МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ

Державний вищий навчальний заклад

«КИЇВСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ ЕКОНОМІЧНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ
імені ВАДИМА ГЕТЬМАНА»

Затверджено
Міністерством освіти і науки України
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2англ.-923
Ш 37
Рецензенти
В. І. Карабан, д-р філол. наук, проф.
(Інститут філології Київського національного
університету ім. Тараса Шевченка)
О. Є. Семенець, д-р філол. наук, проф.
(Міністерство закордонних справ України)
О. М. Старікова, д-р філол. наук, проф.
(Український інститут лінгвістики і менеджменту)
Редакційна колегія факультету міжнародної економіки і менеджменту
Голова редакційної колегії Д. Г. Лук’яненко, д-р екон. наук, проф.
Відповідальний секретар Т. В. Кальченко, канд. екон. наук, доц.
Члени редакційної колегії: М. М. Гавриш, канд. філол. наук, доц.; Л. С. Козловська,
канд. філол. наук, доц.; О. М. Мозговий, д-р екон. наук, проф.; А. М. Поручник, д-р екон.
наук, проф.; Т. М. Циганкова, д-р екон. наук, проф.; О. Л. Шевченко, канд. філол. наук,
доц.

Гриф надано Міністерством освіти і науки України

Лист № 1.4/18-Г-2273 від 20.12.07

Шевченко О. Л.
Ш 37 Ділова англійська мова для економістів: письмова та усна
комунікація : підручник / О. Л. Шевченко. — К. : КНЕУ, 2009.
— 412, [4].
ISBN 978–966–483–229–5
Мета пропонованого підручника з ділової англомовної комунікації —
навчити студентів як найефективніше спілкуватися в будь-якій діловій ситуації і
готувати та складати ділові листи, комерційні контракти, банківські документи,
звіти, доповіді, службові записки, протоколи тощо; проходити співбесіду для
влаштування на роботу та провадити усні презентації. Підручник містить чотири
розділи (23 уроки), додатки та українсько-англійський словник ділових термінів,
зразки ділових документів, систему вправ з активізації лексики, розуміння
матеріалу та завдань для самостійної і творчої роботи.
Призначений для економічних університетів і факультетів, які готують
фахівців у сфері світової економіки, міжнародних економічних відносин і
менеджменту; стане в пригоді тим, хто вивчає англійську мову поглиблено.
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2 англ.-923

Розповсюджувати та тиражувати
без офіційного дозволу КНЕУ заборонено

© О. Л. Шевченко, 2009
ISBN 978–966–483–229–5 © КНЕУ, 2009
Contents

Передмова . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Part I. Introduction. The Communication Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Part II. Business Letters and Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Unit I. Business Letter-Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Unit II. Letters on Business Situations. Enquiries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Unit III. Replies, Quotations and Offers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Unit IV. Orders, Order Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Unit V. Sales Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Unit VI. Complaints, Handling Complaints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Unit VII. Accounting, Banking and Payments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Unit VIII. Letters on Social Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Unit IX. The Role of Contracts in International Commerce . . . . . . . . 110
Unit X. Drafting International Contracts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Part III. The Employment-Seeking Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Unit I. Introduction. Pre-Résumé Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Unit II. Preparing a Résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Unit III. Writing a Letter of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Unit IV. Attending an Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

Part IV. Reports and Oral Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Unit I. What is a Reports? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Unit II. Deciding What to Include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Unit III. Structure of Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

3
 Unit IV. Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Unit V. Effective Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Unit VI. Analytical and Informational Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Unit VII. Memos, Messages, Routing Slips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Unit VIII. Minutes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Unit IX. Oral Presentations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Appendix A. Introducing Flexible Hours into Head Office . . . . . . . . . 276

Appendix B. І. Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
ІІ. List of common abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
ІІІ. Foreign words and Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
ІV. Titles and forms of address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Appendix C. Incoterms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Ukrainian-English dictionary of business terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Reference List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

4
ПЕРЕДМОВА

Підручник «Ділова англійська мова для економістів: письмова

та усна комунікація» складений згідно з вимогами навчальної
програми з ділової іноземної мови для підготовки бакалаврів з
міжнародної економіки та менеджменту. Він розрахований на
студентів економічних вузів, які вивчають англійську мову по-
глиблено, фахівців у галузі зовнішньоекономічної діяльності, пе-
рекладачів та широке коло осіб, які контактують із зарубіжними
партнерами.
Мета курсу — вивчення основ ділового спілкування, складан-
ня ділових листів з різних питань, підготовка та написання комер-
ційних контрактів, звітів, доповідей, службових записок, прото-
колів, документів, необхідних для влаштування на роботу і усних
презентацій та засвоєння фахової лексики для письмового та ус-
ного спілкування.
Ділове спілкування потребує додержання правил, що встанов-
лені традицією або специфікою письмової або усної комунікації.
Ці правила стосуються як форми подання матеріалу, так і його
змісту.
Підручник складається з чотирьох частин (Parts): «Процес ко-
мунікації»; «Написання ділових листів і комерційних контрак-
тів»; «Процес влаштування на роботу»; «Підготовка доповідей,
звітів та усних презентацій», а також додатків та українсько-
англійського словника комерційних термінів. У свою чергу кож-
ний розділ розподілений на уроки (Units), які містять тексти,
присвячені різним питанням ділового спілкування, слова та слово-
сполучення, що мають бути активно засвоєні, систему вправ на
розуміння мовного матеріалу, активізацію мовної лексики, роз-
виток навичок усного та письмового перекладу і спілкування.
Треба підкреслити, що в підручнику надаються зразки ділових
документів, які складені в межах реального ділового співробіт-
ництва між окремими особами та фірмами. Утім назви фірм, ціни
та кількість товарів у цих документах умовні.
5
 Значна частина вправ присвячена самостійній роботі студен-
тів, аналізу роботи деяких фірм, підготовці документів у відпові-
дності до певного завдання. Зважаючи на те, що навички ділової
комунікації краще за все формуються на практиці або у спеціаль-
них навчальних ситуаціях, студентам пропонуються творчі зав-
дання письмового та усного характеру, рольові ігри, кейси, проб-
леми для обговорення.
Оскільки фахівці з міжнародної економіки і менеджменту в
переговорному процесі, а також у ході підготовки багатьох діло-
вих документів користуються як англійською, так і українською
мовами, до підручника включені вправи на переклад з україн-
ської мови на англійську і з англійської на українську.
Структура підручника забезпечує формування широкого те-
матичного словника, активне засвоєння функціональної лексики,
розвиток навичок письмового й усного ділового спілкування, які
необхідні сучасному фахівцеві.
Суттєва частина матеріалів підручника використовувалася
протягом кількох років на факультеті міжнародної економіки і
менеджменту Київського національного економічного універси-
тету імені Вадима Гетьмана і підтвердила свою ефективність.
Додатки та українсько-англійський словник дадуть можливість
користуватися цим виданням як міні-довідником з обраної тема-
тики всім тим, хто постійно веде зовнішньоекономічну діяльність
або вивчає ділову англійську мову.

6
Part I
The Communication Process

Communication is a process that is a set of actions or changes that

brings about a specific result. In the communication process, a mes-
sage is conveyed from sender to receiver. Because a message is
something you can see or hear, it is tempting to think that the message
is communication. But communication involves an interaction among
sender, message, and receiver; it is a process, not a product. This point
is important to remember when you are trying to improve communi-
cation or understand why it broke down.
Much of the information individuals exchange on the job has little
to do with work but is nevertheless vital to them. Human beings
communicate even when they have nothing urgent to express. Much
of our apparently purposeless conversation actually has the crucial
purpose of satisfying our need to interact with others.
Because communication is recognized as crucial, many organiza-
tions seek to train employees to become better communicators.
Organizational communication may be internal or external, for-
mal or informal. Internal communication refers to messages sent and
received within the organization. Such communication is formal if
the messages are sent through channels of communication developed
by management. Much of the communication that goes on in any or-
ganization, however, is informal; it does not go through regular
channels. Instead, information is exchanged by the individuals who,
although not formally connected within the organization, do interact
by telephone conversation, during chance meetings, or on social oc-
casions.
Much business communication is with individuals or groups out-
side the organization. This external communication may involve any
of the many segments of the public with which the organization inter-
acts.
The average person spends over 85 percent of his or her communi-
cation time communicating orally. Because we have had so much
practice at it, we generally prefer oral communication to written. As
a medium for getting a message across, oral communication has many
advantages. They are as follows:
7
 1. Speaking takes less time than writing. The average person
speaks at a rate of about 150 words a minute. Composing a 150-word
message on paper, even a rough draft, would take many times longer.
Even the physical act of transcribing on a keyboard does not approach
the speed of oral communication.
2. There are fewer mechanical problems to worry about. Gram-
mar and punctuation are much more flexible in oral communication,
and, of course, spelling doesn’t exist. Errors can be corrected immedi-
ately, and in many events are less likely to be remembered or even
noticed by the audience.
3. The speaker’s voice and body language add meaning and vari-
ety. A speaker can communicate with gesture, tone, volume, eye con-
tact, and physical appearance. These not only expand and clarify the
message, but also hold the attention of the audience.
4. Speaking allows feedback from receiver. Because sender and
receiver are together at the same time and often in the same place, it is
easier for the sender to feel in control of the communication process
and more confident that his or her message is being received. The
more one-to-one feedback the situation permits, the more control the
sender has, because an oral message can be easily revised to meet the
needs of the receiver and thereby fulfil the sender’s purpose.
5. Speaking is more personal. The audience generally feels closer
to the sender and more involved in the communication process when a
message is delivered orally. The speaker also generally feels closer to
his or her audience. Speaking emphasizes the human element in
communication
Oral communication does, however, have its disadvantages. Its
special characteristics, so valuable in some situations, can pose a ma-
jor barrier to communication in others.
Some barriers are physical, like outside noise or low, nervous de-
livery that literally prevents the message from reaching the ears of the
audience. Some barriers, like appearance or mannerisms, are really
messages that drown out the speaker’s words. Still others are intel-
lectual, where the speaker’s choice of language and content strains the
audience’s capacity to understand and absorb.
Of course, the degree to which these problems will interfere with
communication may vary. An oral presentation that is delivered in an
inaudible voice or that is drowned out by background noise will com-
pletely fail to communicate. But the impact of appearance, delivery,
and length will depend on how motivated the hearers are.
When we consider the barriers that originate with the speaker, we
see that many of them could be easily overcome. Barriers originating
8
with the receiver pose more serious problems. Because the sender
isn’t a mind reader, he or she may receive misleading feedback or no
feedback at all.
In addition, the personal element in oral communication can pres-
ent a barrier to both sender and receiver. Communication between two
people is much more than just the words of a message. The personal
relationship between sender and receiver is a possible factor in written
communication, but it is always there in oral communication. The re-
lationship may help communication or it may hinder it, but it always
makes the process more complicated.
Many of the barriers to oral communication arise because the re-
ceiver of the message has little or no control over the time and place at
which the message is delivered, or over the pace of the delivery. If
your English class is scheduled at ten o’clock on Monday morning,
that’s when «communication» about English is going to take place,
whether you feel like being communicated to or not. If you are tired,
or hungry, or worried about your test in systems at one o’clock, or ha-
ven’t done the reading assignment, you probably won’t take full ad-
vantage of this class. Maybe you won’t even show up. And at nine
o’clock, or whenever the class ends, that particular opportunity for
communication will be gone forever.

Written Communication
Since the earliest days of writing and paper-making, people have
used the written word to communicate their commercial needs or de-
scribe their product. With the advent of long-distance trading across
the length and breadth of continents, those involved in commerce
have negotiated agreements and made many other arrangements on
paper rather than by word of mouth.
Today, with an efficient transport system and sophisticated ma-
chinery for reproducing the written word, and, of course, the preva-
lence of literacy in many countries, it is no longer necessary to engage
a scribe who can read and write, or a footsore messenger to carry let-
ter and documents halfway across the known world.
The use of the written word has become paramount in business.
This may seem an obvious point, but still, many people underestimate
the necessity of learning to use words effectively and efficiently.
Although you will spend less working time writing than you will
speaking, your success as a writer will be an important factor in your
career success. The advantages of written communication are par-
ticularly valuable on the job.
9
Advantages of written communication
1. The receiver must take an active role in the communication
process. Written communication places much more control in the
hands of the receiver. The same student who dozes through the ten
o’clock English class could approach reading his or her textbook very
differently. Perhaps you work best after dinner, sitting comfortably at
your desk, using good light, maybe enjoying some soothing back-
ground music. You read the book at a comfortable pace, occasionally
looking up a word or checking back to a previous page to make sure
you’re following the writer’s point. If something isn’t clear on first
reading, you go over it again more carefully. Every so often you take
a break to keep yourself alert. When you start getting tired and losing
track of what you’re reading, you close the book and put it away for
later. Because a reader has so much control over delivery of the mes-
sage, a writer can cover more and more complex material than a
speaker can, and still be confident that the audience can take it all in.
2. Reading is faster than listening. You can read from three to
five times more in an hour than you could hear delivered orally
3. Writing is less personal. A writer can distance himself or her-
self from negative feelings he or she may have about the intended
audience. This distance also relieves the stress of anticipating some
kind of immediate negative feedback.
4. Writing provides a permanent record. If you have ever forgot-
ten someone’s name five seconds after you were introduced, you will
recognize the impossibility of retaining in your head even a tiny frac-
tion of the information necessary to run a business. The economic and
cultural structure of modern society depends on our ability to store
and retrieve immense amounts of information. Modern electronic me-
dia now make it possible to reserve oral records. But the expense, the
trouble, and the difficulty of efficient access to oral records make
written records better and more efficient.
5. Writing can be revised. It gives you an infinite number of sec-
ond chances. If your first draft is a failure, there can be a second,
third, fourth — until the final version represents the best effort you are
capable of. Your audience will not be aware of the sweat and toil and
the many inferior attempts; all they will see will be the polished final
result.

But, of course, written communication has disadvantages too.

So deciding whether to speak or write is a serious problem. Some-
times you may be told to «put it in writing». Other times you will be
asked to «make a report at our next meeting», or «get on phone right
10
away to Head Office». In these situations you have no chance to de-
cide which medium, oral or written, you would prefer.
Frequently, however, you will be able to choose whether to write,
phone, or visit someone in person. Your decision should be based on
more than personal preference. The strengths and weaknesses of each
medium should be carefully weighed. For example, suppose you
wished to transmit some detailed tax calculations to your supervisor.
Should you deliver them orally, by phone, or in person? Spoken
communication is faster, more interesting and personal, and allows
feedback from the receiver. How relevant are these considerations to
your task? Written communication allows the receiver to control
communication, takes less time on the part of the receiver, and pro-
vides a permanent record. Clearly, these considerations far outweigh
the advantages of oral communication in this case.
Writing allows a busy administrator to receive the information at
his or her convenience. He or she can spend as much time as neces-
sary to go through the complex data, and then file the information for
later reference. The transmission of written material within an organi-
zation is usually very rapid.
In another situation, a client might have called with a problem.
You need to negotiate a solution. Speaking gives you the immediate
two-way communication you require. Often a stressful situation, such
as handling a complaint or firing someone, will require all the re-
sources of face-to-face discussion.
Remember that modern technology is helping eliminate some of
the barriers that once forced us to choose one medium or another.
Long distance telephone calls, for example, are far less expensive than
they were even ten years ago. Fax machines and E-mail have made
the transmission of written material as rapid as a telephone call. Tele-
conferencing has brought many of the advantages of the personal
meeting without traveling time or expense. Examine all the communi-
cation options open to you before deciding on the best medium for
your message.

Exercises
Exercise I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does communication involve?
2. When and why do individuals communicate?
3. What can you say about internal and external communication?
4. How much time does the average person spend communicating
orally?
11
 5. What are the advantages of oral communication?
6. Identify barriers to oral communication originating with the speaker.
7. What are the disadvantages of oral communication originating
with the listener?
8. Name the advantages and disadvantages of written communication.
9. What factors should you consider deciding whether to speak or
write?

Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-

lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Повідомлення; удосконалювати комунікацію; вирішальна ме-
та; навчати співробітників; канали комунікації; випадкові зустрі-
чі; соціальні заходи; засіб одержання повідомлення; складати
письмове повідомлення; чернетка (документа); утримувати увагу
аудиторії; зворотний зв’язок; переглядати; притишувати слова
того, хто говорить; читати думки; перешкоджати спілкуванню;
писемність; недооцінювати потребу; дрімати; триматися бадьо-
рим; стрес від очікування негативної реакції; неможливість
утримувати в голові детальну інформацію; зважувати сильні та
слабкі сторони; обговорювати рішення; звільняти з роботи; усу-
вати бар’єри.

Exercise III. Here are some examples of communication situations

in which you might find yourself. Indicate whether you would deal
with it in writing, by telephone, or in person.

1. You need to confirm the location of a meeting taking place to-

morrow.
2. You want to let your 83 fellow workers know about plans for
the Christmas party.
3. You want to introduce yourself to a new employee.
4. An employee has asked for details about company life insurance
benefits.
5. A long-time client in another city has written an angry letter
about a major foul-up.
6. You need some biographical information about a guest speaker
who will be visiting your company in two weeks.
7. You wish to request an unpaid leave of absence from your job.
8. A fellow employee has been helping herself to goodies you’ve
stashed in the fridge.
9. A shipment of wires arrived from Vancouver minus 52 units,
and you were asked to inform the supplier.
12
 Exercise IV. Using the following case study, identify ten barriers to
communication that originate with the speaker.

Barriers to Communication: The Speaker

Anna Petrova was tall enough to be a fashion model. In fact, she

was tall enough to be a basketball player. Her short leather skirt ac-
centuated the length of her legs as she stood beside the flip chart
waiting for the chairman to finish his introduction. At the beginning of
her presentation she seemed nervous, her voice shaking a bit and her
fingers picking at the long chain belt she wore. Her voice was quiet
and at times less audible than the clicking of the chain and the rattling
of her bracelets as she gestured at the chart. As Anna warmed to the
topic, however, she raised her voice not only in volume but in pitch.
She stopped speaking to the chart and looked at the audience, fixing
her hearers in turn with a piercing stare, which made each of them feel
personally responsible for the problems in Accounts Receivable, even
though none of them worked there. Emotion intensified her normally
faint accent as she flipped the leaves of the chart back and forth and
jabbed at the pertinent figures with her long red nails. She had obvi-
ously come prepared with a mountain of detail about the situation. Her
forty-minute presentation seemed like a graduate course in accounting.

Exercise V. Using the case below as a source, identify potential

barriers to communication in writing.

Barriers to Written Communication: The Sender

It was 9 p.m. Gino was starting to panic. In about another hour the
cleaners would be looking up, and his letter still wasn’t printed. In
fact, it wasn’t even composed past «Dear Ms. Campbell….» The
wastebasket was overflowing with failed attempts. And everything
had been going so well up until now. The manager had really liked
his suggestion for a guest speaker on literacy at their next professional
development session. Getting Laura Campbell on the phone had been
surprisingly easy, and she had seemed really interested. Then came
the crusher: «Just send me a letter with all the details and an outline of
what you’re interested in hearing about. I’m going to be away for two
weeks, but if I hear from you by Friday I can confirm the date you
want.» So here it was Thursday night, and Gino had gotten as far as
«Dear Ms. Campbell….» It had been no problem talking to her about
his ideas; in fact, her comments had clarified what he hoped to ac-
13
complish and how she could make the presentation relevant to their
company. But on paper the ideas didn’t seem to follow in a way that
made sense. And nothing sounded right. Even if he got the basic
points down he’d still have to proofread. Spelling had never been one
of Gino’s strong suits. His keyboarding wasn’t so great either. And
even if by some miracle he got it written, keyed in and printed before
ten o’clock, he would still have to drive out to Laura Campbell’s of-
fice and drop it off in person tonight. Gino toyed with the possibility
of looking for a new job. It was 9:10.

14
Part II
Business letters and contracts

UNIT I
BUSINESS LETTER-WRITING

Despite the wide range of different means of communication,

much attention is still attached to letter-writing. The British, for ex-
ample, traditionally prefer sending letters to calling somebody, since a
telephone call may arrive at a wrong time and distract a person from
his or her meal or rest. It is also clear that an executive, a manager, a
salesman or a businessman has to write letters.
Letter-writing is the principal area in which the written word is
used in business and knowing how best to go about writing a formal
business letter can go a long way towards proving that you know what
you are doing.
Letter-writing is the one of the central skills in office administra-
tion. A well-presented letter will show the outside world that you and
your company are professional and capable. On the other hand, a
badly laid-out letter that is full of grammatical and spelling errors, and
takes an age to get to the point is irritating and time-consuming to deal
with and, above all, bad public relations.
Even small companies send out numbers of letters every day, and
so letter-writing can form a large part of the daily routine.
Because this is so often the case, it is a good idea to establish the
rules of good letter-writing at the outset, and to practice them until
they become second nature. In this way, you will use your time effi-
ciently and effectively.
Most companies have their own way of doing things. They have a
«house style» for layout and punctuation, and an efficient referencing
system, often related to their own method of filing documents.

The Appearance of a Letter. Before you begin to organize the

content of a letter, you need to think about its layout and general ap-
pearance. Remember that a letter starts to communicate before the
first word is read.
15
 Standard Parts of a Business Letter. Although letters may differ
in appearance, their basic parts are similar. They are as follows.

Letterhead. This is your company’s details. The letterhead is

normally designed and pre-printed. However, if no letterhead is
available, type the required information either at the left-hand edge,
centred or at the right-hand edge, depending on your company’s
usual style.

Letter reference. This is often made up of two sets of initials:

those of the person writing the letter and those of the person typing
the letter, separated by an oblique stroke. Sometimes the first set of
initials is written in capital letters, while the typist’s initials appear in
lower-case (small) letters. If your office is using a numerical or alpha-
numerical filing system, you may also need to include the filing refer-
ence number.

Date. The standard way to write the date in English is in figures

and words (not 15.6.09, for instance), in the order in which you would
say it: date, month, year.
In the USA and Europe, when dates are written as figures, the day
and the month are swapped. So, in the UK, 6.4.09 means 6th April
2009, whereas in Europe and the USA, it means 4th June 2009. To
avoid confusion when writing abroad, always write the date in figures
and words.
British style: 16th June 20__.
American style June 16, 20__.

Private/Confidential. If you need to indicate that the letter is only

to be read by the addressee (and not by the person who opens the
mail), then give this indication after the date. Private means personal.
Confidential means sensitive. The difference is that letters marked
«private» should only be opened by the addressee. Letters and other
documents marked «confidential» will have their circulation confined
to a few relevant members of stuff only.
If the mode of postage is unusual — e.g. recorded delivery, special
delivery, registered post, facsimilie transmission or by hand — the
method of postage is indicated at this stage.

Addressee’s name and address. If writing to a particular person in

a company, write their name and title, followed by the company name,
full address, and the postcode, as it will appear on the envelope. (Full
16
details on running order for addresses are given in «Addressing enve-
lopes»).
If previous correspondence indicates that all letters should be ad-
dressed to the company, omit the person’s name from the top of the
address, but add the words «For the Attention of…» after the post-
code. If, however, you are planning to use a window envelope write
the attention line at the start of the address as normal.
If you are writing to a company that is a partnership, you will find
that the «company» name appears as a string of names: e.g. Sturrock,
White, Hempel & Co. In this case, it is usual to add the plural for
mister in the address: Messrs Sturrock, White, Hempel & Co. When
using this type of address, the salutation (see below) should be «Dear
Sirs».

