other changes
and additions. Code Cases permit the use of a material or
construction for which there are no current BPVC rules.
The scope of Code Cases is purposely kept very specific
to limit their usage. Each is reviewed for incorporation
into the text of the appropriate BPVC Section. Code
Cases are numbered sequentially, and nuclear Code
Cases carry an N prefix. Code Case use is optional, not
mandatory, and must be allowed by the customer and the
jurisdiction. When one is chosen, all parts of the Code
Case are mandatory and the Code Case number shall be
listed on the Manufacturer’s Data Report form.
Technical Inquiries
When any user of the BPVC is unable to interpret
a specific rule, a Technical Inquiry may be sent to
the Secretary of the appropriate Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Committee for an interpretation. Each Section
of the BPVC includes an appendix that describes the
preparation of Technical Inquiries. It is important that
the inquiry meet all of the requirements so that action
can be taken without delay. Typically, the Secretary
of the appropriate ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Committee will contact the inquirer to acknowledge the
receipt of the inquiry and will inform the inquirer of any
actions being taken. Once the question and reply are
approved, a reply is sent to the inquirer. If the question
and reply become an interpretation of code wording,
they are also published in the Interpretations, issued
to BPVC subscribers.
There are several reasons that an inquiry will not be
handled by the committee:
1. indefinite question – no reference to BPVC paragraph
or rule,
2. semi-commercial question – doubt as to whether
question is related to BPVC requirements or is asking
for design approval,
3. approval of specific design – inquirer wants approval
of specific design or construction as meeting BPVC
requirements, and
4. basis or background of BPVC rules – inquirer wants
rationale or basis of BPVC requirements. These are not
given. Suggested revisions and additions are accepted
for consideration.
A2-4
General design philosophy and design factors
The basic design philosophy of the BPVC from its be-
ginning was one in which the primary membrane stress,
or maximum direct stress, does not exceed the allowable
design stress. (See Chapter 8 for an in-depth discussion
of stress analysis and stress categorization, e.g., primary
membrane stress.) The calculated stress is based on the
maximum stress theory. This design philosophy is still
used in Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and Section IV.
In most instances, these sections do not call for a detailed
analysis to determine the local and secondary stresses.
Instead, they rely on a design-by-formula approach.
The BPVC makes a significant distinction between
allowable stress limits and the physical properties of
the material such as ultimate tensile strength. The
published allowable stresses incorporate a design factor
(see Note below) which reduces measured properties
to account for: 1) the degree of complexity of the stress
evaluation method, 2) certain levels and types of stress
concentration, 3) certain nonuniformity in the materials,
and 4) geometric factors. The design factors are based
upon experience, experimental evidence and theoretical
evaluations. In general, where the BPVC allows a more
detailed exact stress evaluation, a smaller design factor is
permitted in determining the allowable stress. The BPVC
therefore specifies the evaluation procedures and the
applicable allowable stresses (including design factors)
to provide a uniform, safe design procedure.
In the original BPVC in 1914, the allowable stress
limits were based on a design factor of five applied to
the minimum specified ultimate tensile strength of the
material. However, in December 1931, a joint American
Petroleum Institute (API)-ASME Committee on Unfired
Pressure Vessels was formed to develop a special code for
Petroleum Liquids and Gases. The first edition was issued
in September 1934. The API-ASME Code permitted
a design factor of four with only minor changes in the
design equations used for establishing the minimum
wall thickness of cylinders and heads, for reinforced
openings, and for other parts. At that time, the ASME
BPVC maintained a design factor of five with some special
provisions which permitted a design factor of four. One
of the reasons for the special provisions was to conserve
metal during World War II.
The design factor of five, except for the special
provisions in Section VIII, was used by all sections of
the BPVC through the 1949 Edition. Based upon the
satisfactory experience in using a design factor of four
with the API-ASME Code and the special paragraphs of
Section VIII, the 1950 editions of Section I and Section
VIII were issued with a design factor of four. The design
factor of Section IV remains at five.
During the 1950s, Admiral Hyman Rickover led the
development of the first nuclear submarine, the Nautilus.