Salutation. All letters should open with a salutation: «Dear…» If

you are writing to a particular person, use that person’s courtesy title
and surname (e.g. «Dear Mr. Laing»). If you are on very good terms
with the addressee (perhaps you are close colleagues or old friends), it
is permissible to use a Christian name only («Dear Charles»).
Some companies use a salutation without the courtesy title
(«Dear Charles Laing»). This can be useful when you do not know
whether the person to whom you are writing is a man or a woman,
but it has an impersonal feel about it that could be undesirable. If in
doubt, call the addressee’s company and find out. If the addressee
turns out to be a woman, find out whether she is Miss or Mrs., or if
she prefers to use Ms.
If you are not writing to a named person, use the salutation, «Dear
Sir», or, when addressing a partnership, use the plural, «Dear Sirs».

Subject heading. This is a title that indicates the subject of the

letter for quick reference. The subject may be given as a project title,
or reference to an account, but whatever way you head your letter,
find a way to sum up the subject accurately in two or three words.

Body of the letter. Whatever your letter is about, aim for clarity
and brevity. Do not make your correspondent read three pages before
finding out what it is you want or are offering.
The first paragraph should refer to previous correspondence on
contact (a letter, a telephone call or meeting, perhaps) and sum up
why you are writing. The next paragraphs give further information,
and the final paragraph should state what action you are expecting or
what action you are yourself taking. For example:
17
 Subject heading: Project X
First paragraph: Thank you for your letter of nth date, re-
questing information on project X, which is
enclosed.
Second paragraph: As you will see, we offer x, y and z …
Third paragraph: If, after you have looked through the en-
closed information, you have any further
queries, please call me and I will do my best
to answer them.

Closing(also called «complimentary close»). This is the standard

method of closing a letter, before the sender signs his or her name.
Which form of subscription you use depends on the salutation at the
start of the letter. If you opened with «Dear Sir(s)», you should close
with «Yours faithfully» (capital letter for «Yours», and lower case for
«faithfully»). I f you opened with the name of a person, and you have
never met that person, or the relationship is formal in any other way,
close with «Yours sincerely».
If the sender and addressee are close friends or colleagues of
long standing, it may be permissible to use a more familiar sub-
scription, such as « Best regards» or «Kind regards», but you
should make sure that the level of familiarity with which you close
is the same as that with which you have opened. For example, it
would be incongruous to open with «Dear Charles» and close with
«Yours sincerely», or to open with «Dear Charles Laing» and close
with «Kind regards».

The relationship between the writer and the addressee should be

reflected in the salutation and the complimentary close. When
composing letters, therefore, make sure that you balance these ele-
ments.

Signature and signatory. Next comes the sender’s signature,

which is usually made up of initials and surname. Some people sign
with their full Christian name followed by the surname, but this is in-
correct (except in American usage, in which the Christian name is
given, followed by the middle initial and the surname).
If this letter is less formal (i.e. the salutation and subscription indi-
cate a closer-than-normal relationship between the correspondents), it
may simply be signed with a Christian name.
In some instances, it happens that a sender is not available to sign
a letter once it has been typed, and that the letter cannot wait for the
18
signature. In this case, it is permissible for another person to sign the
letter per procurationem («for and on behalf of»). If this is case, the
abbreviation «pp» should be written or typed before the signatory.
The signatory is a typed version of the sender’s name. Here it is
useful to give his or her full name. If the sender is a woman, it is also
informative to give the preferred courtesy title in brackets after the
name. Equally, if the Christian name may give rise to confusion as to
whether the sender is a man or a woman (e.g. if the name is Frances or
Leslie), it may be useful for the addressee to indicate this. This is the
only case where a man gives his courtesy title in a signatory.
Remember to leave enough space for the sender to sign between
the subscription and the signatory. Six or eight lines is usually
enough.

Topping-and-tailing. Some company executives like to add a

personal touch to some of their correspondence by handwriting the
salutation and the closing as well as their signature. This is some-
times known as «topping-and-tailing». If this is required, type out
the information up to the salutation as normal. Leave space for the
salutation to be handwritten, and continue with the subject heading.
At the end of the letter, leave space for the subscription and signa-
ture to be written in, but remember to type the sender’s name in the
usual place.

Designation. The designation (the position in the company of the

sender) is typed on the line below the signatory, and should give the
accurate job title. If a job title is not appropriate, the designation
may be simply the name of the company. This kind of the informa-
tion is useful to the addressee when he or she wants to contact the
sender either by telephone or by letter, and so to avoid confusion and
waste of time on all sides, make the designation accurate and infor-
mative.

Letter format. The format of a letter refers to the arrangement of

the four elements on the page. The two letter formats most com-
monly used in business today are the Full Block and the Modified
Block. In the Full Block format every line begins at the left margin.
This format is becoming the preferred choice in most businesses be-
cause it is the easiest to keyboard. You do not have to worry about
lining up to return address with the signature block, or indenting the
first line of each paragraph. The full Block format generally has
open punctuation, which means that only the body of the letters is
19
punctuated. There is no punctuation after the salutation or compli-
mentary close.
The Modified Block is somewhat more old-fashioned. The return
address, date, complimentary close, and signature block are placed at
the halfway point across the page. The first line of each paragraph is
indented. A letter in Modified Block format may use open punctua-
tion or mixed punctuation. Mixed punctuation means that the salu-
tation is followed by a colon or a comma (Dear Mr. Healey: / Dear
Mr. Healey,) and the complimentary close by a comma (Sincerely,).
Unless your organization has a standard format, you can choose ei-
ther the Full Block or Modified Block, open or mixed punctuation.
Just be careful to follow your preferred style consistently. (See Fig-
ures 1, 2, 3)

Ref AL/cd

16th June 20__

Mr. J. Fielding
A3 Electricals Ltd.
124 Craven Road
HOXTON
HTI 0NB
Dear Mr. Fielding

Subject Heading
First paragraph ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
Second paragraph …..………………………………………………………………..
…………..….………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………….………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………………………………….

Yours sincerely
Alan Long
Marketing Manager
Enc
cc Joan Greystone

Figure 1. Full Block

20
Ref. AL/cd 16th June, 20__
Mr. J. Fielding
A3 Electricals Ltd,
124 Craven Road,
HOXTON
HTI 0NB
Dear Mr. Feilding,
Subject Heading
First paragraph………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Second paragraph……………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Yours sincerely,
Alan Long
Marketing Manager
Enc.
c.c. Joan Greystone

Figure 2. Modified Block

Reference Date
Addressee Name
and Address
Salutation
Subject Heading
Body of letter …………….…..…………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..………………………………………..
Second paragraph ………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..……………………………………………………………….
Third paragraph ……………………………………………………..……………..
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………..………………….
Subscription
Signatory
Position or Company Name
Enclosures

Figure 3. Modified Block

21
 Enclosures. If you are sending other material with the letter, (not
including continuation sheets) indicate this after the designation, so
that the addressee can check that all the material is present on arrival.
If you are including only one extra sheet, type the abbreviation «Enc».
If there are two or more sheets, add the plural «s» — «Encs». Some
companies also add the number of enclosures (e.g. «Encs 4») just to
make sure.
Copies. If you are planning to send a copy of the letter to someone
other than the addressee and the sender, indicate this using the abbre-
viation «cc». For example, cc Mrs. J. Fellowes. The names of recipi-
ents of further copies can be added in a list.
If you are asked to send copies of the letter to people without the
addressee knowing, do not indicate this on the file copy, using the ini-
tials bc (blind copies), underneath the «copies» line.
Continuation sheets. Your letter may run to two or more pages. If
this is the case, indicate the existence of a continuation sheet with a
catchword, such as «over», «PTO» or «continued» (or any abbrevia-
tion of it). Place the catchword at the right-hand margin at the bottom
of the page.
The continuation sheet usually has no letterhead, or an abbreviated
letterhead giving the company name only. On the left-hand side of
each continuation sheet, give the addressee’s name and company,
along with the date of the letter. On the right-hand side, give the num-
ber of the page.

Letter-writing tips.
• Keep your letters short and to the point.
• Use a subject heading, but make sure that it accurately reflects
the subject of the letter.
• Make sure that your letter starts with a statement of intent and
ends with a request or promise of action.
• Never use words that your do not understand or do not know
how to spell. If you are unsure, look it up in a dictionary.
• Avoid using too many adjectives or adverbs. You will be able to
do this if you choose the correct nouns and verbs.
• Avoid flowery language.
• Don’t use the words and phrases that could be ambiguous. If
there is any chance of a misunderstanding arising, find an alternative
way of saying it.
• Always be cordial and polite. Never be abusive, even if you are
writing a letter of complaint.
22
 • All parts of the letter are designed to give important information.
If your letters give accurate information, you will increase efficiency
all round. For example, the addressee will know how to contact the
sender, and you will know where to find your file copy in a hurry.
• Think out your letter before you start to compose it. Make notes
if this helps to organize the information in a logical order.
• If you can amend a standard or similar letter to say what you
need to say, do so. It will save you time.
• If you have difficulty finding the right words and phrases for
your letters, consider investing in a book of sample letters.
Outgoing letters are silent emissaries on behalf of your company,
and the recipient will form a favourable or unfavourable impression of
your company depending on the state of your correspondence. Make
sure, therefore, that all correspondence is error-free, cordial and con-
sistent.
Addressing envelopes. In order for the Post Office to do its job ef-
ficiently and get your post to the right place at the right time, it is nec-
essary to ensure that you give the correct information on the envelope.
The Post Office requests that you give the following address in-
formation, with each item on a separate line:
ƒ Addressee’s name
ƒ Addressee’s company name in full
ƒ Building number (or name) and street name
ƒ Name of locality, or for rural areas, the village or hamlet
ƒ Name of postal town in CAPITAL LETTERS
ƒ Name of the county, (state) or its standard abbreviation
ƒ Postcode in CAPITAL LETTERS on a separate line, and with no
punctuation
If the address is unusually long, and you find yourself short of
space, put the town and county on the same line. If you need even
more space, move the postcode up to the county line, but leave, say,
six spaces between the county and the postcode so that postal workers
can find it at a glance.
The address should be positioned in the lower part of the front of
the envelope, to the right-hand side, leaving space for postage above
it. If you are using window envelopes, then this position will be
slightly different.
If you need to add an attention line, type it two lines above the ad-
dress.
Unless you are addressing an unusually large package or parcel, you
need only leave single-line spaces between the lines of the address.
23
 Special instructions to the Post Office (Air Mail, Special Delivery,
etc.) should be printed in the top left-hand corner of the front of the
envelope.
It is also advisable to write the sender’s name and address either on
the back of the envelope or on the front, in the top left-hand corner.
This helps the Post Office to return undelivered mail without having
to open the envelope.

OFFICE
Management STAMP
6th floor
129 Broot Street
LONDON W 26IBZ

Mr J Fielding
A3 Electricals Ltd
124Craven Road
HOXTON
HT1 0NB

Remember to cross-check that the address written on the envelope

corresponds to the address written at the head of the letter, and that the
punctuation and layout style also correspond to those of the enclosed
letter.

Forms of address. Some people consider the rules regarding cus-

tomary forms of address outmoded or «politically incorrect». What-
ever your personal feelings, when it comes to producing correspon-
dence on behalf of your employer, it is as well to know and use the
correct forms, as a matter of good manners.

Titles. Every person should be addressed with a title. Those with

special titles include members of the aristocracy and the peerage (bar-
ons, earls, counts, etc.), clerics (bishops, priests, etc.), those holding
office (such as mayors and city councillors), members of the armed
forces (colonel, major, brigadier, etc.) and diplomats (such as ambas-
sadors).
People who do not have such titles («ordinary» people), are ad-
dressed as Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, depending on their sex and marital
status. An alternative to «Mr» is to use the courtesy title «Esq.» (Es-
quire). If your company prefers to use this, give the initial or full
24
Christian name and the surname followed by «Esq.»: e.g. Charles
Laing Esq. Any honours and decorations (see Appendix B) always
come after this courtesy title.
Miss, Mrs. or Ms? The use of the title «Ms» is becoming increas-
ingly popular among women of all ages. Many believe that women
use it simply as a feminist statement that their marital status is unim-
portant to their business standing. However, this is not always the
case. A large number of women are now opting to retain their maiden
name in their professional lives after they are married. This is often
the good idea because it avoids the confusion that may arise out of a
sudden name change. In these cases, it would be ridiculous to call a
woman Mrs. with her maiden name. That would mean that she is mar-
ried either to her father or to her brother!
Whatever a women chooses to call herself, and for whatever rea-
son, it is polite to respect her wishes and use the title she has chosen
for herself. If you are unsure what this may be, call her company and
find out.

Salutation and subscription. Each title has its own special saluta-
tion and subscription, and it is just as important to get these right as it
is to use the correct title. In some very formal correspondence, you
should also use the customary form of reference. For example, in the
body of a letter to the Queen, one would refer to her as «Your Maj-
esty», rather than as you. (see Appendix B)

Honours and decorations. Honours are the letters that people are
entitled to list after their names to indicate that they have a degree or
that they are a member of a professional body. Some of these honours
also mean that such people can take a title, such as Doctor or Profes-
sor.
Some people do not list their honours. If you are responding to a
letter, follow the style they themselves use. If you are writing to
somebody for the first time, it is probably best to use the full form.
When a person has more than one honour in the same discipline,
you need only list the higher honour. However, if the honours are
from different disciplines, you need to list the highest honour in each
field, with a space between each set of initials. As a general rule, list
the least prestigious honours first and work up.
Decorations are similar sets of initials denoting that a person has
been decorated. They may have received a medal (say the Victoria
Cross, VC) or they have been made a member of an order (e.g. Order
of the British Empire, OBE). Again, some of these decorations carry
25
with them titles (e.g. DBE refers to a Dame) and corresponding salu-
tations.
If you are dealing with foreign clients or colleagues, you will need
to know the correct form of address, even if you are writing to them in
English.

Exercises
Exercise I. Answer the following questions.
1. Why do the British traditionally prefer sending letters to calling
somebody?
2. Do you really think that letter-writing is one of the central skills
in office administration?
3. What can a business letter show the outside world?
4. Is it necessary to establish the rules of good letter-writing?
5. Do some companies have their own style of letter-writing? Why?
6. Why is the appearance of a letter so important?
7. What is the overall appearance of correspondence influenced by?
8. Why should the stationery be of good-quality?
9. Do modern letterheads take a large part of a piece of stationery?
10. What improves the appearance of a letter?
11. What are the basic parts of a business letter?
12. What is the difference between British and American styles of
writing dates?
13. What is the order of writing addresses?
14. What do you know about writing salutations?
15. Do you agree that subject heading is used for quick reference?
16. What is the standard method of closing a letter? What does it
depend on?
17. What are the two letter formats most commonly used in busi-
ness today?
18. Speak about the other parts of a business letter.
19. What can you advise a person who is going to write a business
letter?
20. How should envelopes be addressed?
21. Why is it important to know and use the correct forms of ad-
dress and address every person with a title?
22. How should «ordinary» people be addressed?
23. What special titles do you know?
Exercise II. Remember the following useful expressions
1. We have received your letter of …
2. Thank you for your letter of …
26
 3. Your letter enclosing (stating that…, asking us to do…, re-
questing us to do…) has been considered (given proper attention)
4. In reply (In response) to your letter of …
5. In confirmation of our telephone conversation (talks, held in…)
we wish to inform you that…
6. With reference to (referring to) our (your) letter of … we wish
to inform you that …
7. We are pleased (glad) to inform you that …
8. We have pleasure in informing you that …
9. We are sorry (We regret) to have to remind you that …
10. We offer apologies for the delay in answering your letter…
11. We apologize for …/ Please accept our apologies for…
12. You are no doubt aware that …
13. You may know that…
14. Please note that…
15. We wish to draw your attention to the fact that …
16. We would like to note that …
17. We wish to bring to your notice that …
18. In this connection … / In connection with the above / In con-
nection with your request…
19. The matter is … / the point is …
20. We have to admit that …
21. Your early reply will be appreciated …
22. If we can be of any assistance, please, do not hesitate to contact
us…
23. We are looking forward to hearing from you / We expect your
early reply / We expect to hear from you in the near future / We hope
to hear from you soon
24. Your prompt execution of our order will be (would be) appreciated
25. We are looking forward to (receiving) your consent (approval,
confirmation)
26. We would appreciate receiving your reply at your earliest con-
venience
27. Yours faithfully / Faithfully yours / Yours truly / Truly yours /
Yours sincerely / Sincerely yours.

Exercise III. Translate into English

1. У відповідь на Ваш лист від ...
2. Посилаючись на Ваш лист від ..., повідомляємо, що ...
3. Ми вдячні вам за Ваш лист від ...
4. Посилаючись на нашу телефонну розмову, повідомляємо,
що ...
27
 5. Радо повідомляємо Вас, що ...
6. Змушені з прикрістю повідомити, що ...
7. Щиро просимо вибачення за затримку з відповіддю на Ваш
лист ...
8. Звертаємо Вашу увагу на той факт, що ...
9. У зв’язку з Вашим проханням ...
10. Сподіваємося одержати Вашу відповідь найближчим часом.
11. Чекаємо на Вашу відповідь (підтвердження)
12. З повагою ... / Щиро Ваш ... / Щиро відданий Вам

Exercise IV. Find the Ukrainian equivalents in the right hand-side

column.
1. With best wishes and kind re-
1. З найкращими побажання-
gards… ми...
2. Wishing you the best of suc-2. Мої найтепліші побажання
cess, I remain… пану ...
3. Please accept my best wishes3. З найкращими побажання-
… ми і дружнім привітом
4.With best wishes … 4. Бажаю Вам всіляких успі-
хів, залишаюсь....
5. My warmest greetings to Mr. 5. Прийміть мої найкращі по-
… бажання.

Exercise V. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian.

1)

Smith & Co.

36 Brington Rd
London
Great Britain
Dear Sirs
We thank you for your letter dated May 7. For your information we attach our
publications relating to Machines, Models 38, 43 and 43a, and we hope they will
be of interest to you.
Yours faithfully

D. Smirnov
PR Department
Encl.

28
 2)

Brown & Co., Ltd.

12 Green Lane
London
Great Britain

Dear Sirs

We have received your letter of May 20 and thank you for the information sent to
us. It will be of great help to us. We expect to hear from you in the near future.

Yours faithfully

Andrew Brown
Sales Manager

3)

Smith & Co., Ltd.

32A White Street
Manchester 3DK
Dear Sirs

We thank you for your letter of 5th September, 20… sent by air-mail in reply to
our fax dated 20th August. For our information we are sending you our newest
Catalogue of Machines and ask you to inform us if you require our further publi-
cations. We hope to hear from you soon.
Yours faithfully,

C. Brown
Encl.

Exercise VI. Make up letters from the following notes putting the
sentences in the right order.

Letter 1.
1. Enclosure
2. Dear Sirs
29
 3. We are sending you our new catalogue. We hope it will be of
interest to you.
4. Standard Office Furniture, Ltd.,
Cantley Road
LondonSW4
5. Yours faithfully, J.Smith
6. 15th September 20__

Letter 2.
1. Dear Sirs
2. Yours faithfully, P.J. Morgan
3. The British Engineering Co.,
12 City New Road,
London, EC 3
4. April 1, 20__
5. We have received your letter of the 21st March and send it to our
clients for their consideration. We will inform you of their decision in
a few days.

Letter 3.
1. Enclosure.
2. Dear Sirs,
3. May 4, 20__
4. In accordance with your request we have pleasure in sending you
our publications relating to Model A. We hope to hear from you soon.
5. Yours faithfully, B. Grey

Exercise VII. Translate the following letters into English.

Лист 1.

Вельмишановний пане Сміт!

Ми одержали Вашого листа від 14 січня з рекламними матеріалами, но-
вими прейскурантами, каталогом Вашої компанії, а також проспектами мо-
делей формату А4 та А5.
Ми направили Ваші документи на розгляд нашим партнерам. Як тільки
ми одержимо відповідь, ми поінформуємо Вас про їх рішення. Чекаємо на
Вашу відповідь.

З повагою Г. Браун
26.01.20__р.

30
Лист 2.

Вельмишановні панове!
Ми надсилаємо підтверження щодо одержання Вашого листа від
30 червня. Щиро вдячні за Ваші рекламні матеріали. Нас зацікавив останній
каталог Ваших клієнтів.
Просимо надіслати наше замовлення на завод-виробник для розгляду.
Також з’ясуйте, будь ласка, чи можливі попередні переговори з
представниками Вашої компанії. Сподіваюсь одержати Вашу відповідь
найближчим часом.

З повагою Дж. Сміт

4.07.20__ p.

Exercise VIII. Make up letters according to the situations.

1. 1 жовтня вам надіслали листа з Лондону з інформацією, що
зацікавила Вас у зв’язку із замовленням №4. Подякуйте за лист.
Поінформуйте ваших партнерів, що відвідаєте Лондон найближ-
чим часом, де зможете з’ясувати всі деталі.
2. Ви отримали інформацію про обладнання, яке становить
особливий інтерес для вашої компанії. Попросіть надіслати Вам
каталоги, прейскуранти та інші матеріали.

Exercise IX. Roleplay

Card I. You work for the company «Smith & Co.» and you have
received a letter(see exercise 5, letter 3). Inform your colleague of its
contents and tell him that the machines are of interest to your com-
pany as they meet all the requirements.
Card II. You work for «Smith & Co.» .You are interested in the
Machines produced by «K. Brown & Co., Ltd». Your colleague has
received a letter from them and informs you of that. Try to find out all
the details.

UNIT II
LETTERS ON BUSINESS SITUTATIONS. ENQUIRIES.

Enquiries (Inquiries)
Most business transactions develop out of an initial enquiry from
potential customers. They have received your company’s catalogue,
31
read the advertisement in a newspaper or magazine, or you have been
recommended to them by another customer or Trade Association.
Letters of enquiry should be handled with great care because each of
them could be the starting point for a long and mutually beneficial
trading relationship. Mishandled, they represent a lost opportunity
which may never return, and will most likely end up benefiting your
competitors.
An enquiry is sent when a businessman or a firm wants some in-
formation, especially about:
— the supply of goods;
— the leaflets or catalogues;
— the lists of prices and quotations;
— samples;
— terms and discounts;
— availability of goods;
— delivery terms and deadlines;
— method of transport;
— insurance;

The contents of an enquiry depend on three things: how well you

know your supplier; whether your supplier is at home or abroad; and
the type of goods you are enquiring about.
In requesting routine things it is not necessary to give a lot of in-
formation about yourself. State the enquiry in the first sentence so the
reader knows exactly what information you want, or what you want
done. If your request is vague, incomplete, or confusing, your audi-
ence will have a difficult job. So be as specific as possible. This will
ensure that your letter is read by the appropriate person and focus his
or her attention on your enquiry. But remember to supply your ad-
dress, phone number, fax number and your e-mail if you have one. It
would also be helpful if you could briefly point out any particular
items.

Examples
a) Would you let us have your current catalogue and price-list
for summer exhibition. I’m interested in summer clothing for teen-
agers.
b) Could you please send me a prospectus for your university giv-
ing me information about fees and Bachelor’s Programmes in eco-
nomics and management.
32
 c) I would appreciate your sending me some technical specifica-
tions for your XC ITA amplifies and an up-to-date price list for high
precision machinery.
If you are a prospective customer and would like to approach
suppliers for the first time, it is useful to start the enquiry with the
story about your own business, the kind of goods you need and for
what purpose they are required or how you heard about the firm
you are writing to. If replying to an advertisement you should first
mention the journal or newspaper in which it was published and the
date.
Examples
a) We have seen your advertisement in the July edition of « Fur-
niture and Office Equipment».
b) You were recommended to us by Mr. Johns of Adams & Adams
in Glasgow.
To close an enquiry usually simple polite forms such as «Thank
you. Yours faithfully» are sufficient but sometimes the use of an ac-
tion close is necessary to motivate the reader to reply promptly by
setting a target date. If a date is not appropriate, offer some other form
of motivation.
Examples
a) We would appreciate having this information in time for our
December 16 meeting.
b) We would like to point out that delivery before Christmas is es-
sential.
c) I hope to hear from you as soon as possible so I can complete
my travel plans.

Exercises
Exercise I. Answer the following questions.
1. Why are enquires so important and why should they be handled
with great care?
2. When is an enquiry sent?
3. What do the contents of an enquiry depend on?
4. In what way do we write enquires about routine things?
5. What points should you keep in mind when writing a routine re-
quest?
6. If you don’t know a prospective customer well enough what
should you start your enquiry with?
7. What is the usual close of an enquiry?
33
 Exercise II. Remember the following useful expressions:
1. We are retailers (importers, wholesalers) in the … trade and
would like to get in touch with suppliers (manufactures) of …
2. Our company is a subsidiary of … and we specialize in …
3. We are in the market for …
4. Could you please send me …/ Would you please let us have
your current catalogue (brochure) and price-list for …/ I would appre-
ciate your sending me …
5. We were given your name by…/You were recommended to us
by …/ We were advised by … that you were interested in … / … told
us that you were looking for …
6. We were impressed by the selection of … that was/were dis-
played on your stand at …
7. We have read your advertisement in …/ We are replying to your
advertisement in …
8. We would like to have further details …/ I would appreciate
more details about …/ Could you please give us more information
about …
9. Would your kindly quote your best prices and terms of payment
for…
10. If your prices are competitive … If the quality of the goods
comes up to our expectations… If the samples meet with our custom-
ers’ approval, we can probably let you have regular orders
11. There is a promising market here for …, and we may be able to
place large (substantial) orders with you if the quality and prices of
your products are suitable.
12. As we usually place very large orders, we would expect a qual-
ity discount of …
13. We normally effect payment by … /Our terms of payment are
normally a 30 day bill of exchange, documents against acceptance
(cheque/bank transfer, payment for collection, letter of credit)
14. Thank you in advance for any information you can give us.
15. Your early reply will be very much appreciated / We would be
grateful for an early reply.
16. The work would have to be completed before … / Delivery be-
fore … is essential / Prompt delivery would be necessary.
17. We trust you will make every effort to meet our requirements

Exercise III. Compile an enquiry making use of the expressions

given in exercise II.
34
 Exercise IV. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian:

1)

London, October 10, 20__

SuperFurniture Ltd
19 Bee Rd
Manchester
UK

Dear Sirs
We have seen your advertisement in the July edition of «Furniture & Office
Equipment» and it interested us greatly.
Our bank is opening new branches in Manchester and Leeds and we will require
office furniture and equipment urgently.
We are inclined to place a considerable order with your company and therefore
would expect a quantity discount off list prices, and our terms of payment are
normally payment for collection or as a special concession on our part by a Letter
of Credit.
We shall appreciate it if you will send us your brochures, prospectuses and cata-
logues in duplicate.
We hope to hear from you soon.
Yours faithfully
E. Lacombe

2)

Kyiv, November 15, 20__

Fish & Fish Products Ltd.
15 Cornflower St.
Leeds
Great Britain
Dear Sirs
We represent a chain of restaurants and cafeterias in Ukraine and are looking for a
company engaged in the export of fish and fish products. The Chamber of Com-
merce of Ukraine has informed us of your address.
We are interested in tinned fish for shipment in equal lots at regular intervals
during the next five months. We are ready to pay 50 % by an irrevocable Letter of
Credit.
We should be obliged to you if you would send us an offer for these goods stating
the price of each item separately.
Your early reply will be very much appreciated.
Yours faithfully
A Smirnov

35
 3)
Glasgow, December 17, 20__
The Manchester Engineering Co.
15, Winston St.
Manchester
Great Britain
Subject: Medical Instruments
Dear Sirs
We are regular buyers of Medical Equipment and Instruments on your market. At
the annual fair last month we saw your instruments and got some publications
covering the latest models. We applied to the Chamber of Commerce and found
out your address.
We have read your ad published in the «Medicine» journal and learnt that your
list prices have been reduced by 5%. Taking into account your advanced technol-
ogy and attractive prices we would ask you to send us further data concerning
your terms of payment and delivery as well as technical documentation.
We hope your prices as well as terms and conditions will be competitive and look
forward to placing an order with you.
We trust you will make every effort to meet our particular requirements.
Yours faithfully
S. Grey

4)
Mattwes and Wilson
Ladies’ Clothing
421 Michigan Avenue
Chicago, III. 60602
Messers Grant &Clarkson
148 Mortimer Street
London WIC 37D
Great Britain
October 21, 20 __
Gentlemen:
We saw your dresses and suits at the London Fashion Show held in New York on
October 17. The lines you showed for teenagers would be most suitable for our market.
Would you kindly send us your quotation for spring and summer clothing that
you could supply to us by the end of January next. We would require 2,000
dresses and suits in each of the sizes 10—14, and 500 in sizes 8 and 16. Please
quote c.i.f. Chicago prices. Payment is normally made by a letter of credit.
Thank you for an early reply.
Very truly yours,
(signature)
P.Wilson, Jr.
Buyer

36
 5)
Dear Sirs,
We have received a number of enquiries from our trade connections here for
your raincoats and think we may be able to place regular orders with you if your
prices are competitive.
The market will not stand a highpriced line: we have in mind your «Litewate»
coat — women’s and men’s designs. Please quote your best price c.i.f. Odessa for
500 of each of these in medium and small sizes and let us know if you could ship
within 2 weeks of receipt of order.
In our opinion a coat of lighter material than your «Litewate» but equally
waterproof, and massproduced at a low price, would have a large sale in this country.
We look forward to receiving your reply.
Yours faithfully,

6)
Dear Sirs,
Your name was given to us by Messrs. ... Ltd., who have been regular cus-
tomers of yours for some years. We asked them if they knew of a manufacturer
who would be able to supply immediately the goods specified on the enclosed list.
We would explain in confidence that our usual supplier has rather let us down
this year on delivery dates and quantities, and we are in danger of getting into ar-
rears with one or two of our contracts.
If you can supply the goods required, please accept this as our official order:
payment will be made on any basis acceptable to you.
We hope you will be able to meet our requirements in this instance, and
would add that if your products are satisfactory and terms competitive we should
be interested in a longterm connection between us.
We should appreciate a prompt reply.
Your faithfully,

7)
Dear Sirs,
The excellent quality and modern design of your mechanical garden tools, a
selection of which we have recently seen in exhibition here, appeal to us very
much. We have seen your full catalogue and are interested to know whether you
have considered the possibilities of the market in this country.
As a leading house of importers and distributors of many years standing in
this trade, we have an extensive sales organization and a thorough knowledge of
our market. We think your products would have a good sale here, and are
prepared to do business with you either on a consignment basis or by placing firm
orders, if your prices and terms are right.
Please let us have your views on these proposals: if you are interested in
establishing an agency here, our Mr. E would be pleased to call on you on March,
when he will be in your country.
We look forward to your reply.
Yours faithfully,

37
 Exercise V. Translate the following letters into English paying at-
tention to their layout:

a) A building contractor writes to a manufacturer of bathroom

showers.
Sender: «Bunbury Estate Builders», 17 Fen Road, London EC3, UK
Date: 21.11.20__
Address: Central Installation, Glasgow, UK.
Body of Letter: Ми прочитали Ваше рекламне оголошення у
часописі «Builders Journal» від 3.11.20_ і воно дуже зацікавило нас.
Просимо надіслати каталоги Ваших нових змішувачів для ду-
шу, описані в журналі. Ми будівельна компанія на ринку Європи
і щорічно будуємо більше 1000 котеджів та декілька багатоквар-
тирних житлових будинків.
Якщо Ваше обладнання високоякісне і ми одержимо сприят-
ливу пропозицію, ми б могли зробити значне замовлення.
Будемо вдячні за відповідь у найближчий час.

b) An agricultural company writes to a manufacturer of agricul-

tural equipment.
Sender: «Agro Vema Import, 10 Antonovich Street, Kyiv 02004,
Ukraine.
Date: 14.08.20__
Address: E Fowler L Co., 12 Baker Street, London, UK.
Body of Letter: У минулому місяці ми відвідали щорічну сіль-
ськогосподарську виставку у Берліні. Нас приємно вразили виро-
би, які були представлені на Вашому стенді.
Ми представляємо імпортерів сільськогосподарської продук-
ції України і хотіли, щоб Ви надіслали нам пропозицію Ваших
останніх виробів, ціни на них та інформацію про можливі знижки.
Наші звичайні умови оплати — на інкасо, але ми могли б піти
Вам назустріч і заплатити акредитивом.
Сподіваємось на скорішу відповідь від Вас.

Exercise VI. Write a letter from the following notes:

a) Guazelli Company of Sao Paolo writes on 3 August 20__ to
Taylor & Co, Mincing Lane, London EC4 asking for a special offer of
Darjeeling tea. They will require at least 200 cases, and would like
prices, terms, delivery dates.
b) Ви представляєте великий магазин звукозапису (record
shop) і хотіли би більше дізнатися про диски і касети, що були
згадані у рекламному оголошенні в журналі «Hi Fi News».
38
 Ви б хотіли отримати брошури, що містять інформацію про ці
товари, а також з’ясувати умови оплати, яким надає перевагу по-
стачальник.

с) Ви плануєте відкрити філію Вашого банку в іншому місті, і

тому Вас зацікавила продукція фірми «Clock & Watch», що була
представлена на виставці, яка проходила минулого тижня у Цю-
ріху.
Ви б хотіли придбати партію настінних годинників для облад-
нання офісів. Вас цікавлять знижки, а також можливість поста-
чання виробів рівними партіями до жовтня поточного року.

Exercise VII. Why is the following letter unsatisfactory?

Dear Sir!
We recently saw an advertisement of yours for gardening tools.
Please send us a quatation immediately
Yours sincerely.

Exercise VIII. Roleplay.

Card I. Ви надіслали запит компанії «Super Furniture Ltd.» У

якому Ви розраховуєте отримати знижки. Зателефонуйте до цієї
компанії та з’ясуйте питання пов’язані зі знижками, а також об-
говоріть умови оплати.
Card II. Ви працюєте в компанії «Super Furniture Ltd.» мене-
джером з продажу і готові надати 10 % знижку з прейскурантної
ціни. Що стосується умов оплати, то Вас влаштовує 50 % акреди-
тивом і 50 % на інкасо.

UNIT III
REPLIES, QUATATIONS AND OFFERS

Replies are easier to write than requests, because contact with your
audience has already been established. The letter you are answering
should give you important clues about the person or company you are
writing to. Study it carefully before you plan your letter. Try to estab-
lish the age, occupational statues, and educational level of the writer.
The paper, the quality of the typing or handwriting, the spelling and
sentence structure, as well as the message of the letter will provide
39
clues. Next, identify what the writer wants and what questions, if any,
you will have to answer.
Open your letter mentioning your prospective customer’s name.
Thank the writer for his or her enquiry, mention the date of his or her
letter and any other references that appear.
Remember to use the words «you» and «your» in any introductory
formula. Avoid statements like «We are happy to receive your letter.»
Your reader is not interested in your emotional state.
Example:
Dear Mr. J. Smith,
Thank you for your enquiry of January 30, 20__ in which you
asked about …
If you say «yes» to a request, you should do so enthusiastically.
Since it is the answer that the reader is hoping for, you should say it
immediately. It is irritating to read a long letter to find only at the end
that the firm has the product or can provide the service he or she is
enquiring about.
Example:
Our firm has a wide choice of clothes that will appeal to all ages
and we will have no trouble in supplying them to you.
We would have no problem in turning out the 4,000 units you
asked for in your enquiry.
Sometimes, it is not enough to answer your customer that you have
the goods he or she enquired. The sales conscious businessman, how-
ever will take the opportunity to stimulate his correspondent’s interest
in his goods and services. So mention strong points of your product,
service or idea and tell them what need or needs it could fulfill and
what guarantees you can offer.
Example:
We can assure you that our wristwatches are the most outstanding
items on the market today and our confidence in them is supported by
our one-year guarantee.
At the end of your reply thank the customer for writing to you, if
you have not done it at the beginning. You should also encourage
further enquiries.
Example:
We would like to thank you for writing to us and would welcome
all your questions.
40
 The reply to an enquiry may also include different quotations of
prices, transport and insurance costs, discounts, terms of delivery, etc.
Examples:
a) We can quote you a gross price, including delivery charges of
$25 per 100 items. These goods are exempt from VAT.
b) All our prices for handbags and purses are quoted CIF London.
From today on we offer a discount of 25 % for briefcases.
c) We allow a 3 % discount for payment within one month.

From time to time, you’ll have to write letters in which you refuse
requests from writers who are expecting a good-news reply. To pro-
duce appropriate and effective letters for this situation you should
follow certain steps:
1. Start with a neutral comment that indicates some form of
agreement.
2. Present an explanation in a positive manner
3. Clearly state the refusal
4. End on a positive note
A letter of refusal should end on an upbeat note, leaving the reader
as favourably disposed toward you as possible. After conveying the
refusal, you should try to regain some of the good feelings that were
lost. Even though you have turned down a request, you may be able
to suggest an alternative.
Example:
We thank you for your enquiry dated … but regret to inform you
that at present we are not in a position to make you an offer for the
goods required by you. Nevertheless we will revert to the matter at the
end of the year.

Offers can be sent in reply to an enquiry or without a preceding

one when a supplier wants to draw the attention of customers to a
range of goods or to a special product or service.
Offers made in writing usually state the nature and description of
the goods offered, the quality, the price, the terms of payment and the
time and place of delivery.
Offers can be firm or without engagement.
A firm offer is made by the seller to one potential buyer only and
usually indicates the time during which it will remain open for accep-
tance. If the buyer accepts the offer in full within the stipulated time,
the goods are considered to have been sold to him at the price and on
the terms stated in the offer.
41
 It should be noted that there are great differences in the legislation
of different countries. According to English and American law for ex-
ample, a person making a firm offer has the right to revoke it at any
time before it has been accepted.
According to Ukrainian law, a person making an offer is bound by
it until expiration of the time stated in the offer, or when the time is
not stipulated, the acceptance must be made within a reasonable time.
An offer without engagement does not bind the seller and therefore
may be made to several potential buyers.
If the buyer accepts such an offer, the goods are considered to have
been sold to him only when the seller, after receipt of the buyer’s ac-
ceptance, confirms having sold him the goods at the price and on the
terms indicated in the offer.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. Why are replies easier to write than requests?
2. Where can you find clues about the person or company you are
writing to?
3. What kind of information should you pay your attention to when
preparing to write a reply?
4. What is the usual opening in this kind of letters?
5. What words should you use and what statements should you
avoid in your reply? Why?
6. Why is it necessary to say «yes» in the beginning of the letter?
7. What opportunity will the sales conscious businessmen take an-
swering an enquiry?
8. What may your reply also include?
9. If you write a letter in which you refuse requests from writers,
what steps should you follow?
10. Why should you end this kind of letter on a positive note?
11. When do companies make offers?
12. What do offers usually state?
13. What kinds of offer do you know? Define them.
14. Is there any difference in legislation of different countries?
15. What is an offer according to Ukrainian law?

Exercise II. Remember the following useful expressions:

1. We are pleased to have your enquiry …
2. Many thanks for your enquiry …
42
 3. It was a pleasure to hear from you …
4. In your letter of October 10 you enquire …
5. We thank you for your letter of yesterday …
6. As requested by you on the telephone today, we are sending …
7. In reply to your enquiry of this morning …
8. Replying to your request of July 1 …
9. … we are glad to inform you that …
10. … we are happy to advise you that …
11. … we have pleasure in confirming …
12. … we have in stock the items you need …
13. … we can offer you immediately, exstock …
14. We are pleased to receive your enquiry, and to advise you that
we hold good stock of all our products
15. In reply to your enquiry of August 8 we are sending you here-
with …
16. … the brochure (catalogue) requested …
17. … full details of your offer (particulars of our special lines; de-
tails of our export models) …
18. We are obliged to you for your enquiry of July 22nd, and …
19. Referring to your enquiry of July 15th, we …
20. We thank you for you enquiry dated … but regret to inform you
that …
21. We regret very much that …
22. We are sorry that …
23. … we find it impossible to put forward a quotation for delivery
this year
24. … we are unable to accept new orders for delivery within the
time specified by you
25. We should prefer not to put forward an offer for …
26. We will revert to the matter …
27. We offer you …
28. We are prepared to offer …
29. We can offer you without obligation on our part …
30. This offer is subject to prior sale
31. This offer is subject to the goods being unsold upon receipt of
your reply
32. Kindly remember, this offer expires on September 30th.
33. Prices are subject to variations without notice, in accordance
with market fluctuations.

Exercise III. Compile letters making use of the expressions in exer-

cise II
43
 Exercise IV. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian
1)

Mrs L. Lowe
Sandersh Lowe Ltd
Planter House
Princes Street
London EC17 DC

Dear Mrs Lowe,

Many thanks for your kind enquiry of 20th October concerning two sets
of Machinery for Coagulating, Extracting and Drying Syntetic Rubber according
to the specification enclosed with the enquiry. The matter is receiving our careful
attention and we hope to send you our quotation at an early date.

Yours sincerely,

2)

Dear Sirs,
Thank you for your enquiry of April 18 concerning elastic wire. We are glad
to say that we can supply any quantity of wire from stock to the exact
specification of your sample. You may be sure of immediate attention to your
order, which we look forward to receiving.

Yours faithfully,

3)

Dear Sirs,
We thank you for your enquiry of January 30 for our MEN’S SUITINGS and
enclose our detailed quotation.
A very full range of the patterns has been sent to you by post today, and you
will see that in view of the fine quality and attractive design, our materials are
really of good guality. We can assure you that these suitings are very popular in
various markets.
We can offer you any of these patterns firm for fourteen days, but cannot
promise anything definite beyond that period in view of the heavy demand for this
type of material.
In case of an order for more than 500 pieces we would allow a special
discount of 7,5% for settlement within seven days from date of invoice.
We are at your service at all times.

Yours faithfully,

44
 4)
Dear Sirs,
We are pleased to make you an offer regarding our dresses and trouser suits in
the sizes you require. Nearly all the models you saw at our fashion show are
obtainable, except trouser suits in pink, of which the smaller sizes have been sold
out. This line is being manufactured continuously, but will only be available
again in February, so could be delivered to you in March.
All other models can be supplied by the middle of January 20__, subject to
our receiving your firm order by the 15th November. Our c.i.f. prices are
understood to be for see/land transport to Chicago. If you would prefer the goods
to be sent by air freight, this will be charged at extra cost.
Trouser suits sizes 8—16 in white, yellow, red, turquoise, navy blue, black
Sizes 12—14 also in pink
Prices: as per Price-list enclosed herewith valid until 31st December, 20__
Delivery: c.i.f. Chicago
Transport: sea freight
Payment: by irrevocable letter of credit, or cheque with order.
You will be receiving cuttings of our materials and a colour chart. These were
airmailed to you this morning. We hope you agree that our prices are very competitive
for these good quality clothes, and look forward to receiving your initial order.
Yours faithfully,

5)

London,
28th November 20__
United Textiles Inc.
55 Board Street
New York 15, NY
USA
Dear Sirs,
We thank you for your enquiry dated November 25th for textiles of our manufacture.
We offer you printed cotton cloth equal to any sample you might select. Besides,
should you desire, you can buy different kinds of woolen textiles, produced at our
factory in Manchester.
As for prices as well as terms and conditions you will find them stated herein
QANTITY: up to 20,000 m of any fabric.
QUALITY: equal to sample, in full accordance with government safety standards.
PRICES: as per Price-List No. 3a enclosed herewith
DISCOUNTS: if the quantity is over 20, 000 m, the price is subject to 5 per cent
discount. Further discounts are granted subject to special agreement.
TERMS OF PAYMENT: 5 per cent in advance; 60 per cent by a Letter of Credit;
the balance of 35 per cent by drafts.
TERMS OF DELIVERY: within 4 weeks of the acceptance.
All other terms and conditions are stated in the enclosed copy of the General
Conditions which form an integral part of our sales contract. This offer is subject
to the goods being unsold upon receipt of your reply.

45
 We hope to hear from you soon. Please, acknowledge receipt.
Yours faithfily,
John Wright
Sales Manager

6)

Finaly & Muray Ltd.

4 Finsbury Square
London, EC2
England

Dear Sirs,
As a result of the favourable supply situation we are able to offer you firm for
immediate delivery our chemical products as per specification enclosed.

Prices are subject to variation without notice, in accordance with market

fluctuations. If you buy over 5, 000 packs, we can offer you a discount of 5 per
cent off list prices.

Please let us have your order by 31st January, as the price concession will not
apply after that date. Our terms of payment are against invoice.
We look forward with pleasure to serving you.

Faithfully yours,
Peter Gordon

7)

Dear Sirs,
We thank you for your enquiry for High Precision Machinery of 10th July.
To our regret this equipment is not available for sale at present as it is undergoing
final service tests. We hope that the results of the tests will have been summarized
by the end of the year. We shall not fail to revert to your enquiry as soon as the
test Certificate is issued.
Yours faithfully,

Exercise V. Give the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian phrases:

Відповідь; комерційна пропозиція; встановлювати вік, рід дія-

льності та рівень освіти; майбутній покупець (клієнт); мати ши-
рокий вибір; випускати; одиниця товару; скористатися нагодою;
надавати гарантії; назначати ціну; пропонувати знижку; умови
46
постачання; страхові витрати; звільнений від ПДВ; надавати 3 %
знижку; надавати пояснення у позитивній манері; спокійна (не
ударна) нота; відхилити прохання; опис товару, що пропонуєть-
ся; умови платежу; тверда комерційна пропозиція; пропозиція без
зобов’язань; акцептувати (приймати) пропозицію, обумовлений
час; відзивати пропозицію; закінчення терміну; зобов’язувати
продавця; мати у наявності (про товари);

Exercise VI. Translate the following sentences paying attention to

different meanings of «subject to»
Pattern 1. This offer is subject to prior sale
Комерційна пропозиція дійсна, якщо товар не буде продано до
отримання Вашої відповіді.
2. This offer is subject to contract terms
Комерційна пропозиція дійсна тільки за умови досягнення
домовленості про умови контракту
3. The contract is subject to Ukrainian law
Контракт регулюється законодавством України
4. Prices are subject to variation without notice.
Ціни можуть бути змінені без попереднього повідомлення
1. The orders received before 2nd September are subject to dis-
count. 2. We offer you , subject to your immediate acceptance, 20.000
tons. 3. These prices are subject to 6 per cent discount. 4. We accept
your prices subject to our General Conditions. 5. The offer is subject
to new sanitary norms and requirements. 6. This offer is made subject
to the goods being unsold upon receipt of your reply. 7. We accept
your offer in full subject to trade discount. 8. All orders over USD500
received before 1st August are subject to the discount in question.
Exercise VII. Write a reply to your enquiry for office furniture (see
exercise IV, unit II) quoting price, terms of payment and delivery date
and enclosing samples
Exercise VIII. Translate the following letters into English.
Лист 1. Шановний пане Джерард!
Ми дуже вдячні Вам за запит від 30 січня стосовно тканин,
які виробляються нашою компанією.
Ми надсилаємо наш останній каталог разом зі зразками тка-
нин і прейскурантом цін. Можемо запевнити Вас, що тканини ви-
сокої якості і користуються постійним попитом на різних ринках.
За умови розміщення значних замовлень, ми можемо запро-
понувати 5 %-ву знижку, яка дійсна до 10 червня.
47
 Сподіваємося отримати Вашу відповідь разом із замовленням,
яке буде своєчасно і ретельно нами виконано.
З повагою
__________________

Лист 2. Шановні панове!