Westinghouse’s Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory was the
prime contractor, and The Babcock & Wilcox Company
(B&W) designed and built the reactor vessel, pressurizer
and steam generators. Bettis, General Electric’s Knolls
Note: The term safety factor has been previously used, but present
Code terminology prefers the more appropriate design factor to
describe the methods used to develop conservative design stresses.
Steam 42 / Codes and Standards
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Atomic Power Laboratory and the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission developed and published rules for the stress
analysis and design basis. This was titled Tentative
Structural Design Basis for Reactor Vessels. These
rules permitted increased allowable stresses because
a thorough and accurate stress analysis was required.
During the late 1950s, the ASME Code Committee
and the U.S. government began to see the need for an
ASME code which would contain design rules similar to
the tentative basis. The first consideration was to do a
major upgrading of Section VIII either by a supplemental
document or major revision of Section VIII. After much
discussion in various committees, it was decided to
develop a new code section.
In 1958, the ASME established a Special Committee to
Review Code Stress Basis. This special group met many
times to develop and review all facets of nuclear vessel
requirements —not only design rules, but also fabrication,
inspection, materials and other kinds of rules. Fatigue
analysis methods were introduced for explicit use for the
first time.
In 1963, a public hearing was held in Baltimore,
Maryland. As a result of the meeting, Section III, Nuclear
Vessels, was issued which permitted a design factor of
three (on minimum specified ultimate tensile strength).
However, to use this factor, many requirements had to
be met. A very thorough stress analysis procedure, called
design by analysis based on the maximum shear stress
theory, had to be applied. Also, more rigid fabrication,
examination and testing procedures were required to
allow a reduction in the design factor.
While the development of the Nuclear Code was
being concluded in late 1961, a task group was formed to
develop an extension of Section VIII. The original title
was Task Group on Code for Industrial Pressure Vessels
of Superior Quality. Later, this name was changed to
Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels and ultimately it
became Section VIII, Division 2.
In 1968, the new division was issued as an alternative
method for constructing pressure vessels, Section VIII,
Division 2. It required a much more extensive structural
investigation in order to reduce the design factor to three.
In 1998, the design factor for Section I, Section III
Class 2 and 3, and Section VIII, Division 1 was reduced
from 4.0 to 3.5 on minimum specified ultimate tensile
strength, based mainly on acceptable experience and
improvements in materials achieved over the years.
Allowable stress values
The BPVC provides the basis for establishing allowable
stress values for Section I, Section VIII, Division 1, and
Section III, Division 1, Classes 2 and 3. (See Chapter 8.)
For wrought or cast ferrous and nonferrous materials, the
allowable stress values are based on the following criteria:
1. at temperatures below the creep range, the lowest of
the following:
a. 1/3.5 of the specified minimum tensile strength at
room temperature,
b. (1.1)/3.5 of the tensile strength at temperature,
c. 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at
room temperature, and
d. 2/3 of the yield strength at temperature.
Steam 42 / Codes and Standards
In addition, for austenitic stainless steels and certain
nonferrous nickel alloys, excluding bolting, flanges and
other strain-sensitive usage where slightly greater de-
formation is objectionable, the factor on yield strength
at temperature may be increased from 2/3 to 0.90.
2. at temperatures in the creep range, the lowest of the
following applies:
a. 100% of the average stress to produce a creep rate
of 0.01% in 1000 hours,
b. 80% of the minimum stress to cause rupture at the
end of 100,000 hours, and
c. 67% of the average stress to cause rupture at the
end of 100,000 hours.
Method for development of allowable stress values
Allowable stress values are developed by the Com-
mittee on Materials (BPV II) by applying the various
design factors to data which the committee has obtained
from tests conducted for the committee or various other
industrial sources. The published allowable stress values
at any given temperature are then the lowest stresses
evaluated using the criteria discussed above. (See also
Chapter 8.)