Ми пропонуємо Вам без зобов’язань з нашого боку 340 тис. т
марганцевої руди (manganese ore) на умовах сіf Манчестер.
Руда містить мінімум 85% MnO2 у сухому стані (in the dry).
Ціна становить 70 дол. США за т.
Платіж здійснюється проти документів про відвантаження в
Лондоні.
Загальні умови вказані у формі контракту (contract form), що
додається.
Із зацікавленістю чекаємо на Вашу відповідь.
З повагою
__________________

Лист 3. Шановні панове!

Ми раді запропонувати Вам наш новий двигун «Модель А4» у
відповідності до специфікації, що додається (as per specification
enclosed).
Кінцева ціна двигуна — 6509 дол. США на умовах fob Глазго.
Вартість установки двигуна для морського перевезення в 5 ящи-
ках складає 60 дол.
Платіж здійснюється тратами (by draft) протягом 90 днів від
дати коносаменту. Двигун буде відвантажено у жовтні за умови,
що ви розмістите у нас замовлення не пізніше 23 січня.
Сподіваємося на Вашу відповідь із замовленням на двигун,
яке буде нами ретельно виконано.
З повагою
__________________

Лист 4. Шановний пане Дж. Браун!

Дякуємо за Ваш запит від 14 жовтня стосовно сільськогоспо-
дарського обладнання.
На жаль, наша організація не експортує таку продукцію і ми
дозволили собі передати Ваше замовлення компанії «Украгро-
48
екпорт» — єдиному в країні експортеру такого обладнання.
Представники фірми звернуться безпосередньо до Вас найближ-
чим часом.
З повагою
__________________

Exercise IX. Write a letter from the following notes.

1. Taylor & Co, London EC4 thanks Guazelli Company, Sao Paolo
(10th August 20__ ) for enquiry of 1st August 20__. In accordance
with the request from Guazelli Company, they enclose their latest
price list and samples. Their terms of payment are: cash against in-
voice, should further orders follow, they are willing to allow Guazelli
Company a three-month credit. They look forward to a trial order.
2. F. Lynch & Co Ltd, Newell Street, Birmingham B3 3EL, United
Kingdom (21st February 20__ ) thanks Satex S.p.A., Via di Pietra
Papa,00146 Roma for enquiry of 20th January. But they are sorry to
inform them that they are not in the position to supply manganese ore
containing minimum 85 % MnO2. The reason for the refusal is that
they are overloaded with orders from their regular customers and they
fail to keep pace with the demand. F. Lunch & Co Ltd promise that
they will revert to the enquiry as soon as the situation improves.

Exercise X. Roleplay
Card I. You are a representative of Ukrainian company at the In-
ternational Exhibition in London. You meet with representatives of
«Andrews and Co Ltd» to discuss the possibility of metal pipes ex-
port. Answer their question, tell them about your terms and condition.
Card 2. You have come to know that Ukrainian company export-
ing metal pipes has its stand at the International Exhibition. You are
interested in terms and prices for metal pipes, available quantities and
term of delivery. Find out if they are able to supply _______ of metal
pipes by the end of September.

UNIT IV
ORDERS, ORDER ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

An order resembles a routine request and can be sent in reply to an

offer or quotation. In some cases companies order something from an
advertisement, a price-list or a catalogue.
49
 From the viewpoint of letter-writing, placing an order is simple.
Very often the purchasing department of the company or the buyer
fills in an order form which has a date and a reference number. (Fig-
ure 1)
ORDER №732/AS
Matthew and Wilson
Ladies’ clothing
421Michigan Avenue
Chicago, III. 60602
Messers Grant & Clarkson
148 Mortimer Street
London WIC 37D
England
October 21, 20__
Quantity Item description Cat. № Price c.i.f. London
50 V Neck: 30 Red/20Blue R342 13.80 each
30 Roll Neck : 15 Black/15 Blue N154 9.40 each
30 Crew Neck: 15 Green/15Biege N 164 16.00 each
40 Crew Neck: Pattern R 561 12.60 each
Note: Subject to 5% discount
Comments: 15% Trade disc. Pymt D/P Det. 6 weeks

Figure 1. Sample official order form.

Although they may choose to write a letter to make certain points

quite clear.
Here are the steps:
1. Identify the purpose in the first sentence.
Examples:
a) I would like to order a copy of Microwave Mania by Arlene
Mckean.
b) Please send me the following items from your spring catalogue.
If you are ordering something from an advertisement, it is helpful
if you mention the name and the date of the magazine or newspaper in
the first sentence.
Example:
I would like to order ten X-365 Workbenches advertised in the
October issue of the «Modern Furniture»
2. Add information to identify exactly what you are ordering.
Study the catalogue, advertisement, etc. to find all the identifying in-
formation — for example, page number, catalogue or item number,
50
the name of product exactly as it is written. Identify any choices you
have to make: size, colour, and so on.
3. Organize the details for easy reading. Look at a catalogue other
form for an example of how to organize information in a clear, easy-
to-read format. A table format is a good choice, especially if you are
ordering several items. If you are asking your reader to make a deci-
sion, for example, «If the Tripmaster hiking boots are not available in
half sizes, please send size 9, along with the Tripmaster innersole,
catalogue 19 54806, size 9,» make it stand out very clearly from the
text. Order fillers are expected to work quickly, so you want important
information to be noticed rather than skimmed over.
4. Close with payment and delivery details. Confirm the terms of
payment. State in your letter if a cheque or money order is enclosed. If
you are paying by credit card or an account, remember to include the
account number and the expiry date and type of card (if applicable).
Sign the letter with your signature as it appears on your card. You
may also request payment on delivery (p.o.d) if the catalogue or ad-
vertisement indicates that this is an option.
Here are some examples.
We have enclosed a cheque for $855.35. $ 799.95 plus tax and
shipping charges.
Charge these goods to our account on the regular 1/10, net/30 terms.
We would like to confirm that payment is to be made by irrevoca-
ble letter of credit which we have applied to the bank for…
You should also confirm the agreed discounts and the delivery dates.
For example.
We will certainly take advantage of the cash discounts you offered
for prompt settlement.
We would like to thank you for the 25 % trade discount you allowed us.
Delivery before April is a firm condition of this order.
Please confirm that you can deliver the goods before the beginning of
September.
It is also essential that you should advise the firm as to how you
want the goods packed and sent to ensure prompt and safe delivery, so
that if the consignment does arrive late, or in a damaged state, your
letter is evidence of the instructions you gave.
For example.
Please send the goods by air as we need them urgently.
We advise delivery by scheduled freighter to avoid any unneces-
sary delays.
51
 The goods should be wrapped individually in thick paper which is
reinforced at both ends.

At the end you can also encourage further cooperation.

For example.
a) We hope that this will be the first of many orders we will be
placing with you.
b) If the goods sell well, we shall send further orders.
c) We look forward to receiving your shipment (acknowledge-
ment) confirmation.
Acknowledging Orders. Many businesses live or die according to
the volume of orders received. The link between order acknowledge-
ments and business success is less clear. For that reason business peo-
ple have a tendency to play down the importance of letters of ac-
knowledgement. Many people look upon acknowledging orders as
nothing but a routine and time-consuming chore. Some organizations
send only preprinted postcards in acknowledgement. Other sellers,
reasoning that the promptly shipped order will soon be delivered to
the buyer, send no acknowledgement. While the postcard is preferable
to no acknowledgement at all, a letter is desirable and more personal.
Correspondents should recognize that while orders are routine for the
seller, they may not be so routine for the buyer. Future business with the
buyer often depends on the way the seller handles the present order.
Order Acknowledgement Guide.
• Tell the buyer that the order was received and is being filled ac-
cording to directions.
• Identify the order clearly enough to prevent the reader from con-
fusing it with another order.
• Give the buyer the details of shipment — how it is being shipped
and when the buyer should receive it.
• State the financial arrangement if it was not made clear prior to
shipment
• Express appreciation for the order
• Encourage more orders in the future.
No mater how small the order being acknowledged is, its potential
may be considerable. If served well, today’s new customer may be
tomorrow’s major purchaser. Customers — whether old and valued or
brand new — are receptive to a statement of appreciation and to an
assurance that the order will be sent promptly. Consider the impres-
sion likely to be made by each of the following approaches.
52
 • A letter of acknowledgement
• A preprinted fill-in postcard
• A completely preprinted postcard
A letter of acknowledgement gets down to business immediately
by referring to the item ordered and to its shipment. It also seeks fu-
ture orders and remains personal (see Figure 2).
A postcard though impersonal is more specific than a completely pre-
printed one. The seller can insert the name of the buyer in the space pro-
vided on the postcard. He can also insert the name and model number of
the ordered item, the method of shipping, and the expected arrival date.
This postcard thus provides some specific information, although it is not as
informative as an individualized letter of acknowledgement.(see Figure 3)

Harris Hardware Supply

2495 Industrial Parkway
Edmonton, Alberta T5B 2C8
April 30, 20__
Ms. Irene Klar
Box 935
Cold Lake AB
TOA 1VO
Dear Ms. Klar,
Subject: Your order for X-365 Workbenches
Your order for 20 X-365 workbenches is being processed and will be shipped
within 48 hours.
Since you included a cheque for the full purchase price and shipping charges,
we are pleased to give you a $100 credit on your next purchase.
We hope that you will be pleased with the workbenches, just as thousands of other
customers have been. We believe that you will find that they truly resist all types of
scratches, dents, and burns. This feature, plus the stability ensured by the four sturdy legs
which support the table, means that you will be able to enjoy them for many years to come.
And when you decide to order tools, remember that Harris Hardware Supply
carriers a full line of manual and power tools. These tools, like the workbench, are
designed to provide good service and take hard use.
Use the enclosed order blank and postage-paid envelope for placing your next
order. We look forward to serving you again.
Sincerely,
Maynard Harris
Sales Manager
MH:rm
Encl:2

Figure 2. Letter Acknowledging an Order

53
 Dear___
Thank you for ordering __________________ from Harris Harward Supply. Your
order will be shipped within _____days by __________. You should receive it no
later than __________.
Please let us serve you again soon.

Maynard Harris
Harris Hardware Supply

Figure 3. A Preprinted Fill-in Postcard

The completely preprinted postcard (see Figure 4) informs the
buyer that the order has been received. If the buyer happens to have
placed several orders with the company recently, this postcard will not
clarify which order is being filling. Although such a postcard is com-
pletely impersonal, it does tell the buyer the order is being processed.

Dear Customer:
Thank you for your recent order. We at Harris Hardware Supply are pleased to
count you as a customer.
We are filling your order now so that you will receive it promptly.
Harris Hardware Supply

Figure 4. A Completely Preprinted Postcard

Any one of the three kinds of acknowledgement is better than none.
Even when an order is filled promptly, unless an acknowledgement is
made, the customer is left dangling until the shipment actually arrives.
The benefits of a personal letter of acknowledgement must be
weighed against its cost. Such letters are expensive, but they can be
justified if an opportunity for significant further business exists.
In many cases a form letter will suffice, but it is unwise to rely
solely on forms to acknowledge orders. An organization will be most
effective in acknowledging orders through a rational use of a combina-
tion of completely preprinted forms, fill-in forms, and personal letters.
Acknowledging Delayed Orders. Certain merchandise occasionally
may be out of stock. In acknowledging the order, the seller must in-
form the buyer that the merchandise will be available soon.
Many organizations that receive a tremendous volume of orders do
not acknowledge orders unless shipment is delayed. Major retailers
fill most orders almost immediately — the goods arrive as quickly as
any acknowledgement would.
54
 When a delay does occur, a form such as the one in Figure 5 ac-
knowledges the delay. The customer’s address is written on the front
of the postcard, along with the information necessary for the customer
to identify the order. Without this information those customers who
have placed several orders do not know which order was delayed.
Thank you ____
___ for your order ___. We are temporarily out of stock of the goods you ordered
and expect to make shipment on or before the date indicated on the front of this
card.
Should you write about this order, please return this card with your letter.

Figure 5. A Postcard Informing Customer of Shipping Delay.

If prices or delivery times have changed, the customer must be no-
tified. If the goods ordered are no longer available, you must also in-
form the customer of it and offer a substitute. Do not, however, offer
any substitute that is not clearly appropriate. It is better to lose one
sale and retain the good will of a customer than to provide a substitute
with which the customer will ultimately be displeased.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. Is it difficult to write an order? What kind of writing does it re-
semble?
2. In what cases is it necessary to write a letter placing an order
and not just fill in an order form?
3. What are the main steps of writing this kind of letter?
4. What should you mention if you order something from an ad-
vertisement, price-list, or catalogue?
5. How should you organize the details for easy reading?
6. What information should be confirmed in your letter?
7. Is it important to write a letter acknowledging an order?
8. What types of order acknowledgment do you know?
9. What information should be presented in an order acknow-
ledgement?
10. What are the benefits and disadvantages of different kinds of
acknowledgement?
11. What should you do if certain merchandise is out of stock?
12. If the goods ordered are no longer available, should you inform
your customer of it and offer any kind of substitute?
55
 Exercise II. Remember the following useful expressions.

a) Placing orders
1. We enclose our official Order № …
2. Our Indent № 26 is enclosed …
3. We have pleasure in sending you an order for …
4. With reference to your quotation, we enclose our order for im-
mediate delivery.
5. Please send us the undermentioned goods.
6. We can accept your offer on the terms quoted and are pleased to
place an order for…
7. Thank you for letting us have samples of … We should be glad
if you would send us …
8. Will you please arrange early shipment of …
9. As the goods are urgently required, we should be grateful for
delivery by …
10. Please confirm that you can supply this quantity by the required
date.
11. If any items are out of stock, please submit a quotation for a
substitute.
12. If pattern № 65A is not available please send 63 or 67B instead.
13. As we are out of this line, please send the nearest you have in
stock to the enclosed sample.
14. We have it to your discretion to supply a suitable substitute,
should you not have what we want, but the price must not exceed 35 /-
per cwt/ provided the price is not more than 10% higher.
15. The quality (weight, colour) must be up to sample …
16. First-class material and workmanship are essential.
17. Only vegetables packed so as to be in fresh condition on arrival
can be accepted…
18. We enclose a trial order. If the quality is up to our expectations,
we shall send further orders subject to this guarantee.

b) AcknowledgingOrders
1. Your order is already being processed / filled / carried out / exe-
cuted, and delivery will be made in accordance with your instructions
2. We confirm that delivery will be made by March 15th, as re-
quested.
3. Delivery will be made immediately on receipt of your cheque /
remittance/ letter of credit, etc.
4. We trust that this initial order will lead to further dealings be-
tween our two companies.
56
 c) Refusing Orders
1. We regret to inform you that the goods ordered are out of stock /
temporarily out of stock / no longer available.
2. We can offer you a substitute, which is the same price and of
similar quality to the goods ordered.
3. We are at present supplying only to wholesalers, and therefore
refer you to Messrs …, who would be pleased to supply your needs.
4. We are obliged to you for your order, which we have passed to
our agents _____for attention.

Exercise III. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian.

1)
Smith & Co., Ltd.,
18 High Street,
Glasgow, Great Britain
Dear Sirs,
Order No. …Trans No. ,,,
Please supply and deliver the goods described below on the terms and conditions
specified herein and on the reverse side of this order as well as those enclosed
herewith.

TYPE OF EQUIPMENT:
TOTAL AMOUNT OF ORDER:
DELIVERY:
DELIVERY TIME:
TERMS OF PAYMENT:
CONSIGNEE: Postal address-Destination...
MARKING: In English... In Ukrainian
Quantities, description, prices and technical conditions — see following pages.
This order contains ... pages.

PRICE PER
ITEM QUANTITY DESCRIPTION AMOUNT
UNIT

Brown & Sons, Ltd.

____________________________________ President
___________________ Manager of Sales Department
Encl:

57
 2)
Dear Sirs,
We have received both your quotation of 1st February and the samples of
MEN’S SUITINGS, and thank you for these.
While appreciating the good quality of your suitings we find the prices of
these materials rather high for the market we wish to supply. We have also to
point out that very good suitings are now available in Eastern countries from
several manufacturers, and all of these are at prices from 10 % to 15 % below
yours.
We should like to place our order with you, but must ask you to consider
whether you can make a more favourable offer.As our order would be worth
around... you may think it worthwhile to make a concession.
Yours faithfully,

3)
Dear Sirs,
Many thanks for your prompt reply of 20th April to our enquiry for Bell-
Wire. We enclose our official order for 15,000 meters, which we understand you
can supply from stock.
As indicated in our first enquiry, the quality must be up to the sample we sent
you, and colour of the insulation identical to that of sample. Our order is placed
on this condition.
Yours faithfully,

4)
London, April 23, 20__
Manchester Textiles Ltd.
2345 Willow Street
Manchester
Dear Sirs
We have pleasure in ordering the following articles from your winter
catalogue:
Item 3a Item 6b Item 5 Item 9c
First-class material and workmanship are essential. The quality is to be equal to
sample.
We leave it to your discretion to supply a suitable substitute, should you not have
what we require, but the price should not exceed $1.75 per piece
Please note that delivery is required by April 5 without fail. Your early attention
to this order will be appreciated.
Faithfully yours
Andrew Hughes

58
 5)
Dear Sirs,
Thank you for your letter of January 12, which you sent us with the details, of
your PLASTIC WARE.
We have now seen samples of these goods and are prepared to give them a
trial, provided you can guarantee delivery on or before March 1. The enclosed
order is given strictly on this condition, and we reserve the right of cancellation
and refusal of delivery after this date.
Yours faithfully,

6)
Dear Sirs,
Thank you very much for your order of March 2 for tea.
The item is in stock, and we can guarantee delivery to your warehouse well
before March 15th. As requested, we will advise you of date of despatch.
We are at your service at all times.
Yours faithfully,

7)
Dear Sirs,
We are very sorry indeed to have to advise you of a delay in executing your
order No... of...
As you may know, the Government has recently put an embargo on the free
export of certain metals and we have to obtain a special licence to proceed with
your order. We think the delay will not be more than 2-3 weeks, and we shall give
your order priority as soon as we receive the permission to go ahead. Meanwhile,
please accept our apologies for the inconvenience caused.
Yours faithfully,
8)
Dear Sirs,
It is with pleasure that we advise you of the despatch of your order. 24, 25 H.P. Electric
Motors which has been shipped by s.s. «SEA FOAM», due at your port on July 5.
The motors are to your exact specifications, and are securely packed in strong
wooden containers, which should stand up to the roughest transport conditions.
We are sure they will reach you in good order.
Each motor has been thoroughly tested and now carries our full guarantee.
Our technical representatives in your country will be pleased to advise you on any
point of fitting or maintenance; they also hold an adequate stock of spare parts.
We thank you for the renewed expression of confidence in us which this order
shows, and you may be sure that the goods now on the way to you are of the same
high standard of workmanship. We enclose with this letter details of other electrical
machines and components, all of which we think you may need at some time.
You may rely on us always to give you prompt attention.
Yours faithfully,

59
 9)
Dear Sir,
I thank you very much for your order of September 18, but I regret I am not
able to supply the half-hose to your pattern. These are last year’s stock, and are no
longer obtainable. I enclose however a similar article, which I can supply at the
price you quote. I shall be obliged by your instructions about these, and
meanwhile am dispatching the rest of your order to-day, and trust the goods will
reach you in good order, and give you every satisfaction.
Again thanking you, and assuring you always of my best attention.
Yours faithfully,

Exercise IV. Translate the following letters into English.

Лист 1. Шановні панове!
Ми із зацікавленістю вивчили переглянутий (revised) поточ-
ний прейскурант на офісні шафи вашого виробництва.
Якщо ваші умови будуть для нас прийнятні, ми б бажали роз-
містити наше пробне замовлення на 4 найменування, які перера-
ховані в нашій пропозиції, по 6 одиниць кожного.
Ми зберігаємо за собою право відізвати (to withdraw) наше за-
мовлення, якщо товари не будуть доставлені до 2 лютого. Ми
сподіваємося, що Ви обов’язково доставите нам товари в обумо-
влений термін.

З повагою Дж. Сміт

22 січня 20__ р.

Лист 2. Шановний пане Андерсенд!

Ми підтверджуємо отримання Вашого замовлення від 4 бере-
зня цього року на інвентар з доставкою в березні-квітні двома
партіями. У нас на складі є всі найменування, вказані у списку в
додатку 1.
Ми хочемо нагадати про те, що протягом двох місяців Ви по-
винні одержати відповідну імпортну ліцензію. При цьому всі ви-
трати за Ваш рахунок.
Просимо підтвердити отримання. З нетерпінням очікуємо на
Вашу відповідь.
З повагою A. Браун
12.03.20__ р.
60
 Exercise V. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Замовлення; розмістити замовлення; заповнювати бланк замо-
влення; пояснювати деякі питання; згадувати назву і дату журна-
лу; формат, який легко читати; формат у вигляді таблиці; швидко
(неуважно) прочитувати; витрати за перевезення; записувати на
чийсь рахунок; безвідзивний акредитив; забезпечувати швидке та
надійне постачання; вантаж (партія товарів); підтвердження; по-
відомлення про отримання замовлення; поденна робота, що заби-
рає багато часу; поштова листівка з попередньо надрукованим
текстом; вдячність за замовлення; бути достатнім; бути розпро-
даним; затримувати замовлення; пропонувати заміну; бути повні-
стю незадоволеним; зворотна сторона; якість виготовлення; за-
лишати щось на чийсь розгляд.

Exercise VI.
1) Compile an order from Matthews & Wilson Ladies’ Clothing to
Grant & Clarkson specifying the colours and sizes of the suits, terms
of delivery, terms of payment and transport. (Trouser suits sizes 8—
16 in white, yellow, red, turquoise, navy blue, black;) sizes 12—14
also in pink; prices: $2,650 per 100 units — valid until 31st December,
20__; delivery: c.i.f. Chicago; transport: sea freight; payment: by ir-
revocable letter of credit, or cheque with order)
2) Compile a confirmation by Grant & Clarkson.
3) Compile a delayed order by Grant & Clarkson

Exercise VII. Make up a letter according to the situation

Ви вдячні Intertextile за переглянутий прейскурант. Ви повід-
омляєте, що Вас відвідав представник Intertextile у Берліні, і Ви
обговорили всі деталі угоди. Pазом з листом Ви надсилаєте бланк
офіційного замовлення. Зазначте, що всі умови надруковані на
зворотній стороні замовлення.

Exercise VIІІ. Roleplay

Card I. You represent the company Intertextile and visit your po-
tential client in Berlin where you discuss the possibility of placing an
order with Intertextile. You have brought your recent price-list.
Card II. Your company wants to place an order for Textiles of In-
tertextile manufacture equal to the samples presented in their recent
catalogue. You are interested in their current prices, terms of delivery
and terms of payment.
61
UNIT V
SALES LETTERS

Each year millions of sales letters are mailed to consumers, many

of who routinely discard them and refer to them as «junk mail». That
which is «junk mail» to many consumers is called direct mail adver-
tising by advertisers and is big business. Almost as much is spent an-
nually on direct mail advertising as is spent on television advertising.
Experts consider direct mail a more precise advertising medium
than television and newspapers, each of which is ordinary directed at
the general population. Direct mail advertising can be tailored for and
sent to a narrow segment of population. Direct advertising, in the form
of letters to a selected group of readers, is an effective way to promote
sales. Such letters appeal to the potential customer. A strong sales
letters can reinforce your sales message, significantly enhance the im-
age of your company in the mind of your prospect and get your foot in
the door. And since sales results can be easily related to a specific
letter, direct mail advertising can be scientifically tested, with various
versions of a letter compared for effectiveness.
Writing good sales letters is an art. For some people it is a full-
time occupation — and a well - paying one. Since such letters are
mailed out in tremendous quantities, a response rate of 1 to 2 percent
is considered good.
While you may never become a part of the direct mail advertising
business, much of the writing you will do in business will be aimed at
trying to persuade your reader. The obstacles you face will be similar
to those encounted by the direct mail writer. When you try to persuade
someone, you are trying to sell that person on an idea or on a course
of action. By becoming familiar with the strategy of the sales letter,
you can become a more effective persuader.
Sales letters generally fall into two categories, solicited and unso-
licited. The unsolicited sales letter does not have the advantages en-
joyed by the other types of letters. It doesn’t present information
likely to be considered good news by the reader. In fact, the reader
may not even be interested in the message at first. The challenge fac-
ing the sales letter writer in this case is to create a message that, al-
though unsolicited, will stimulate a relatively uninterested reader.
The solicited letter is easier since the reader has expressed interest,
sough information, or made specific inquiry.
Preparation. Before beginning to write a sales letter, you should
learn as much as possible about the idea, service, or product to be of-
62
fered to the reader. You should thoroughly understand all aspects of a
product before trying to sell it.
You should certainly have the following information about the
product:
• exactly what it can do
• the materials from which it is made
• the expertise through which it was developed
• its outstanding features
• ways in which it differs from its competitors
• price
• extent of the maintenance required, and the expertise required to
perform it
• accompanying warranty, if any

Besides becoming very familiar with what is to be offered, you

should analyze those likely to receive the letter. If you are able to ap-
peal to the interests of the reader, the resulting letter will be more ef-
fective. Such factors as income level, occupation, and marital status
may determine the appeals to be used in the letter.
At times you may have to write a sales letter with little specific ad-
vance knowledge about the readers. Then you must look to whatever
you will offer in the letter as an indication of the kind of person most
likely to be reading it. For example, if you are trying to attract cus-
tomers for a lawn-care service, the reader will be geared to homeown-
ers who live in the suburbs.
After you are fully aware of the product or idea and of the potential
customers, you can plan the sales message. You must now determine
how best to link the intended customers with what is being offered. In
the other words, exactly how will the reader benefit from the physical
characteristics and capabilities of the product?

Steps for effective sales letters. While writing a sales letter, you
should follow a certain sequence of steps. Although the terminology
has varied somewhat, persuasive writers have used these same steps
for many years. Whether you are trying to sell something or trying to
convince the reader to pursue a certain course of action, the steps
called the AIDA formula (other names exist) have proven effective:

1. Attract the reader’s ATTENTION.

2. Stimulate the reader’s INTEREST.
3. Develop a DESIRE within the reader.
4. Encourage the reader to take a specific ACTION.
63
 I. Attention.
Remember the three attention factors: the unexpected, the rein-
forcing, and the relevant. The first sentence of an unsolicited sales
letter must grab the reader while leading to the remainder of the letter.
In order to accomplish this, you should identify one of the most sig-
nificant features of the product you are trying to sell. If possible, sug-
gest how the reader stands to benefit from using the product.
Many successful writers attempt to include in the first sentence
that aspect of the product in which most readers are interested. The
manufacturer of an energy-efficient water heater, for example, consid-
ered economy to be the most important characteristic of the product.
For that reason economy was emphasized in this opening:
How would you like to cut your water heating expense by 30 percent?
An auto dealer who felt that the new styling of the product was its
more interesting aspect stressed this newness:
Test drive the all-new C-7 now and you’ll be the first in the neigh-
borhood to own one.
No «right» method of getting the attention of the reader exists.
Only after you get to know both the product and the intended reader
thoroughly you are really ready to select an appropriate method. Some
of the common methods used are:
• Make a thought-provoking statement: «The best thing about our
new line of purses is something you can’t see.»
• Present a startling fact: «Ninety-five out of 100 families would
be bankrupt if they missed just three pay cheques.»
• Offer a bargain. «Imagine, two pairs of shoes for the price of one.»
• Describe something that currently is happening. «Today more
than 500 families enjoy the Press Journal with breakfast.»
• Present a direct challenge. «Try to tear the enclosed piece of
rubberized plastic and you’ll understand why our seat covers won’t
wear out.»
• Tell an interesting anecdote. «Until I was 25 years old I thought
that you had to be rich to afford a new car. The day I visited Bill
Smith’s Auto Market was the day I learned otherwise. That was also
the day I bought my first new car.»
Attention-Getting Guide
• Present what the reader will view as the major benefit of the
product that you seek to sell.
• Relate the product to the reader rather than to the writer («you-
centered»).
64
 • Write an original opening statement.
• Make the first paragraph interesting enough to appeal to the
reader and so short that the reader will have to read subsequent para-
graphs to get the important details.
II. Interest.
Having attracted the reader’s attention, you must now strive for an
«I think I’d like to have that» reaction. In this section, you usually in-
troduce the product and provide the reader with good reasons for
buying it. Some authorities recommend emphasizing the reward to be
derived from the point. Instead of selling the reader on the lawn-
mower, stress the good feelings associated with having an attractive
lawn. In this way the reader goes beyond the product to the pleasure
experienced from its use. In the interest step, therefore, you are both
describing the product and suggesting its value to the reader.
In attempting to stimulate the reader’s interests the writers should
emphasize some central selling point of the product. The writer of the
correspondence-course sales letter did it this way:
You’ve probably read newspaper articles about how job opportu-
nities are declining today. At the same time, however, there are occu-
pations in which opportunities are expanding: The electronics field is
one in which there is a shortage of technicians. Not only is there a
shortage now, but government studies show that during the next ten
years the demand for electronics technicians will increase by 21 per-
cent. That means that for every ten electronics technicians now
working, two more will be needed.
You’re probably wondering who will fill all of these new jobs. The
answer is people just like you who recognize an opportunity when
they see one.
The writer used the availability of jobs as a central selling point.
Depending on the nature of the audience, a different central selling
point might have been selected. Selling knowledge could be an appro-
priate approach with certain readers. Selling the prestige or the chal-
lenge of electronics work are other possible approaches.
If you have successfully stimulated the reader’s interest, that inter-
est may now be changing to a desire for the product.
III. Desire.
In the desire selection, the writer moves the reader from the «like
to have that» category to the «really need that» position. Since the
reader may still be balking at the letter’s basic idea, this selection
must justify the desire for the product.
65
 Persuasive appeals are of two types: emotional and logical. Emo-
tional appeals apply to the fillings of receiver; logical appeals apply to
the receiver’s thinking abilities. By making an appropriate appeal or
appeals, the writer helps readers justify the desire for the product.
One automobile dealer may try to sell a car on the basis of the
complete warranty that accompanies it. This appeal is logical. Another
dealer may try to sell the same product though the idea that the reader
will be the first one on the block to own this distinctive new model.
This appeal is strongly emotional.
The product being sold will usually suggest whether a logical or an
emotional appeal is best. Sometimes a combination of the two types of
appeals is preferable.

IV. Action.
Now the moment of truth has arrived. The writer has pointed out
the most significant features of the product as well as how the reader
will benefit from its use. All that remains is for the reader to take the
desired action. The writer must now tell the reader what action is. If
you want the reader to complete the enclosed form and mail it in, say
so as specifically as possible. Some otherwise good sales letters are
rendered ineffectively by the lack of the clear action closing.
The last paragraph should be brief yet purposeful. It tells the reader
specifically what to do and includes a reminder of how the reader will
benefit.
Although we have emphasized a step-by-step approach to writing
sales letters, the steps are not always separate and distinct. In some sales
letters the Interest and Desire steps may be indistinguishable. You may
not recognize the point at which one step ceases and another begins, but
the sequence of steps is obvious. Following this sequence of steps is
more important than keeping the steps separate. (see Figure 1)

Giant
George R. Hanes
National Credit Marketing manager
Giant Corporation
You are invited to apply for a Giant Credit Card — one of the most useful and
valuable credit cards a student can have.
It’s easier to get a Giant Credit Card than you might think. And there are so
many advantages to having a Giant Credit Card especially right now, while you’re
at school. Among them:
• Your Giant Credit Card is good at 2, 500 Giant stores coast to coast.
Wherever you live, travel or move, you have credit available at a nearby Giant.
66
 • Your Giant Credit Card opens the door to an incredible range of over 200,
000 products and services — and everything Giant sells is backed by our famous
guarantee of «Your Money Back Unless Completely Satisfied.»
• You can take advantage of Giant Special Sales — even though you may be
short of cash. With a Giant Charge Account you can stretch your payments over
many months if you wish.
• You can save time and unnecessary travel by shopping from Giant
catalogues. Just mail or phone in your order and say. «Charge it.»
• There are never any hidden charges. All Giant finance charges are always
fully disclosed. No membership fee, either, unlike some other credit cards.
To apply for your Giant Credit Card, just fill in and mail the enclosed form —
the postage is already paid. Or, if it’s more convenient, bring in your application
to the Credit Department of the Giant store in your area. Giant believes
responsible young adults deserve credit.
Sincerely,
George R. Hanes

Figure 1. A Form Sales Letter for Students

Exercises
Exercise I. Answer the following questions.
1. What do you know about direct mail advertising?
2. Why do you think sales letters are sometimes referred to as
«junk mail»?
3. What do experts think of direct mail?
4. Can writing sales letters be a full-time occupation? Why?
5. Why is writing persuasive letters so important in business?
6. What categories of sales letters do you know?
7. What kind of challenge can the unsolicited sales letter writer
face?
8. What should you learn before beginning to write a sales letter?
9. What four steps should be followed in writing a sales letter?
10. Describe the factors that can be used to get and hold the atten-
tion of a receiver of a sales letter?
11. What is the difference between the interest step and the desire step?
12. Can you give an example of the emotional and logical appeals?
13. What is the purpose of the last step?
14. Are the steps in sales letters always separate and district?

Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-

lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Викидати як непотрібне; непотрібна пошта; пряма реклама;
бажаний результат; велика кількість; переконувати читача; сти-
67
катися з перешкодами; умовляти; лист у відповідь на інший;
знання та досвід; необхідний догляд; гарантія; пов’язувати з;
послідовність кроків; підсилювальний; захоплювати читача;
ствердження, що примушує думати; факт, що сильно дивує;
прямий виклик; привертати увагу; винагорода, яку можна отри-
мати; стимулювати інтерес читача; наявність робочих місць; іг-
норувати основну ідею; підтверджувати бажання; виконувати
бажану дію.

Exercise III. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian.

1)

ASTRO LIEFLONG SIDING LIMITED

2490 Scott Road
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3H 0H3
September 20, 20__
HOW WOULD YOU LIKE TO …
1. make your house more attractive and valuable?
2. reduce your heating and cooling expenses by 35 percent?
3. never again have to paint your house?

Home ownership is an expensive proposition. It takes plenty of time and

money to maintain a house properly. As a home owner, you’re most certainly
aware of your many responsibilities. If you are like most of us, you’re always
looking for ways to make home ownership easier. If you can do this and save
money at the same time, so much the better.
Just imagine your house looking better than ever and your having more time
to enjoy it. How would you like to spend weekends doing what you want to do
rather than painting and fixing the house? Astro Lifelong Siding will help you
take a lot of the work out of home maintenance.
You can always recognize people who own homes sided with Astro Lifelong
Siding because they smile a lot. Who wouldn’t smile when their heating and
cooling bills are cut by 35 percent? Besides, you can retire your paintbrush
because your home will never need painting again.
You will save energy and money at the same time for only $4999. You will
save more than that in maintenance expenses in three to five years and your house
will look better than ever.
Fill out the enclosed postage-paid card and mail it today. I’ll send you a
brochure that will open your eyes. When you realize how Astro Lifelong Siding
will increase the value of your home, you’ll say, «Why didn’t I do this sooner?»
Sincerely,

Edward Robinson
President

68
 2)
Farmers Fruit Products
Taunton, Somerset
England.
November 20__
Dear Sirs,
In the field of the food preserved, English jams and marmalades have been
regarded as the best for a century and a half. Competition has not affected their
quality of attraction. Their reputation is spread by everyone who tastes them.
English fruit farmers supply «Farmers» with the best quality produce from
their orchards and gardens. Careful selection and preserving ensure the quality of
the well-known «Farmers» jams, and marmalades that are supplied to stores all
over the world in 1 lb jars, or 2 lb tins.
Please refer to the enclosed price-list, and let us know your requirements on
the form attached. You may be able to profit from special terms on your initial
order. Delivery can be made shortly after we receive your order. «Farmers» look
forward to hearing from you soon.
Yours faithfully,
Farmers Fruit Products
Enc.
Price-list
Provisional order form

Exercise IV. Write sales letters from the following notes.

1. The Continental sports Company Ltd. announces the opening of
a new factory in Springvale, Scotland to produce skis made of glass
fibre reinforced with plastic
— special polyester provides elasticity and strength;
— originally planned to make ski poles of plastic too;
— in collaboration with the British Light Alloy Company of
Brixton;
— ski poles, manufactured of special light metal conical tube;
— skis and poles being offered at special prices;
— price list enclosed;
— order form enclosed
2. You are a manager and work for the Ultimate watch company,
which is about to introduce its Chronograph, a wristwatch designed
especially for runners. Its main features are: it displays hours, min-
utes, and seconds on a digital face; it is also a stopwatch and displays
elapsed time in minutes, seconds, and hundredths of seconds; it has
fewer moving parts than any other chronograph; it is shock-and water-
resistant; it carries a two-year warranty.
69
 3. You own a sporting goods store in Kyiv and have completed a
mailing list of all of the members of the various bicycle clubs in your
area. Try to sell the readers on continuing to enjoy the benefits of cy-
cling exercise by purchasing a new Exercycle. The Exercycle is
manufactured in Ukraine, weighs only 10 kg. and sells for $110. It is a
stationary bike, 120 cm long and 75 cm high. The handlebar, which in
55 cm long, is easily adjusted, without tools, for persons of any height

Exercise V. Analyze one of the sales letters we receive quite often

and answer the following questions.
• Does it follow the four-step sequence?
• How does the writer try to attract the reader’s attention?
• What is the central selling point of the letter?
• What changes would you suggest for this letter?

Exercise VI. Case study

The Nirvana Alarm Clock
Robert Underwood
Ball State University

You recently began your new job with a local advertising agency, and
you have been given the assignment of writing a persuasive letter to be
used in marketing the Nirvana Alarm Clock. You have been given the
following description of the clock. The Nirvana Alarm Clock:
1. Automatically resets the alarm for the next day
2. Has a sturdy, non-tip base
3. Has a five-decibel buzzer
4. Has a snooze alarm
5. Is available in the following seven colors: red, pink, blue, black,
purple, green and orange
6. Is constructed of durable polystyrene
7. Has a luminous face, and projects correct day and time on the
ceiling
8. Measures 15 cm by 15 cm by 5 cm
9. Costs $21.95, plus $3.00 for shipping and handling
10. Comes with an unconditional two-year guarantee

Thousands of these clocks have been sold nationally, but your target
market will be college-age students. Write a sales letter to be sent to these
students, remember that your letter should be built around a central
theme, and that you might not want to include all the items listed above.
70
UNIT VI
COMPLAINTS, HANDLING COMPLAINTS
Mistakes may occur in day-to-day business, and these give cause for
complaints. These might be a misunderstanding about the goods supplied;
damage may occur during delivery; a manufacturing defect may be dis-
covered, etc. So you can understandably be annoyed, yet this is no reason
to let out frustration and write an angry letter of complaint. If you see com-
plaining as problem-solving, a way of correcting an unsatisfactory situa-
tion, then you will need to use the persuasive strategies that we have al-
ready discussed. You will get better results if you take the trouble to
explain the complaint clearly, and propose ways in which matters can be
put right. After all your company can make mistakes too.
In this situation the best thing is to structure your message follow-
ing the AIDA sequence.
1. Focus attention by identifying yourself and the subject you wish
to discuss. Include the dates, names and other necessary information
that will help your reader know exactly what you are referring to.
Examples.
a) For the past three months, our company has had a standing order
for a «Gourmet Donut Tray» every Friday afternoon
b) We have received a consignment of 6 garden benches from you
yesterday, our order # 2087, which were ordered from your spring
catalogue, Cat. # BC125
2. Do not put your reader on the defensive by stating your problem right
away. Create interest by appealing to the reader’s needs. In such a way you
tell your reader that by solving the problem he or she can re-establish a good
relationship. This approach is much more motivating than threats.
Examples.
a) Up to now we have been very pleased with the service and se-
lection from Donut Garden
b) Several regular customers at your store had recommended your
company as a reliable supplier.
3. The desire section outlines your problem. Be as specific and ef-
fective as possible. Your reader needs facts to make a decision.
Examples.
a) Last Friday’s delivery contained only three varieties instead of
the usual six or eight. In addition, the donuts were not as soft and
fresh-tasting as we have come to expect from donut Garden.
b) On unpacking the boxes we found that six heavy mahogany-
finished garden benches had been sent, instead of the light pine-
finished ones asked for.
71
 4. Tell the reader what action you expect. This is a major distinc-
tion between complaining as therapy and complaining as problem
solving. The action section ties into the interest section by implying
that your audience can restore your original feelings of good will with
the appropriate action. Goodwill provides an incentive for your audi-
ence to take the action you suggest. Even if your suggestion is not ac-
cepted, your reader has an opening position for negotiation.
Examples.
a) We have enclosed the statement for our April billing and would
appreciate a credit for one week’s donuts on our next invoice.
b) We have firm orders for the goods asked for. Would you send
someone with our consignment as soon as possible and at the same
time pick up the wrongly delivered good?
It is particularly necessary to exercise tact in handling complaints.
Disappointed customers cannot be put off with mere apologies — they
are entitled to know how the mistake will be remedied, when they will
receive the goods ordered, what they are to do with the damaged
goods they received, when they will receive a replacement for the de-
fective goods etc. When replying to a letter of complaint, open it by
acknowledging that you have received it, and thank your customer for
informing you. If you cannot handle the complaint immediately, tell
your customer what you are doing straight away. If the complaint is
justified, acknowledge your responsibility and explain what went
wrong. Of course, you must deal with the complaint as soon as possi-
ble and tell your customer that you are doing so. If the complaint is
unjustified, you should be polite in your answer and always try to give
an explanation of the problem. At the end of the letter you should
apologize for the inconvenience your customer experienced and men-
tion that this mistake is an exception and it will not happen again.
Example.
Thank you for your letter of 15 December in which you said that
you had received a wrong delivery to your order (№ 2087).
I have looked into this and it appears that you have ordered from
an out-of-date catalogue. Our current winter catalogue lists the
benches you wanted under FR 125.
I have instructed one of our drivers to deliver the pine-finished
benches tomorrow and pick up the other consignment at the same
time.
There is also a winter catalogue on its way to you in case you have
mislaid the one I originally sent you.
72
Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions.

1. What can give cause for complaints?
2. Why don’t we have to write an angry letter of complaint?
3. What is the best way of correcting an unsatisfactory situation?
4. How should you structure your letter of complaint?
5. What can help your reader know exactly what you are referring to?
6. How can you create interest in your letter of complaint?
7. What is the major distinction between complaining as therapy
and complaining as problem solving?
8. What should you remember while handling complaints?
9. In what way is it necessary to open this kind of letter if: a) you
can handle the complaint immediately; b) you cannot do it straight
away; c) the complaint is justified; d) the complaint is unjustified?
10. What should you write at the end of the letter?
Exercise II. Remember the following useful expressions:
a) Complaints
1. We regret to inform you (We are sorry to have to inform you)
that … delivered … ago under order #… doesn’t conform to the speci-
fication in many respects
2. We are writing to you to complain about the shipment of … we
received against our order # …
3. We are disappointed to find that the quality of the goods you
supplied does not correspond with (to) that (conform to that; comply
with that) of the samples submitted.
4. We are perfectly satisfied with the bulk of the goods (consign-
ment), but we find some items unsatisfactory.
5. We have found a number of defects in workmanship, design and
finish.
6. We have examined the contents of the cases against your en-
closed lists and invoices.
7. When you confirmed the order, you assured us of delivery in
ample time to conduct sales.
8. We do not expect you to meet intangible losses.
9. To prove our statement we are enclosing one of these samples
and a cutting of the material we received yesterday.
10. We are prepared to retain these unsuitable goods, but only at a
substantially reduced price.
11. This delay (every day’s delay) means (causes us) loss and incon-
venience (for us), as we have promised our customers early delivery.
73
 12. You can imagine our distress and the inconvenience and confu-
sion caused by the delay.
13. Please look into the non-delivery of … which we ordered on …
14. This order was placed on condition that we received the goods
by …
15. We shall be compelled to cancel our order if the goods are not
received by …
16. We will appreciate it if you will expedite (speed up, accelerate)
delivery to our premises.
17. The defects are so serious that we cannot eliminate (remedy)
them ourselves.
18. We await your instructions regarding …
19. Please straighten this out at once with your … department.

b) Handling Complaints
1. After investigating your complaint, we have ascertained that an
error was made in our dispatch department.
2. We very much regret having given you cause for complaints.
3. Steps are being taken immediately to ensure that such mistakes
do not occur in future.
4. Please accept our sincere apologies for this delay and the trouble
(inconvenience) it has caused you.
5. Since the delay is beyond our control, we cannot assume any li-
ability (responsibility)
6. Your claim has been passed on to our insurance company, who
will get in touch with you soon.
7. We apologize for the delay and enclose our credit note (rectified
invoice).
8. A replacement for the faulty equipment was dispatched yesterday.
9. If you keep the damaged goods, we are prepared to invoice them
at 50% of the last price.
10. We expect you to make good the tangible losses.