The BPVC also provides the basis for establishing al-
lowable stress values, called design stress intensity values,
for Section VIII, Division 2, and Section III, Division
1, Class 1. No design stress intensity values have been
established in the creep range for Section VIII, Division
2. For Section III, Division 1, Class 1 applications in the
elevated temperature range, rules for some materials are
given in Section III, Division 1, Subsection NH. For the
various materials permitted, except for bolting materials,
the design stress intensity values, i.e., allowable stress
values, are based on the lowest value of the following
criteria:
a. 1/3 of the specified minimum tensile strength at
room temperature,
b. (1.1)/3 of the tensile strength at temperature,
c. 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at
room temperature, and
d. 2/3 of the yield strength at temperature except
for most austenitic stainless steels and certain
nonferrous materials where the factor may reach
as high as 90% of the yield strength at temperature.
This may result in a permanent strain of as
much as 0.1%. When this amount of deformation
is not acceptable, the designer must reduce the
allowable stress to obtain an acceptable amount
of deformation.
There are tables in Section VIII, Division 2 which
list factors for limiting permanent strain in high alloy
steels and in nickel and high nickel alloys. In effect, the
criteria permit the designer to choose a factor between 67
and 90% of the yield strength depending on the tolerable
deformation. For example, suppose that by some limiting
clearances the tolerable strain is limited to 0.05% in a
shell. The designer can then refer to the table of limiting
permanent strain for 18-8 stainless steel and see that
the factor on yield strength should be limited to 0.80.
The designer then goes to the yield strength values to
establish allowable stress values.
A2-5
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Bolting materials have their design stress intensity
values, i.e., allowable stresses, established by similar, but
more restrictive, criteria. (See Section II, Part D, Table
3 and also Appendix 2 of the Standard.)
Strength theories
The three commonly used theories to predict failure
are the maximum principal stress theory, the maximum
shear stress theory, and the distortion energy theory as
discussed in Chapter 8.
Test results show that for ductile materials, such as
those ferrous and nonferrous materials permitted by
the BPVC, either the maximum shear stress theory or
the distortion energy theory predicts yield and fatigue
failure better than the maximum stress theory. However,
the maximum stress theory is easy to apply in boiler
components and pressure vessels where the circumfer-
ential and the longitudinal stresses are calculated using
simple formulas with an adequate design factor to set
the allowable stress values. Where a more exact analysis
is desired and the design factor may be less, the BPVC
uses the maximum shear stress theory. Section I, Section
IV, Section VIII, Division 1, and Section III, Division 1,
Subsections NC, ND and NE use the maximum stress
theory while Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB and
Section VIII, Division 2, use the maximum shear stress
theory. The former use a design factor of 3.5 or 5 on tensile
strength; the latter use a design factor of 3.
Design criteria
The design criteria for different sections of the BPVC
are related to the theory of failure and design factors
which are applied to the allowable stress values. For
both Section I, Power Boilers, and Section IV, Heating
Boilers, the requirements call for the calculation of the
required minimum wall thickness which will keep the
basic circumferential stress at or below the allowable
stress limit for that section. Additional rules, equations
and charts are given to determine the minimum required
thicknesses of components other than those with circular
cross-sections. A more detailed stress analysis may be
required for special designs and configurations for which
there are no rules. Both Section I and Section IV recognize
that high local stresses (discussed below) and secondary
stresses may exist within a component, but those sections
have established design rules that keep stresses at a safe
level with a minimum of additional analysis.
Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels, and
Section III, Division 1, Class 2 and 3, Nuclear Facility
Components, have similar design criteria to Sections
I and IV except Section VIII, Division 1, and Section
III, Division 1, Class 2 and 3 require the minimum
thickness of cylindrical shells to be calculated in both
the circumferential and the longitudinal directions. The
actual minimum required thickness of the cylinder may
be set by stress in either direction. In addition, Section
VIII, Division 1, and Section III, Division 1, Class 2 and
3 have rules which permit the combination of primary
membrane stress and primary bending stress to be as
high as 1.5 S where S is the basic allowable stress value.
At elevated temperatures, consideration must be given
to inelastic strain due to creep.
The design criteria for Section VIII, Division 2 provide
A2-6
rules for the more common shell and head geometries
for design temperatures that are below the creep range.
A detailed stress analysis is required for most complex
geometries and loadings including internal pressure
loading. For Section III, Division 1, Classes 2 and 3,
the requirements are similar to those of Section VIII,
Division 2. However, rules are provided requiring detailed
analysis and there are fewer formulas.