Exercise III. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian phrases.
Рекламація (претензія, скарга); вирішення проблем, пов’язаних
із претензією (скаргою); непорозуміння; ушкодження; пропонува-
ти шляхи розв’язання проблем; тверде замовлення на обумовлену
кількість товару; відновлювати добрі стосунки; мотиваційний під-
хід; надійний постачальник; приєднуватися; відновлювати почут-
тя; бути відкритим для переговорів; виявляти тактовність; виправ-
ляти помилку; отримувати заміну; дефектні товари; визнавати
74
відповідальність; безпідставна претензія; вибачатися за завданий
клопіт; не відповідати наданим зразкам (специфікації); більша час-
тина товарів; дефекти виготовлення, конструкції, обробки; протя-
гом достатнього часу; перевіряти за списком та рахунком-
фактурою; покривати нематеріальні збитки; знижена ціна; затрим-
ка у постачанні товару спричиняє збитки; аналізувати (розглядати)
недопостачання; прискорювати постачання; усувати пошкоджен-
ня; виправляти; з’ясовувати; брати на себе відповідальність; ви-
правлений рахунок-фактура; компенсувати матеріальні збитки.
Exercise IV. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian.
1)
Sales Dept
English Trading Company, Ltd
43 East Road
Exeter
England EX4 9DT
Dear Sirs
Our order № 1275 was received yesterday, and we have now examined the
contents of the cases against your enclosed lists and invoices.
Although we are perfectly satisfied with the bulk of this large consignment, we
find the under-mentioned items unsatisfactory:
Item 15a, Item 23b, Item 36b.
We can sell the shirts at 15 % below the list-price if you agree. The other goods
are really unsaleable, and we await your instructions regarding their disposal.
Yours faithfully
John Bending
Manager

2)
Dear Sirs
Our order No. J733
We have received the documents and taken delivery of the goods which arrived at
Port Elizabeth on the S.S. Castle yesterday.
We are much obliged to you for the prompt execution of this order. Everything
seems to be correct and in good condition except in case No. 14.
Unfortunately, when we opened this case we found it contained completely
different articles from those ordered, and we can only presume that a mistake has
been made and that this case is part of another order.
As we need the articles we ordered to complete deliveries to our customers, we
must ask you to arrange for replacements to be dispatched at once. We attach a
list of the contents of case 14, and would be glad if you would check this against
our order and your copy of the invoice. In the meantime we are holding the case
at your disposal; please let us know what you wish us to do with it.
Yours faithfully

75
 3)

Dear Sirs
We are very sorry to have to inform you that your last delivery does not conform
to your usual standard. The material seems to be too loosely woven and is
inclined to pull out of shape. By separate mail we have sent you a cutting from
this material, also one from cloth of an early consignment, so that you can
compare the two and see the difference in texture.
We have always been able to rely on the high quality of the materials you sent us
and we are all more disappointed in this case because we supplied the cloth to
new customers. As we shall have to take it back we must ask you to let us know,
without delay, what you can do to help us in getting over this difficulty.
Yours faithfully

4)
Sales Dept
Textiles Co
28Hogden Rd
Orlando, Florida35509
USA

Gentlemen:
On May 29, I ordered fifty dozen of your Perfection Model men’s shirts in assorted
sizes. We intended these for a one-day special sale in our series of June sales. In
acknowledging this order you assured us for delivery in ample time to conduct the
sale, which we scheduled for June 23. Relying on your assurance we had leaflet
stuffers and display cards printed and sent out in a large neighborhood mailing.
We did not receive the goods until June 25, two days after the advertised sale.
You can imagine our distress and inconvenience and confusion caused by the
delay. We had to throw almost our entire regular shirt stock on the sales counters,
regardless of costs; we had to hold our help overtime and call in extra help to get
the goods ready and properly displayed.
Now we do not expect you to meet intangible losses such as several nights’ sleep
and lost good will on the part of customers who couldn’t get the sizes they
required. Nor do we insist that it is your fault, the trucking service you use may be
at fault; in which case you can demand satisfaction from them. Up to now we
have had the right goods at the right time on every order we placed with you; so
we are giving you all the benefit of the doubt.
However, we expect you to make good the tangible losses we suffered. We can replace a
good deal of the stock we had to put on sale, from the order as finally received. But other
replacements will represent a considerable loss. Our book-keeping calculations show that
an 18 %discount from your bill will cover our actual loss, and we propose this as the
adjustment, and shall appreciate your sending us a credit for $10,000.
Looking forward to your reply, we remain,
Sincerely yours,
George Wollen
Manager

76
 Exercise V. Translate the following letters into English
Лист 1. Шановні панове!
Ми отримали замовлення № 332 від 22 вересня, але, на жаль,
змушені повідомити, що товар не відповідає специфікації з бага-
тьох позицій. Наші експерти виявили дефекти якості виготов-
лення, конструкції та обробки.
Проте ми готові самостійно усунути ці недоліки. Відповідно
до підрахунків нашої бухгалтерії знижка у 10% покрила б наші
витрати.
Просимо надіслати термінову відповідь.
Менеджер К. Сміт
29 вересня 20__р.
Лист 2. Шановний пане Браун!
Ми розмістили замовлення на літні сукні та костюми заздале-
гідь до початку літнього сезону. Але минули вже 3 тижні, а ми
так і не отримали замовлені речі. Просимо прискорити постачан-
ня замовлених товарів, інакше ми відмовимося від замовлення і
придбаємо товари в іншій компанії.
Сподіваємося отримати відповідь найближчим часом.
З повагою Дж. Квін
10 січня 20__р.
Exercise VI. Write letters from the following notes.
1. Guazelli Company write on 18 December 20__ saying that they
are in a very awkward position, since they have not yet received the
shipment advised by letter of November 27 from Taylor & Co., Lon-
don EC 4. They request supplier to explain the non-delivery.
6. Taylor & Co. reply on 22nd December 20__. Their forwarding
agents have now been instructed to forward the cases of tea to Sao
Paolo as soon as possible. They apologize for the inconvenience
caused by this delay.
Exercise VII. Write a letter of complaint to a company or other in-
stitution about a product or practice that has caused your concern. Re-
quest appropriate action.
Exercise VIII. Make up a letter according to the situation.
Напишіть листа, в якому Ви з’ясовуєте ситуацію, пов’язану з
затримкою термінового замовлення. Ви навіть згодні відмовити-
ся від деяких товарів з метою прискорення відвантаження партії
в цілому.
77
 Exercise IX. Roleplay
Card I. Ви вважаєте, що товари, які Ви отримали відповідно до
замовлення № 365, не відповідають специфікації. Виявлені дефек-
ти конструкції та якості Ви маєте намір самостійно усунути і вва-
жаєте, що знижка у 25% — достатня компенсація Ваших витрат.
Card II. Ви готові надати знижку, проте, за підрахунками ва-
шої бухгалтерії, знижка має бути не більше 20 %.

UNIT VII
ACCOUNTING, BANKING AND PAYMENTS
Accounting, banking and payments are subjects which have a vo-
cabulary and phraseology of their own. But there is no great difficulty
in writing the letters connected with them because the principles of
accounting and banking are almost universal. A great deal of time and
work is saved by the modern practice of using different kinds of
printed form for this purpose. The documents could be sent to the
customer by post, or through an agent or a bank.
Dealing with banks tend to be rather formal, since such business is
confidential and is conducted according to a very strict code of con-
duct, and it is inevitable that this formality should be reflected in cor-
respondence between banks and their customers. So we may expect
some of the old expressions of the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries to survive in letters written to and by banks. The survival of
this formal phraseology has a great advantage in modern commerce;
its meaning is perfectly clear to everyone involved in transactions
with banks.
But in recent years banking correspondence has been modified to
appeal to the man in the street, and the language of letters written by
banks is now closer to the spoken language than it has ever been. In
this unit we shall study some of the documents connected with bank-
ing and payments.

The invoice is an important document in the export trade, as copies

may be required by banks, export/import agents, shipping companies,
customs authorities, and consulates. It is therefore one of the shipping
documents, and as there are other types of invoices, this one is called
the commercial invoice.
78
 Invoices are not only requests for payment but also records of
transactions which give both the buyer and seller information about
what has been bought or sold, the terms of the sale and details of the
transaction. They have details of the customers name, goods ordered,
order number, terms, the price of the goods ordered and any special
instructions (see Figure 1. Invoice).
The invoice may be accompanied by a short covering letter offer-
ing any additional information the customer might need.

For example:
a) We enclose invoice amounting to $235, covering the first con-
signment per $$ Nova Scotia.
b) We have pleasure in enclosing herewith our invoice to the
amount of $57, on payment of which the order will be dispatched.

GRAND AND TOY

STATIONERY AND PRINTERS
14 GREEN BELT DRIVE
DON MILLS TORONTO
CANADA

Our order # ___________ Customer’s Order # _________________

(Place and Date)
Invoice
Of ______________________________________________________
(State kind of Goods)
Purchased
By _________________________ of __________________________
From ___________________________________ of _____________
________________________________________________________

To be shipped from ________ Per _________________________

(State Route and send Bill of Lading)

Marks and QUANTITIES Fair Market Selling Price to the

Counrty Numbers AND Value at time Purchaser in Canada
of on DESCRIPTION and place of
Origin Packages OF GOODS shipment @ Amount

Figure 1. Invoice
79
 In the case of single transactions immediate payment is required,
either before delivery or on delivery of the goods. This method of
payment is called payment on invoice.
If the customer has to pay for the goods before receiving them, or
he or she wants to make sure that a quotation will not be changed, or
if goods are sent on approval, or on sale or return, or on consignment
to an agent who will sell them on behalf of the principal, a pro-forma
invoice is used.
A supplier may also grant his customer credit in the form of an
open account for an agreed period of time. In this case he or she keeps
a record of all sent out invoices to his customer and then, once a
month or once a quarter he will send an account of all the goods dis-
patched and payments received during this period. This document is
called the statement (i.e. statement of account) and the customer
knows that he or she now has to pay (See Figure 2. Statement of Ac-
count). This is called payment on statement.
Sometimes statements also have letters accompanying them, espe-
cially if there is a particular point that the supplier wants to make, e.g.
that the account is overdue, or that some special concession is avail-
able for prompt payment.
For example:
a) Our quarterly statement is enclosed, and the usual 3 % dis-
count may be deducted if payment is effected by the last day of this
month.
b) We have pleasure in enclosing our statement of account for all
transactions up to 24 March. Please check the entries and if you find
them correct, kindly carry forward the total of $ 252.000 to April ac-
count.
Paying for goods supplied in the home trade is a simple matter.
This problem is more complex in foreign trade. A great deal of time
is spent on correspondence, dispatch and delivery. It is here that
banks play a vital part. Their services to exporters and importers in-
clude:
1. Handling of shipping documents
2. Collection of payments
3. Observance of buyers’ conditions of purchase
4. Discounting bills of exchange
5. Loans to exporters
6. Acting as agents for foreign banks and their customers.
These services have to be paid for, but they are not expensive and
are almost indispensable — the bank comes into every transaction at
some stage or another.
80
TELEPHON FAX
01-723-7720 01-723-7722
STATEMENT
Lea Price a Co., Ltd.
LONGLANDHOUSE, 20—25 HUNT STREET,
LONDON EC 3P 2BE

Messers. A J Smith Ltd., DIRECTORS:

21/24, Stanford Street, B. Lea
London, SE1 2BE P. Price

February 8, 20__

DATE ITEM FOLIO No DEBIT CREDIT BALANCE

Account
Jan. 1 Rendered 20.67

Jan. 3 Invoice 16.20 36.87

No.27

Jan 7 Invoice 7.65 44.52

No42

Jan. 10 Invoice 2.48 9.10 47.00

No61

Jan. 13 Credit 20.15 37.90

No42A
Jan. 15 Cash 0.51
Jan. 15 Discount 11.66 17.24

Jan. 29 Invoice 28.90

No103
PLEASE PAY
THE
LAST
AMOUNT
SHOWN HERE
Figure 2. Statement of Account

Payments in foreign trade may be made by:

1. Banker’s transfer
2. Bill of exchange
3. Letter of credit
81
 Also, as in the home trade, payments may be made:
— in advance;
— on open account.
The actual method of payment in such cases would probably be by
banker’s draft or banker’s transfer.

The banker’s transfer is a simple transference of money from the

bank account of a buyer in his own country to the bank account of the
seller in the seller’s country. The buyer merely sends a letter of in-
struction to his bank to transfer money to a foreign bank’s account.
Example:
Please cable on our behalf … from our account #... to the order
of …in … to their account with (bank) in payment of invoice # …
dated …

If telegraphed, the transfer is known as a telegraphic transfer

(T.T.), and if mailed, a mail transfer (M.T.). The society for World-
wide Interbank Financial Tele-communications (SWIFT) offers fa-
cilities for a 24- hour transfer of money to a beneficiary on its com-
puter systems.

The bill of exchange (B/E) is a written order from a creditor (a

drawer) to a debitor (a drawee) to pay on demand or on a fixed date or
at a specified future time a certain sum of money to a person named
on the bill, or to his order. The bills are drawn by the creditor on the
debtor, and are sent to the debtor (or his agent) for the latter to pay or
accept (i.e. to acknowledge the debt). The debtor accepts by signing
his name on the face of the bill, together with the date. The bill be-
comes legally binding. (See Figure III. Bill of exchange) The bill can
be paid to a bank named by the drawer or the drawee can name a bank
at which he wants to pay the bill. In this case, the bill is kept in the
drawer’s bank till due for payment, when it will be presented to the
paying bank for settlement. Such bills are said to be domiciled with
the bank holding them.
When the bill has been drawn by an exporter, he usually attaches
to it the shipping documents and hands the bill to the bank for collec-
tion, instructing the collecting bank how to deliver the documents to
the buyer. If the documents are to be surrendered only against pay-
ment, the documentary bill is known as a «D/P» bill (D/P = docu-
ments against payment). It is a sight draft or sight bill as it is paid «on
presentation» or «at sight». If the instructions are to surrender the
82
documents against acceptance of the bill, the documentary bill is
called a «D/A» bill (D/A=documents on acceptance).

If the drawer endorses the bill, i.e. signs his name on the back of
the bill before passing it on to the new holder, the bill becomes nego-
tiable, which means that it can be used by the holder to pay debts of
his own. Other ways in which the holder can use the bill are: — sell it
to a bank, who will pay face value, less interests: this is called dis-
counting a bill. So even if the bill is marked 90 days, the exporter can
get his money immediately. The advantage for the importer is that he
is given credit, provided the bill is not a sight draft. The bank will
only discount a bill if the buyer has a good reputation.

An unpaid bill is said to be dishonoured, and the drawer can pro-

test it, which clears the way for him to prosecute (i.e. take legal action
against) the drawee.

The letter of credit (L/C) is a widely used method of payment in

the export/import trade today. It has been used for centuries in one
form or another as it makes trade with unknown buyers easy, gives
protection to both sellers and buyers.
There are two types of documentary credit: revocable (i.e. those
that can be cancelled) and irrevocable (i.e. those that cannot be can-
celled) which is more common in international business transactions
(see Figure 4).

A letter of credit starts with the buyer. He instructs his bank to is-
sue the L/C for the amount of the purchase and in favour of the seller.
This is usually done by a special printed form (See Figure 5). The form
contains full details of the transaction as agreed between buyer and
seller. The second type (the irrevocable letter of credit) names the ex-
porter and states: the amount to be paid; the documents concerned;
what the consignment consists of; whether the shipment is c.i.f., f.o.b.,
etc,; details of dispatch and any other documents involved (e.g. cer-
tificate of origin, consular invoice, certificate of quality); and the
length of time the credit will be available.

The buyer’s bank sends these instructions to its agent (i.e. a bank
co-operating with it) in the seller’s country and notifies it that the
credit has been opened. On receiving the instructions, the agent bank
writes to advise the seller of the credit and may add its own confirma-
tion that it promises to see that the conditions of payment against the
83
documents will be fulfilled. The seller can now execute the buyer’s
order, knowing that when he has done so, the money will be paid at
once by the agent bank. The buyer is equally secure, because the agent
bank will pay on his behalf only if the conditions of the transaction
are fully carried out by the seller. Then the agent bank will send the
documents and debit the importer’s bank with the cost and charges,
which are calculated as a percentage of the total amount of the in-
voice, plus extra charge if the letter is confirmed. The buyer’s bank
then checks the documents, pays the agent bank, and sends the docu-
ments to the buyer so that he can claim the goods.

5th March 20__

B/E № 1671
30 days after sight pay to the order of
Panton Manufacturing Ltd. London
Eight hundred and sixty pounds only
Value received payable at the current rate of exchange for Banker’s sight drafts
on London.
To. B. Haas B. V.
Heldringstaat 180-2
Amsterdam 1007 sighned
Managing Director

Figure 4. The Confirmed Irrevocable Letter of Credit

Applicant: Issuing Bank:
Date of Applications: Expiry Date and Place for Presen-
tation of Documents
Issue by (air) mail ‫ ٱ‬with brief advice by
Exiry Date:
teletransmission (see UCP 500 Article 11) Place for Presentation:
‫ ٱ‬Issue by teletransmission (see UCP 500 Beneficiary
Article 11)
‫ ٱ‬Transferable Credit — As per UCP 500 Amount in figures and words
Article 48 (Please use ISO Currency Codes ):
Confirmation of the Credit:
not requested Credit available with Nominated Bank:
requested
authorized if requested by ‪ by payment at sight:
Beneficiary ‪ by deferred payment at:
Partial shipments ‪ allowed ‪ not allowed ‪ by acceptance of drafts at:
Transshipments ‪ allowed ‪ not allowed ‪ by negotiation:
Please refer to UCP 500 transport Articles for
exceptions to this condition Against the documents detailed
herein:
‪ insurance will be covered by us ‪ and Beneficiary’s draft (s) drawn on:

84
Shipment as defined in UCP 500 Article 46

From:
For transportation to:
Not later than:
Goods(Brief description without exces- Terms:
sive details — See UCP 500 Article 5) ‪ FAS ‪ FOB ‪ CFR ‪ CIF
‪ Other terms: ‪ as per ‪ Incoterms
Commercial invoice signed, original and ‪ copies.
Transport Documents:
‪ Multimodal Transport Document, covering at least two different modes of transport
‪ Marine/Ocean Bill of Lading covering a port-to port shipment
‪ Non-Negotiable Sea Waybill covering a port-to port shipment
‪ Air Waybill, original for the consignor
‪ Other transport document:
‪ to the order of
‪ endorsed in blank
‪ marked freight ‪ prepaid ‪ payable at destination
‪ notify:
Insurance Document:
‪ Policy ‪ Certificate ‪ Destination Under an open cover. Covering the follow-
ing risks:
Certificates:
‪ Origin
‪ Analysis
‪ Health
‪ Other
Other Documents:
‪ Packing List
‪ Weight List
Documents to be presented within ‪ days after the date of shipment but within
the validity of the Credit.
Additional We request you to issue on our behalf and for
Instructions: our account your Irrevocable Credit in accor-
dance with the above instructions (marked (x)
where appropriate).
This Credit will be subject to the Uniform
Customs and Practice for Documentary Cred-
its (1993 Revision, Publication № 500 of the
International Chamber of Commerce, Paris,
France), insofar as they are applicable.

_____________________________________
Name and signature of the Applicant.

Figure 5. Irrevocable Documentary Credit Application Form

85
 Now we can see that the vital part in financing foreign trade is
played by banks; without them modern trade could not exist.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions.

1. What can you say about the language used in accounting and
banking?
2. Is there any difficulty in writing letters connected with them?
3. Why do dealings with banks tend to be formal?
4. What expressions may be expected in letters written to and by
banks?
5. What process can be observed in recent years in banking corre-
spondence?
6. What important documents connected with banking and pay-
ments do you know?
7. Why is the invoice considered to be an important document in
export/import trade?
8. What information can you find out from the invoice?
9. In what cases is payment on invoice used?
10. What is a pro-forma invoice?
11. What do you know about payment on statement?
12. What banking services may be provided to exporters and importers?
13. What methods of payment in foreign trade do you know?
14. Which is the easiest one?
15. What is SWIFT? What facilities can it offer?
16. What do abbreviations T.T. and M.T. stand for?
17. Why is the bill of exchange so important in international trade?
18. Explain the terms «drawer» and «drawee».
19. In what way can the holder use a bill of exchange?
20. What is the most generally used method of payment in the ex-
port/import trade?
21. How is the letter of credit issued?
22. Who benefits from payment by the letter of credit — the buyer
or the seller?
23. Who is involved in this payment?
Exercise II. Study the following terms.
bill of exchange (B/E; b.e.; b/e) переказний вексель; вексель;
тратта; вид оборотного документа (negotiable instrument), який
містить обов’язковий письмовий наказ векселедавця (drawer)
платнику (drawee) про сплату третій особі певної суми грошей у
86
визначений термін; акцептант (acceptor), беручи вексель, стає бо-
ржником і несе відповідальність за сплату визначеної суми; до
переказних векселів належить торговельний вексель (commercial
bill), торговельна тратта (trade bill), чек (cheque) та ін.;
— acceptance ~ акцептована тратта; clean ~ чиста (не докумен-
тована) тратта; commercial ~ торговельна тратта, торговельний
вексель; documented ~ документована тратта; domiciled ~ перека-
зний вексель із зазначеним місцем платежу; first ~ перший екзем-
пляр векселя (тратти); protested ~ опротестований вексель; sight ~
пред’явницька тратта;
— guarantee of a ~ аваль, поручительство за векселем, співпід-
пис; to accept a ~ приймати/прийняти переказний вексель, акцеп-
тувати тратту; to discount a ~ обліковувати переказний вексель,
дисконтувати переказний вексель; to dishonour a ~ відкида-
ти/відкинути переказний вексель; to draw a ~ виписувати перека-
зний вексель, виставляти тратту; to endorse a ~ розписуватися на
звороті переказного векселя, робити передавальний напис на пе-
реказному векселі; to issue a ~ виписувати переказний вексель,
виставляти тратту; to negotiate a ~ пускати в обіг переказний век-
сель (тратту), продавати переказний вексель, реалізувати перека-
зний вексель; to protect a ~ оплачувати переказний вексель (тратту).
Syn. draft
bank (banker’s) draft (B/D, b/d) банківська тратта (переказний
вексель; вексель, виставлений банком на інший банк); тратта-вид
оборотного документа, що містить письмовий наказ банку, у
якому вкладені фонди іншого банку, сплатити визначену суму
грошей конкретній особі (payee) у певний строк; є дві форми ба-
нківської тратти: строкова тратта (time draft), на якій наказується
банкові сплатити певну суму за визначеною датою, і тратта на
продавця/пред’явника (sight draft), на якій вказується сума, яку
банк повинен виплатити конкретній особі;
— to accept a ~ акцептувати банківську тратту; to arrange a ~
виписувати банківську тратту; to issue a ~ видавати банківську
тратту; to pay by ~ платити банківською траттою.
commission комісійна винагорода; комісійні; комісія; грошова ви-
нагорода за послуги агента (agent) або працівника (employee), розмір
якої встановлюється відповідно до суми виконаної або завершеної
торговельної операції, виплачується також за продаж нерухомого
майна, цінних паперів (securities), страхових полісів (policy) тощо;
— agent’s ~ агентська комісія (винагорода); exchange ~ комісія
за переказ валюти; fixed ~ тверда комісія; flat ~ однакова ставка
комісії; negotiated ~ договірна комісійна винагорода брокера; net
87
~ чиста комісія; percentage ~ відсоткова комісія; ~ charges комі-
сійні; ~ for brokerage services комісійна винагорода за брокерські
послуги; ~ for collection інкасова комісія;
— to charge a ~ стягувати комісійну винагороду; to fix a ~ при-
значати комісійну винагороду; to pay ~ платити / заплатити комі-
сійну винагороду;
days of grace пільгові дні;
три додаткові дні для оплати строкової тратти;
drawee трасат; платник;
особа або установа, яка має заплатити іншій особі суму гро-
шей згідно з розпорядженням тратти, чека тощо; платником чека
переважно буває банк або кредитна спілка;
— ~ bank, банк на який виписано чек; ~ of a bill трасат, особа
на яку виставлено тратту;
drawer трасант; векселедавець; чекодавець;
особа або установа, яка, надаючи тратту, чек тощо, дає платі-
жне розпорядження іншій особі;
— bankrupt ~ збанкрутілий трасант; ~’s account рахунок траса-
нта; ~ of a bill трасант; ~ of a cheque чекодавець.
endorsement індосамент, передавальний напис; переданий на-
пис; жиро; передатний запис; напис на звороті.
Напис на звороті векселя (bill of exchange) про передачу прав
іншій особі;
— absolute ~ необмежений індосамент; blank ~ бланковий ін-
досамент; direct ~ передавальний напис на векселі; жиро; joint ~
спільний індосамент; special ~ іменний індосамент;
~ in favour of a bank індосамент на користь банку; ~ of a drawee
індосамент векселедержателя; ~ to the bearer індосамент на пода-
вця (на пред’явника);
— to bear an ~ мати індосамент; to make an ~ робити / зробити
індосамент; to place an ~ поставити індосамент; to transfer by ~
передавати індосаментом;
invoice n. рахунок — фактура; рахунок; накладна; інвойс
v. виписувати рахунок-фактуру
документ, який виписує продавець покупцеві для оплати за до-
ставлений, вироблений, куплений, придбаний товар або надану
послугу; рахунок-фактура містить певні дані про операцію (trans-
action): дату, докладний опис товарів чи послуг, вказівку на їх кі-
лькість і вартість, спосіб постачання, загальну суму до оплати,
ім’я продавця та покупця тощо;
— commercial ~ комерційний рахунок-фактура; consular ~ кон-
сульський рахунок-фактура; consignment ~ консигнаційний раху-
88
нок-фактура; customs ~ митна фактура; export ~ експортний раху-
нок-фактура; final ~ останній рахунок; original ~ оригінал рахунка
— фактури; paid ~ оплачений рахунок-фактура; pro forma ~ оріє-
нтовний (зразковий; попередній) рахунок-фактура; specified ~ до-
кладний рахунок-фактура; vendor ~ рахунок-фактура продавця;
— against ~ проти рахунка-фактури; as per ~ згідно з рахун-
ком-фактурою; ~ number номер рахунка-фактури; ~ price ціна на
рахунку-фактурі; фактурна ціна; ціна, що вказана на накладній; to
draw up an ~ одержувати / отримувати рахунок-фактуру; to send
out an ~ посилати рахунок-фактуру.
letter of credit (L/C) акредитив
зобов’язання банка сплатити на прохання та відповідно до ін-
струкцій імпортера експортеру (за готівковими розрахунками)
або акцептувати тратту, що видана експортером (за умови розра-
хунків у кредит), у межах визначеної суми і терміна проти доку-
ментів, що передбачені;
irrevocable ~ безвідкличний акредитив; акредитив, що не може
бути відкликаним банком-емітентом, якщо всі умови угоди вико-
нані; documentary ~ документарний акредитив, тобто форма ко-
мерційного акредитива, згідно з якою банк має зобов’язання
сплатити відповідно до інструкцій покупця визначену суму про-
давцю проти документів (коносамента, накладних, сертифікатів
походження та якості, страхових документів); confirmed ~ підтве-
рджений акредитив; to establish a ~ відкрити акредитив (with a
bank in sb’s favour); to open/to establish a ~ відкрити акредитив.

Exercise III. Remember the following useful expressions and use

them in your letters.
I. Sending the invoice or statement
1. Please find enclosed our invoice № ___ covering the goods sent
against your order …
2. We enclosed our pro-forma invoice as requested; all costs to
London are included in it.
3. We have pleasure in enclosing herewith our invoice to the
amount of $ __ on payment of which the order will be dispatched.
4. A copy of the invoice is enclosed. The shipping documents will be
handed to you by the SAS Bank against settlement of the amount shown.
5. With this letter we are sending you a statement of January in-
voices totaling $ ___.
6. The balance of $___ left uncleared by your November payment
has been brought forward to the enclosed statement for December and
we would appreciate early settlement of the total amount now due.
89
 II. Notifying payment of account
1. We have pleasure in enclosing our bank draft (postal order) cheque
for $___ in payment of your statement/ invoice № ___dated ___
2. We have instructed our bank to transfer (to remit ) $___ to your
account in payment of your ____ statement.
3. Many thanks for your pro-forma invoice. We accept this price
and are making immediate payment to our bank … who will notify
you of the credit in due course.
4. Your statement to our account for the last month (quarter) has been
received and found correct. We have instructed our bank to remit the
amount of $ ___ for the credit of your account at ___ Bank, London.
5. We have arranged payment through the PZX Bank in London of
the sum of $ __ (in settlement of your invoice № __; … and ask you
to credit our account accordingly; … which clears our account; …
which balances our account; … in part payment of your last state-
ment; … in full settlement of your invoice; …as the first in statement
under our agreement; …as a deposit against our order №…)
III. Correspondence between buyers and sellers
a) The buyer writes to the seller
1. Please draw on us for the amount of your invoice and attach the
documents listed below to your draft.
2. We propose to pay by bill of exchange at 30 d/s (days after sight),
documents against acceptance. Please confirm if this is acceptable to you.
3. We have received your letter and invoice dated __ and are willing
to accept your draft for the amount involved, payable at 60 days’ sight.
4. Our acceptance will be honoured (тратта буде акцептована) at
… Bank on presentation.
5. We are sorry to inform you that we find ourselves unable to meet this
bill, due on ___. If you would kindly accept$ ___ cash and draw a further
bill on us at 2 month for the balance of $ ___ plus interest at ___%, we
would be most grateful to you and guarantee to honour it on presentation.
6. The goods arrived in excellent condition and we are fully satisfied
with them. If you can guarantee to repeat this quality we shall place large
orders with you, and in this case we shall require open account terms.
Please let us know if you are prepared to grant us these with settlement by
banker’s transfer within 30 days of date of your quarterly statement.
b) The seller writes to the buyer
1. In accordance with our agreement (terms of payment) we have
drawn on you a 30 days’ sight for the amount of the enclosed invoice.
2. Your proposal to pay by draft is acceptable to us and we shall
draw on you at 2 month from date of shipment of your order.
90
 3. As agreed, we have drawn on the ___ Bank at 60 days for the net
amount of $ __ which includes the bank’s discount commission and charges.
4. As arranged, we are attaching our sight draft on you for $___ to
the shipping document and are handling them to our bank for for-
warding to you.
5. We note that you wish us to draw on your London agents for the
amount of your invoice. This is acceptable to us and we shall send them
our draft for attention as soon as the goods are ready for shipment.
6. Your request for open account terms has been considered and
we are pleased to grant this facility.
7. In view of the recent price fluctuations in your market we shall
not draw on you till we have your first report on the prices you are
obtaining for the goods.

c) Letters to and from the bank

1. We enclose our sight daft on ____ of Cape Town and attach bill
of lading (B/L, коносамент) to evidence shipment, and other docu-
ments to ____ against payment of the draft, and credit our account №
___ with the amount received.
2. Will you please forward the enclosed sight draft on Messes
____ to the ___ Bank of ____ with instructions to surrender the at-
tached documents on payment of our bill.
3. Please credit our account № ___ with the proceeds (виручка)
after deducting your charges.
4. Kindly advise us of the amount of your charges, for inclusion in
our draft.
5. Please present the bill for acceptance and then discount it at the
current rate, for the credit of our account.
6. We enclose a sight draft for $ ___ to your order on ___. Please
make the following payments to our ____ creditors against this draft.
7. Our agents in New York will shortly be sending you the ship-
ping documents covering a consignment of books. Will you please
release these documents to Messrs ___ against their payment of the
attached sight draft on them for $ ___.
8. I enclose an accepted bill drawn on me by ___ and should be
glad to receive the documents covering the goods in question.
9. Please note that we have dominiciled the following acceptances
with you. Will you kindly honour them at due date and advise us at
time of payment.
10. Please open a credit of $____ in favour of the ___ available to
them at 30 d/s in respect of 3 shipments of ___ as specified on the at-
tached sheet. The beneficiaries are to draw on you for each shipment
91
as these are effected, and the documents required are bills of lading,
commercial invoices, insurance policy, consular invoice and certifi-
cate of origin in respect of each shipment.
11. As we have placed a further order with our suppliers will you
please increase the credit to $ ____ in accordance with attached in-
structions.

Exercise IV. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian:

1)
Satex S.p.A
Via di Pietra Papa 00146
Roma, Italy
Attn. Mr D. Causio
Dear Mr Causio,
Thank you for being so prompt in sending the documents for our last order
no. 1554. We have accepted the sight draft, and the bank should be sending you
an advice shortly.
We have been dealing with you on a cash against documents basis for over a
year and would like to change to payment by a 40 days’ bill of exchange,
documents against acceptance.
When we first contacted you last February you told us that you would be
prepared to reconsider terms of payment once we had established a trading
association. We think that sufficient time has elapsed for us to be allowed the
terms we have asked for. If you need references, we will be glad to supply them.
As we will be sending another order within the month, could you please
confirm that you agree to these new terms of payment?
Yours sincerely
L. Crane

2)
July 1, 20__
Mr Turner
N.Z. Business Machines
100 South Street, Wellington
Dear Mr Turner
In accordance with your instructions of June 15, 20... our agents, Eastland Bank,
London, accepted a draft for 26,250 pounds drawn by Delta Computers Ltd. on
presentation of shipping documents for a consignment sent to you on June 10, 20__
We have debited your account with the amount plus our charges of NZ$300. The
documents are now with us and will be handed to you when you visit us.
Yours sincerely
O. Dobbin
Manager

92
 3)

June 8, 20___
New Zealand Bank
Takapuna Street
Wellington 9

Dear Sirs
Please establish an irrevocable documentary credit for 25,000 pounds in favour of
Delta Computers Ltd., England. I have enclosed your application form with all the
relevant details completed.
We will appreciate it if you inform us when you have made arrangements with
your agents in London.
Yours faithfully
G. Turner
N.Z. Business Machines
Encl. Application form for documentary credit

4)

June 15, 20__

Delta Computers Ltd.
Bradfield Road
Northamptonshire NN8 4HB
United Kingdom
Dear Mr James
Thank you for replying to our enquiry of May 28,20... and letting us know that
C2000 computers are available.
The terms you quoted are quite satisfactory, and you will find our order enclosed.
We have instructed our bank, New Zealand Bank, to open an irrevocable and
confirmed letter of credit for 25,000 pounds in your favour. This should cover
c.i.f. shipment and bank charges, and the credit valid until June 20...
You will receive confirmation from our bank’s agents Eastland Bank Ltd.,
London, and you may draw on them at 60 days for the amount of the invoice.
Please enclose the following documents, when submitting your draft:
• Bill of Lading
• Invoice c.i.f. Wellington
• Insurance Policy
Please inform us as soon as you have arranged shipment.
Yours sincerely
G. Turner
N.Z. Business Machines
Encl: Order

93
 5)
June 25, 20__
Mr S. Merroway
Eastland Bank Ltd.
401 Aldgate, London EC1
Dear Mr Merroway
Thank you for your advice of June 20,20... We have now effected shipment to our
customers in New Zealand and enclose the shipping documents you asked for and
our draft for 26,250 pounds at 60 d/s which includes your discount, commission
and charges.
Please accept the draft and remit the proceeds to our account at the Midland
Bank, Oxford Street, London W l.
Yours sincerely
R. Brown
Senior Shipping Clerk

6)
Credit Investigations Ltd.
1 Bird Street
London El 6TM
Dear Mr Spade
You were recommended to me by a previous client of yours, S. Greenstreet &
Co., Ltd. I would like to get information about Falcon Retailers Ltd. who have
asked us to allow them open account facilities with quarterly settlements and
credits up to $5,000.
Would you please tell us if this firm has had any bad debts in the past; if any
court action has been taken against them to recover overdue accounts; whether
they have ever traded under another name, and if they have, whether that business
has been subject to bankruptcy proceedings?
Please, make the necessary enquiries, and let us know your fee.
Yours sincerely
P. Marlow

Exercise V. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-

lowing Ukrainian phrases:
Рахунок-фактура; попередній рахунок-фактура; угода; супро-
воджувальний лист; надавати кредит; відкритий рахунок; витяг з
рахунка; звіт про стан рахунка; товарно-транспортні документи;
документи проти акцепту (платежу); інкасо; дисконтування (об-
ліковування) векселя; позички (кредити) для експортерів; банків-
ський переказ; вексель, банківська тратта; авансовий платіж; пла-
94
тіж за відкритим рахунком; телеграфний переказ; виставляти
тратту; підтверджувати борг; акцептувати вексель (тратту); тра-
сат (платник); трасант (векселедавець); юридично обов’язковий
(документ); переказний вексель із зазначеним місцем платежу;
стягувати гроші (заборгованість); тратта на пред’явника (продав-
ця); строкова тратта; робити передавальний напис на переказно-
му векселі; вартість у поточних цінах; відмовлений від акцепту-
вання вексель; опротестований вексель; акредитив; відкличний
акредитив; надавати наказ банку; сертифікат якості (походжен-
ня); виконувати замовлення покупця; аваль; пускати в обіг трат-
ту; комісійна винагорода; пільгові дні; індосамент; через … днів
після подання; коносамент; передавати документи; страховий поліс.

Exercise VI. Translate the following letters into English.

Лист 1. Шановні панове!

Дякуємо за Ваш лист з поясненням щодо неможливості спла-
тити пільговий рахунок на 2500 дол. Ми розуміємо ваші пробле-
ми, але в нас є свої фінансові зобов’язання, тому ми наполягаємо
на тому, щоб ви сплатили за рахунком протягом 10 днів. Чекаємо
вашого наступного грошового переказу.
З повагою Д. Кузьменко
30 березня 20__ р.

Лист 2. Шановні панове!

На жаль, ми не можемо продовжити ваш кредит, оскільки це
викликає проблеми з рухом готівки (cash flow). Однак, зважаючи
на ситуацію, що склалася, ми пропонуємо вам сплатити половину
зазначеної суми чеком найближчим часом, а решту протягом
двох тижнів. Чекаємо вашого грошового переказу та підтвер-
дження того, що сума будe сплачена до кінця місяця.
З повагою В. Деркач
15 травня 20__ р.

Лист 3. Шановні панове!

На виставці «Сучасна електроніка», що проходила в Берліні
минулого тижня, ваш представник продемонстрував комп’ютери
вашої фірми і повідомив умови продажу. Ми готові розмістити
пробне замовлення на 100 одиниць. Оскільки ваш представник
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підтвердив наявність комп’ютерів на складі, ми надали доручен-
ня нашому банку відкрити підтверджений і безвідкличний акре-
дитив на ____ дол. США на вашу користь.
З повагою К. Гриненко

Лист 4. Шановні панове!

Ми додаємо копію повідомлення про відкриття акредитиву на
Вашу користь, дійсного до вересня 20__ р. Ви можете виставити
тратту на нас на повну суму рахунка-фактури зі сплатою через 60
днів. Наступні документи мають додаватися до тратти: коноса-
мент, комерційний рахунок-фактура; страховий поліс, сертифікат
якості. Сума акредитиву містить суму рахунка-фактури, комісію
за дисконтування переказного векселя та банківські витрати.
З повагою І. Литвиненко

Exercise VII. Decipher the following abbreviations:

B/E; T.T.; M.T.; SWIFT; c.i.f.; f.o.b.; D/P; D/A; L/C; B/D; d/s; No.

Exercise VIII. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or
word combinations. Mind your grammar.

application form; to instruct; favour; bank charges;

discount commission; to draw; proceeds; to issue; presentation;
transshipment; to debit; notification

1. We have opened an irrevocable Letter of Credit in your_____.

2. This amount will cover the goods value and____.
3. You can____on us at 60 days against the credit as soon as you
provide evidence of shipment.
4. Your draft should include our____which is five per cent, and
our charges listed on the attached list.
5. Please accept the draft and remit the_____to our account
with the Midland Bank.
6. We have____your account with $1,000.
7. Eastland Bank accepted a draft for $2,000 drawn by Business
Machines Ltd. on____of shipping documents for the consignment
dispatched on May 25.
8. We are enclosing a copy of the____we have received from New
Zealand Bank to open an L/C in your favour.
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 9. We have____our Bank to open a documentary letter of
credit available until May 10, 20... .
10. We have enclosed the____with all the relevant details com-
pleted.
11. We hereby____in your favour this Irrevocable Credit as per
details stated above.
12. Partial shipment and____are allowed.

Exercise IX. Translate the following into English.

1. У відповідь на ваш запит від 10 вересня повідомляємо, що
фірма своєчасно була поінформована про ваш переказ і зараху-
вання суми на їхній рахунок у вашому банку.
2. Сповіщаємо, що як тільки платіж буде здійснено, ми надіш-
лемо вам розписку отримувача.
3. Підтверджуємо одержання розписки отримувача переказу
на суму 25 600 дол США від 11 вересня і дякуємо за точне вико-
нання нашого доручення.
4. Просимо надсилати нам звіт про стан нашого рахунка на
1 число кожного місяця.
5. Сповіщаємо, що ми одержали витяг з нашого рахунка на
1 березня цього року і вважаємо його правильним.
6. За дорученням фірми ___ просимо відкрити у себе безвідк-
личний і підтверджений акредитив на суму 56 800 дол США у
серпні цього року на користь нашого клієнта.
7. Указаний акредитив відкритий для оплати 1000 т товару,
який відвантажено пароплавом «І. Франко» з Талліна призначен-
ням до Лондона.
8. На доповнення до нашого листа від 4 січня ми надаємо дру-
гий оригінал коносаменту, який покриває товар, що відвантажено
з Одеси до Стамбулу.
9. Просимо прийняти від бенефіціара такі документи: тратта,
рахунок-фактура, коносамент, сертифікат походження, сертифі-
кат якості, страховий поліс.
10. Відповідно до умов акредитиву ми відправили сьогодні по-
вний комплект документів фірми і просимо вас кредитувати наш
рахунок на суму 1400 ф. ст.
11. Сповіщаємо, що сьогодні ми кредитували ваш рахунок на
зазначену суму. Просимо сплатити цю суму вашому клієнту про-
ти розписки в двох примірниках, яку просимо надіслати. Ця сума
є сплатою рахунка № 343, що був надісланий нашому клієнту 2
жовтня цього року.
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 Exercise X. Comment on the following chart.

Buyer Letter of Credit Seller

Issuing Bank Agent Bank

Exercise XI. Write letters from the following notes:

1. Your firm is an export dealer. You receive an order from a new
customer who does not say how he proposes to pay for the goods.
Make up a suitable reply.
2. You are an importer of glass and chinaware. You wish to buy
from a foreign manufacture on quarterly account terms. Give details
of your firm and your requirements, and offer references.
3. A foreign company has asked you to supply them with goods to
the value of $ 450. They suggest that you draw on them at 60 d/s for
the amount of your invoice. Explain that you can only do this against
an irrevocable letter of credit confirmed by your bank.
4. A foreign customer has been buying from your company for a
year and has honoured your sight drafts on presentation. He now asks
for open account terms with quarterly statement by B/E. Write two
letters, one agreeing to his request and one asking for an irrevocable
letter of credit covering the amount of his quarterly requirements.

Exercise XII. Roleplay

Card I. Покупці отримали переказний вексель на суму ___ дол.
США і хотіли би знати, що включає ця сума, оскільки, на їх дум-
ку, сума вища за ту, що передбачалася.
Card II. Ви пояснюєте покупцям, що сума векселя містить не
тільки суму рахунка-фактури, але ще комісію за облікування век-
селя (5%) та банківські витрати.

UNIT VIII
LETTERS ON SOCIAL SITUATIONS

Invitations, letters of reference and introduction, letters of con-

gratulation, appreciation, sympathy and condolence are an integral
part of business correspondence. Sometimes they are called goodwill
letters, and as their name suggests, they are intended to build up
goodwill. They give both the writer and the recipient pleasure when
98
the occasion arises to send good wishes, to express thanks or to re-
member an anniversary.
While writing such letters you should observe the conventions
governing formality, be aware of the relationship of the sender and the
receiver and use appropriate language.
There are many occasions on which companies write formal, semi-
formal or informal invitations of various kinds. There are social gath-
erings for the members of the staff, especially during the Christmas
and New Year season, and there are also official banquets as well as
other activities such as open presentations, exhibitions and fairs.
A formal invitation, usually in the form of a letter on a printed
card, is written in the 3rd person. It usually has the following wording:

Mr. Kemmons Wilson

Chairman of the Board of Holiday Inns Inc.
and
Mr. Ben Smith
Chairman of the Board of Hotels United
request the presence of
Mr. and Mrs. Barrington
on the occasion of inauguration of the first Holiday Inn in Kyiv in the presence
of Mr. Frank S. Will Consul General of the USA on Wednesday, May 2, 20__

Evening Dress R.S.V.P

18.30-19.30 Cocktails Secretary to Ben Smith
19.45 Dinner

R.S.V.P («Répondez s’il vous plaît» — «Answer, please») is al-

ways printed on such formal invitations. The words on the left «Eve-
ning Dress» ensure that full «Evening Dress» should be worn by eve-
ryone. The words in the bottom left-hand corner indicate the type of
«entertainment» provided for the guests («Cocktails», «Dinner»)
Other invitations are written less formally.

Dear Mr. Grant,

We would like to invite you to attend our open presentation at Hamber College
which is being held on April 3 this year. The proceedings will begin at 14.30 and
end at 17.00, after which dinner will be given at 19.00 for our prominent visitors.
Although we realize you are busy we hope you can find time to accept the invita-
tion and look forward to seeing you.

Yours sincerely,

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 Any written invitation should be answered in writing too, not by
phone. Replies should also follow the same style. The answer to for-
mal invitations is also in the third person written on notepaper with
the address stamped at the head, or written, but no name and address
of the firm appears, neither is the salutation «Dear Sirs» used nor the
ending «Yours faithfully», There is no signature to this letter. Ac-
cepting a formal invitation would look like this:

Hotel Dnipro
Kyiv
April 28,20__

Mr. and Mrs. Barrington thank Mr. Kemmos Wilson and Mr. Ben Smith for
their kind invitation to the inauguration of Holiday Inn and will be pleased to
attend.

If you are obliged to refuse the invitation, you should explain why
you are unable to accept it. The wording of the last line would be: «…
but regret that they are unable to accept owing to a prior engagement
on that day (evening)»
Informal invitations are written and answered in the same way as
other private correspondence.
Letters of congratulation, sympathy and condolence are often
written by business people. Such letters can be written from the angle
of business rather than personal association. An executive or a firm
may have received some honour, or attained an important position,
and should be congratulated.
The following phrases can be used in letters of congratulation:
— It was with great pleasure that we heard of your appointment as
chairperson. Please accept our heartiest congratulations.
— Please accept our best wishes for Christmas and the New
Year.
— May we congratulate you on your success (your appoint-
ment).
Letters of sympathy and condolence are usually written on the
death of an executive of some company or his or her close relative. It
is very difficult to write such letters and much depends on how well
you know the people you are writing to. Letters of sympathy and con-
dolence should never be written on someone else’s behalf. They
should not be long and usually follow a certain pattern. The following
phrases are suitable for such letters:
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 — The sad news of Mr. Smith’s sudden death is something that we
can still hardly believe.
— The sudden and unexpected passing of Mr. Walter Baron has
created a gap in your organization which cannot be filled easily.
— We were deeply grieved to learn of the sudden death of the
Chairman of your company.
— We would like to offer our sympathy to you and your family on
the passing of your husband.
— Please accept our love and sympathy.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. What do you know about goodwill letters?
2. Why are they written?
3. What should you bear in mind while writing such letters?
4. When do companies write letters of invitation?
5. How is an official invitation written?
6. What do the words «evening dress» or «black tie» mean?
7. What is the style of semi-formal and informal invitation?
8. Is it necessary to write an answer to an invitations?
9. What phrases are omitted in answers to formal invitations?
10. What is necessary to write in answers to invitations if you are
obliged to refuse them?
11. What do you know about letters of congratulation?
12. What phrases can be used in them?
13. When are the letters of sympathy and condolence written?
14. What do the contents of such letters depend on?
15. What phrases are suitable for these letters?