Both Section VIII, Division 2, and Section III, Divi-
sion 1, Class 1 have adopted the maximum shear stress
criteria. This method requires calculated stresses to be
assigned to various categories and subcategories that
permit different allowable stresses for various combina-
tions of calculated stresses. The various categories and
subcategories of stresses are:
1. primary stresses
a. general primary membrane stress
b. local primary membrane stress
c. primary bending stress
2. secondary stresses
3. peak stresses
Primary stresses are caused by loadings which are
necessary to satisfy the laws of equilibrium with applied
pressure and other loads, and they are not self-limiting
by deformation and redistribution. Secondary stresses
are developed by self-constraint in the structure. A basic
characteristic of secondary stresses is that they are
self-limiting. That is, rotation, deflection or deforma-
tion takes place until the forces and moments are in
balance even though some geometric change may have
occurred. Peak stresses are highly localized stresses in
a structure usually caused by an abrupt change in the
geometry such as a notch or a nozzle fillet weld. Peak
stresses are considered only during fatigue analysis of
cyclic loadings.
Failure modes, stress limits and stress categories are
related. One of the most important aspects of a stress
analysis is to make sure that various stresses are as-
signed to the proper stress categories. Limits on primary
stress are set to prevent plastic deformation and burst.
Secondary stress limits are set to prevent excessive plastic
deformation which may lead to incremental collapse and
to ensure the validity of the use of an elastic analysis for
making a fatigue analysis. Peak stress limits are set to
prevent fatigue failure due to excessive cyclic loadings.
For analysis according to Section VIII, Division 2, and
Section III, Division 1, Class 1, thermal stresses are
considered only in the secondary and peak categories.
The ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31
The ASME Code for Pressure Piping is divided into
many sections relative to different applications. Cur-
rently, these sections are:
B31.1 Power Piping
B31.3 Process Piping
B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid
Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
B31.5 Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer
Components
B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
Systems
Steam 42 / Codes and Standards
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
B31.9 Building Services Piping
B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
The scope of jurisdiction of the ASME BPVC Section
I applies to the boiler proper and to the boiler external
piping. The boiler external piping is that piping connect-
ing the boiler proper with the nonboiler external piping
as defined in PG-58 of Section I. For boiler external
piping, the materials, design, fabrication, installation
and testing shall be done according to ASME B31.1,
Power Piping. In addition, most of the connecting piping
outside of the Section I jurisdiction is done according
to ASME B31.1.
Editions, addenda, cases and interpretations
With the responsibility of the B31 Pressure Piping
Code Committee resting with ASME, procedures of
releasing editions, addenda, cases and interpretations
are the same for the Piping Code as for the BPVC.
Design philosophy, design factors and
strength theory
The design philosophy of the Piping Code is one in
which the primary membrane stress is not permitted
to exceed the allowable stress. In the Piping Code, the
Bibliography
Cross, W., The Code: An Authorized History of the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, New York, 1990.
Steam 42 / Codes and Standards
longitudinal pressure stress is a major consideration
because it combines with longitudinal bending stress
developed from the supporting of dead loads and from
flexibility stress due to the thermal expansion of the
piping system. Although circumferential pressure stress
is calculated and sets the minimum required thickness for
internal pressure, the longitudinal stress often influences
piping arrangement.
Two sections of the ASME B31 Code for Pressure
Piping are primarily used in combination with the
ASME BPVC sections. These are: ASME B31.1 Power
Piping, and ASME B31.3 Process Piping. B31.1 is closely
associated with Section I while B31.3 is associated with
Section VIII. However, there are no ASME requirements
assigning one or the other. This is essentially done by the
jurisdictions and the laws they enforce.
Both sections of the Piping Code use the maximum
stress theory for combining and evaluating stresses.
The allowable stress values for Section I and B31.1 are
the same, as are the design factors. However, B31.3 is
unique because it uses the maximum stress theory but
permits higher allowable stresses which are based on a
design factor of three on ultimate tensile strength similar
to Section VIII, Division 2 and Section III, Division 1,
Class 1.
Greene, A.M., History of the ASME Boiler Code, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, New York, 1955.
A2-7