Exercise II. Remember the following useful phrases:

a. Invitations
1. Brown and Company cordially invite you to a welcoming cock-
tail party…
2. The Executive team of the London Corporation in honour of
Gordon W. Brown requests the pleasure of the company of Mr. and
Mrs. John Smith at a dinner dance on October 10 at 8 p.m. RSVP.
101
 3. Colin Electronics invites you to the Electronics trade Exhibition
to view its full range of new CD boom boxes…
4. The Board of Directors invites you to attend a dinner party in
honour of Mr. Noris to be held at the Radison Sus Hotel…
5. We hope that you and your wife will be able to join us on May 3
and look forward to seeing you then.
b. Answers to invitations
1. Thank you for your kind invitation to the dinner dance on Octo-
ber 10, which my wife and I will be happy to attend.
2. Thank you very much for your kind dinner invitation, but my
wife and I have already made arrangements to attend a wedding re-
ception on that date.
3. We regret that we already have another engagement at this time
and will not be able to attend.
4. I regret that I am not able to accept your kind invitation for the
buffet reception on April 23. My business schedule calls for me to be
in Europe during the entire month of April.
c. Congratulations
1. It was with great pleasure that we learnt of your appointment
(your success)…
2. I want to compliment you on your outstanding work as …
3. We view your accomplishment as outstanding.
4. My congratulations to you and your sales force for having sur-
passed last year’s sales level.
5. It was with great pleasure that we read in the papers that you
had received … (name of honour conferred) and want to congratulate
you at once.
6. We wish to express our great pleasure on hearing of your …
7. We want to send you our very good wishes.
8. We would like to express our heart-felt congratulations on your
… business anniversary.
9. Our best wishes for a merry Christmas and a happy New Year
d. Thank-you letters
1. Thank you once again for the courtesy and kindness extended
to us when Mr. Jones and I visited your printing plant last year.
2. Thank you very much for your hospitality during our visit to
Houston. We hope to be able to return your hospitality next year.
3. We enjoyed your hospitality and hope you will give us a chance
to reciprocate the next time you are visiting Kyiv.
4. In conclusion, we would like to express once again our gratitude.
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 5. Thank you for your kind assistance in the matter of …
6. This is to thank you for pleasant reception given to Mr. ___
7. Many thanks for your good wishes on the anniversary of our
company.
e. Letters of sympathy, condolence
1. My colleagues and I were shocked and saddened to hear about
the tragic death of the Chairman of your board Mr.___
2. We were deeply grieved to hear (to learn) of the sudden death of
the chairman of your company.
3. It was a great shock to hear the sad news of Sir James Brown’s death.
4. We would like to express our deepest regret over the passing of
the member of your board Mr.___
5. Our staff deeply regrets the sudden and unexpected passing
(death) of Mr. __, a highly respected member of your board.
6. We want to express our sincere sympathy…
7. We would like to offer our sympathy to you and your family on
the passing of ___.
8. We wish to assure you of our sincerest condolence.
9. May I extend my deep sympathy to you and your family.
f. Letters of introduction and recommendation.
1. We have great pleasure in introducing to you, by this letter, Mr. ___,
a chairman of the company ____, who is a business associate of ours.
2. Mr. ___ is visiting Brussels to establish new connections.
3. We should be most grateful if you would give him the benefit of
your advice and experience.
4. We are happy to provide the information about Mr. ___ you re-
quested in your letter of May 27 with the explicit understanding that
this information will be held in strict confidence.
5. I recommend Ms. ___ without any hesitation (without reserva-
tion) for the position of ___, because I know you will find her an ex-
cellent sales representative. She is intelligent, accurate, personable,
and discrete (a serious and dedicated worker).
6. I am convinced that Mr.___ would bring credit to your organi-
zation. His integrity and reliability are above question.
7. Mr. ___ left out organization of his own free will (on his own
volition; at will) because he believed that freelance work would offer
greater opportunities.
8. Mr. ___ has proven to be an efficient, hard-working, trust-
worthy, and very personable employee.
9. During her employment with our company, Mrs. ___’s proficiency
in her job duties, attendance and timekeeping record were excellent. She
103
is also a very pleasant and thoughtful person, I am pleased to vouch for
Mrs. ____’s character and her professional qualifications.

Exercise III. Translate the following letters into Ukrainian:

1.
NEWBRIDGE ASSOCIATES
346 Fitzharding Square
Manchester, VT 23867
INVITATION
I will/ will not* be able to attend the New England Tourism and Travel Corpora-
tion Roadshow at the Arlton Hotel in Chicago
Wednesday, October 2, at 6:00
NAME: Andrew Lloyd COMPANY: Lloyd & Lloyd, Ltd.
R.S.V.P. Franca Lester
Tel. (783) 567-3245
*Please delete as appropriate

2.
May 15, 20____

Dear Mr. Andrews:

Mr. and Mrs. Charles Drake thank the Management Team of the Winchester
Corporation for the invitation to attend the dinner dance honoring William R.
Chesterfield on May 22, which they will be happy to attend.
Yours sincerely,
Charles Drake
Charles Drake

3.
September 25, 20__
To Whom It May Concern
Mr. Clarence Logan has been on our sales staff for the past eight years and
has compiled an excellent sales record. He is a friendly person by nature and
has won the friendship as well as the business patronage of his customers. We
have convincing evidence of that from the letters we have received in re-
sponse to the announcement that he is leaving our company on his own voli-
tion since he feels that he has advanced as far as possible under our current
employment plan. For that reason, he has decided to look for a position in a
larger organization.

104
We are sorry to see Mr. Clarence Logan go, because he has shown himself to be
capable, resourceful, well-disciplined, intelligent, and pleasant.
Therefore, we recommend him with enthusiasm since he should be a valuable as-
set to any company.

4.
Dear Mr. Brown
We have great pleasure in introducing to you, by this letter, Mr. Mark Gillow, a
director of the firmTimes Flooring, Ltd., who are business associates of ours.
Mr. Gillow is visiting Paris to establish new connections and we should
greatly appreciate any assistance you may be able to give him, which will be
considered as a personal favour to us.
Sincerely yours

5.
Dear Mr. Blackstone,
On behalf of the Cooperville Bank, I offer you our sincere congratulations on
your recent promotion to national sales manager. I know that you have worked
hard for Newton Corporation and therefore I am delighted that you have been
promoted to this new and challenging position.
Your company is very fortunate to have benefited from your expertise as well as
loyalty during the past nine years
Sincerely yours

6.
July 6, 20__
Dear Sirs
On behalf of the Board of Directors and Officers of the Heyerdahl Corporation, I
would like to express sincere appreciation and congratulations to Davis Con-
struction Company for successfully completing the reconstruction of our head-
quarters building in Woodtown, which was devastated by fire last year.
Your company has distinguished itself as a leader in the construction industry by
performing what appeared to be an almost impossible task. Working under diffi-
cult conditions and accelerated construction schedules, your company completed
the building on July 1, as scheduled.
This accomplishment is a tribute to the fine group of professional engineers and
skilled craftsmen you assembled on site, and to the individual skill and dedication
of your project manager, David Wallace.
Sincerely yours,
Carl Adams

105
 7.
27 October, 20__
Dear Mr. McNeal,
Upon my return to the office this afternoon, I was grieved to learn of the sudden
passing of your father. Albert was a colleague and I knew him as a man of integ-
rity, ability, and kindness. I will certainly miss him. You have my deepest sym-
pathy. I only wish there were some way in which I could lighten your burden of
sorrow.
With sincere condolences,
Sarah Donald
Sarah Donald

Exercise IV. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian phrases:
Запрошення; рекомендаційний лист; лист-вітання; листи спів-
чуття; висока оцінка; зібрання; персонал; ярмарка; будь ласка,
надайте відповідь; розваги; приймати запрошення; бути вимуше-
ним; відмовлятися від запрошення; попередні зобов’язання;
отримувати важливу посаду; призначення на посаду; службове
підвищення; висловлювати співчуття; приймати співчуття; щиро
запрошувати; на честь; від імені; відвідувати офіційний обід;
прийом з приводу весілля; «шведський стіл»; сердечні (щирі) ві-
тання; вітаємо з Різдвом Христовим і Новим роком; суворо кон-
фіденційна інформація; рекомендувати без застережень; для усіх
зацікавлених сторін; у нього блискучий послужний список; мати
велике задоволення представляти когось; звільнятися за власним
бажанням; проявляти себе як…; гостинність; ввічливість; дістати
підтримку покупців; бути у штаті; цінне надбання.

Exercise V. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words.

Mind your grammar.
appreciation; to pass along; on behalf of; to be promoted; to be grieved; to distin-
guish; to be injured; sympathy; to be saddened; honouring; to attend; to compile
an excellent sales record; valuable asset; to win sb’s patronage; on one’s own vo-
lition

1. Mr. and Mrs. Charles Drake thank the management team of the
Winchester Corporation for the invitation ___ the dinner dance ___ Wil-
liam R Chesterfield on May 23, which they will be happy to attend.
2. Mr. Black has been on our sales staff for the past eight years and
___.
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 3. He is a friendly person by nature and ___ the friendship as well
as ___ of his customers.
4. We have convincing evidence of that from the letter we have re-
ceived in response to the announcement that he is leaving our com-
pany___since he feels that he advanced as far as possible under our
current employment plan.
5. Therefore, we recommend him with enthusiasm since he should
be ___ to any company.
6. I am delighted that you ___ to this new and challenging position.
7. Please ___ my thanks to your sales team for their extraordinary
efforts during the fourth quarter.
8. You have my deepest ___.
9. We were very sorry to hear that you ___ in a car accident.
10. ___ my associates, I offer you our sincere congratulations for suc-
cessful reconstruction of our headquarters building.
11. I would like to express sincere ___ and congratulations to your
company for successful reconstruction of our headquarters building.
12. Not long ago I ___ to learn of the sudden passing of the Chair-
man of your company.
13. Your company ___ itself as a leader in the construction industry.
14. We deeply ___ by the death of your colleague, Mr. Smith.

Exercise VI. Translate the following into English.

1.

Вельмишановні пан ___ і пані ___!

Компанія ___ має честь запросити Вас на урочистий обід, який влаштову-
ється з нагоди ___.
Чекаємо на Вас ___________________________ (дата і місце)

2.
Шановні колеги!
Щиро дякуємо за запрошення взяти участь у роботі конференції ___.
Я розумію важливість і актуальність проблем, указаних у програмі, і цілком
підтримую Вас.
Однак, на превеликий жаль, я не можу взяти участь у роботі конференції,
оскільки саме на цей час заплановано ___ (назва заходу).
Сподіваюсь, що в майбутньому нам ще неодноразово випаде нагода зустрі-
тися та обмінятися думками.
Бажаю успіхів ______

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 3.
Шановний містере Джонсон!
Прийміть щирі вітання з нагоди обрання Вас на посаду начальника відділу
розрахунків (senior account executive). Ви багато і плідно працювали в ком-
панії, і я радий, що ваші зусилля були винагородженні (to reward efforts).
Звертайтеся до мене, якщо я зможу бути вам корисним, коли ви візьмете на
себе тягар відповідальності (to assume the weight of responsibilities),
пов’язаний з вашою новою посадою.

Щиро бажаю успіхів

З повагою М. Браун

4.
Шановний пане Самерс!
Від імені нашої компанії «Смітсон Асошіейтс» я хотів висловити (to extend)
глибоке співчуття з приводу передчасної кончини вашого співробітника па-
на Артура Бертона. Ми мали щастя знати і працювати з паном Бертоном
протягом багатьох років, і нам не вистачатиме його присутності і спілку-
вання.
Ми висловлюємо вам і вашим співробітникам глибокі співчуття.
З повагою_____
Д. Джеймсон

5.

Пані Мері Трамп працювала (to be employed) у нашій компанії від вересня
20__ по січень 20__ р., обіймаючи останнім часом посаду менеджера з про-
дажу. Її було призначено на цю посаду в жовтні 20__ р.
Пані Трамп звільняється з нашої компанії за власним бажанням, оскільки
відчуває, що відповідно до існуючої кадрової політики (under current
employment plan) вона не може розраховувати на підвищення. З цієї причи-
ни пані прийняла рішення шукати нове місце роботи (to look for a position) у
великій компанії.
Ми шкодуємо, що пані Трамп залишає нашу компанію, оскільки вона пока-
зала себе талановитим, високо дисциплінованим співробітником із великим
творчим потенціалом.
Пані Трамп буде цінним надбанням для будь-якої компанії.
З повагою
М.Браун

Exercise VII. Write letters from the following notes.

1. You are introducing the person mentioned to a Japanese com-
pany: Mr. Stephen Hampden, director, Avex Ltd, associates, visiting
108
Tokyo, exploring market potential. You would be grateful for help
and glad to reciprocate.
2. On behalf of your Board of Directors, issue a formal invitation
to a cocktail party at the Henderson building, 28 Soho square, London
WC1, on 24 May this year at 6 p.m.
3. You are accepting the invitation written in the previous task;
you are refusing the invitation.

Exercise VIII. Write a letter congratulating a former colleague of

yours on his appointment as sales manager.

Exercise IX. Make up letters according to the situations.

1. Напишіть рекомендаційний лист вашому співробітнику,
який працював у компанії декілька років і добре зарекомендував
себе як спеціаліст із маркетингу. Він переїжджає за сімейними
обставинами до іншого міста і звільняється з вашої компанії за
власним бажанням.
2. Ви працюєте помічником директора компанії «Бертон і
Дойл» (Burton and Doyle), яка знаходиться за адресою ; 332 bond
Street, Wisconsin 5236. Ваш керівник пан Артур Бертон просить
вас написати листа з привітанням Т. Менінга (T. Manning;
72 North Eden, La Crosse, Wisconsin 5268), який був визнаний як
«Керівник (executive) року».
3. Ви працюєте в компанії «Амерікан асоушіейтс». Керівник
компанії Томас Браун не був на роботі протягом кількох днів
(адреса 23 Polar Street, London, WCZ ;) і ви дізнаєтесь, що у нього
померла дружина. Оскільки пан Браун повернеться на роботу
тільки через тиждень, напишіть йому листа зі співчуттям.

Exercise X. Roleplay
Card I. Компанія «Ком’юніті Іншуранс» (Community
Insurance), з якою ви співпрацюєте понад п’ять років, святкує де-
сятиріччя існування. Розкажіть вашому помічнику про те, як ви
високо оцінюєте роботу компанії і яким важливим для вас є спів-
робітництво з нею. Попросіть його написати вітального листа на
адресу партнерів і подякувати їм за плідну співпрацю (407 East
Street, New York, New York 10013)
Card II. Ви працюєте помічником виконавчого директора
компанії «Ком’юніті Іншуранс «. Ви маєте написати листа за за-
вданням вашого керівника. Дізнайтесь, кому слід адресувати лист
і чи слід виказати особливу подяку пану Сміту, директору ком-
панії, за сумісну плідну роботу.
109
UNIT IX
THE ROLE OF CONTRACTS
IN INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE

Contracts are so much a part of living in a society that you are

probably unaware of how many contracts are made every day. In the
broadest sense, a contract is simply an agreement that defines a rela-
tionship between one or more parties. Two people exchanging wed-
ding vows enter into a contract of marriage; a person who has a child
contracts to nurture and support that child; shoppers selecting food in
a market contract to purchase the goods for a stated amount. A com-
mercial contract, in simplest terms, is merely an agreement made by
two or more parties for the purpose of transacting business.
Any contract may be oral or written. Written terms may be re-
corded in a simple memorandum, certificate, or receipt. Because a
contractual relationship is made between two or more parties who
have potentially adverse interests, the contract terms are usually sup-
plemented and restricted by laws that serve to protect the parties and
to define specific relationships between them in the event that provi-
sions are indefinite, ambiguous, or even missing.
When one party enters into a commercial contract with an unfa-
miliar and distant party across a country border, a contract takes on
added significance. The creation of an international contract is a more
complex process than the formation of a contract between parties from
the same country and culture. In a cross-border transaction, the parties
usually do not meet face-to-face, they have different societal values
and practices, and the laws to which they are subject are imposed by
different governments with distinct legal systems. These factors can
easily lead to misunderstandings, and therefore the contracting parties
should define their mutual understanding in contractual, and prefera-
bly written, terms. The role of a contract in an international commer-
cial transaction is of particular importance with respect to the follow-
ing aspects.

Balance of Power
The essence of a contract is the mutual understanding reached by
two parties who hold adverse positions against each other. In most
contractual situations, one party will have a stronger position than the
other. For example, a large corporation that offers goods for sale may
be able to insist on contract terms that are highly favorable to the cor-
poration while restricting the rights of individual buyers. The corpo-
110
ration may offer a standard form sales contract with nonnegotiable
terms—take it or leave it—to the buyer.

The Party Who Drafts the Contract

The balance of power between contracting parties usually tips in
favor of the party who drafts the written contract. Even if the essential
contract terms have already been negotiated and agreed by both par-
ties, the drafting party will typically include provisions that are more
skewed to his or her favor. To illustrate, a seller who drafts a sales
contract may provide trade terms by which the risk of loss passes to
the buyer at the first possible moment of the transfer.

The Party Familiar with Written Contracts

In cross-border transactions, the balance of power may tip toward
the party who is most familiar with written contracts and whose
country has a more highly developed system of contract enforcement.
This party may insist on terms that are common in his or her domestic
contracts, and the other party, with less or no understanding of those
terms, may simply acquiesce. As an example, a clause that is com-
monly inserted into contracts in the United States is, «Time is of the
essence.» If such a clause is included, failure to perform the contract
within the time allowed is considered a material breach of the con-
tract, entitling the other party to claim damages or other remedies. In
cultures that place more emphasis on continuing business relation-
ships, this clause has little meaning because contract terms are com-
monly renegotiated to allow for a party’s difficulties in performing the
contract—the ongoing relationship is more important than the one-
time deal.

Enforcement of One-Sided Contracts

In the context of enforcement, the balance of power can work
against the stronger party in a contract negotiation. Courts and arbi-
trators often refuse to enforce terms that unreasonably burden one
party or that are otherwise unconscionable. Furthermore, contract pro-
visions are typically given a strict interpretation against the party who
drafted the terms, since that party had the opportunity to draft a clear
and definite contract.

Cross-Cultural Expectations.Well-drafted contracts can help to

ensure that parties who have diverse cultural backgrounds reach a
mutual understanding with regard to their rights and obligations. All
contracting parties come to the table with individual expectations,
111
which in turn tint their understanding of the terms. What is reasonable
to one may not be to the other, in which case mutual understanding—
an essential element in the creation of an enforceable contract—is
lacking.

The key is in the drafting of the agreement. You should write the
provisions to reflect the culture of the foreign party, while at the same
time keeping in mind your own requirements. Such drafting requires
that you have an understanding of the other party’s culture and the
extent to which it differs from your own. Your contract provisions
may need to be simplified so that they can be clearly understood, par-
ticularly if the contract will have to be translated into the other party’s
own language. You should review the provisions for shorthand
phrases, legalese, and slang familiar to you but not to the other
party—these provisions should be written in plain terms to ensure
mutual understanding.

Further, you will need to determine the extent to which the other
party is familiar with international business. If the other party has
been trading internationally for some time, he or she is more likely to
have gained an understanding of cross-cultural transactions. During
your negotiations, you should explore the business history of the other
party so that you can draft your contract to the appropriate level of so-
phistication.

A contract that reflects the cultural expectations of each party is

more likely to be performed to the satisfaction of both. Mutual under-
standing means not only that each party knows its rights and obliga-
tions before signing the contract, but that the parties are in complete
agreement as to each other’s rights and obligations. Disputes typically
arise when one party interprets a right or obligation differently than
the other party. A contract drafted to ensure mutual understanding of
culturally diverse parties will help to avoid, or at least to settle, subse-
quent disagreements over performance.

10 TIPS TO CULTURAL SUCCESS

1. Follow your host’s lead
2. Practice fundamental politeness and business courtesies
3. Listen attentively and with interest
4. Keep hand motions and body movement to a minimum
5. Speak firmly, with conviction, and in a warm tone that invites
the other party’s comments; avoid boisterous talk and slang
112
 6. Personally sign all correspondence
7. Respond promptly to inquiries and orders
8. Ask what language is spoken and arrange for a translator if nec-
essary
9. Avoid generalities and preconceived expectations
10. Laugh at yourself, and be serious when it counts.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions

1. What is a contract? Give examples of different contracts.
2. What is a commercial contract?
3. In what forms may written terms be recorded?
4. Why is the creation of an international contract a more complex
process?
5. What are the aspects that make the role of a contract in an inter-
national commercial transaction so important?
6. What is meant by balance of power in international contracts?
7. Why does the balance of power between contracting parties tip
in favour of the party who drafts the written contract?
8. What clause is commonly inserted into contracts in the United
States?
9. Can the balance of power work against the strongest party in a
contract negotiation?
10. How can well-drafted contracts help to ensure that parties who
have diverse cultural background reach a mutual understanding with
regard to their rights and obligations?
11. What are the tips to cultural success? Express your own opinion.

Exercise II. Learn the following terms.

contract контракт; угода; договір. Письмовий або усний дого-
вір, який визначає взаємні зобов’язання і права згідно з нормами
чинного законодавства;
— виділяють такі види контрактів, як, наприклад, двосторон-
ній контракт — bilateral contract — за яким визначають взаємні
зобов’язання сторін; односторонній контракт — unilateral contract
— за яким одна особа обіцяє щось зробити на користь іншої сто-
рони; відкритий контракт — open contract — за яким не визнача-
ються додаткові умови, а сторони співпрацюють у юридичному
просторі чинних законів;
113
 acceptable ~ прийнятний контракт; agency ~ агентська угода,
договір доручення; associate ~ паралельний договір; basic ~ осно-
вний контракт; blanket ~ акордний контракт; brokerage ~ маклер-
ський договір, договір представництва, агентський договір; bro-
ker’s ~ агентський договір; classified ~ засекречений контракт;
collateral ~ побічний контракт; collective ~ колективний договір;
collective bargaining ~ колективний договір про тарифні ставки;
commercial agency ~ договір про торговельне представництво;
commodity ~ контракт на постачання товару; conditional ~ умов-
ний договір; consignment ~ договір консигнації; consultancy ~ ко-
нтракт про надання консультаційних послуг; development ~ конт-
ракт на проведення дослідно-конструкторської роботи; domestic
~ контракт, що укладається у межах однієї країни, внутрішній
контракт; draft ~ проект контракту; export ~ експортний контракт;
fiduciary ~ довірений договір, доручений договір; fixed-price ~
контракт з твердою (встановленою ціною); formal ~ оформлений
договір, формальний договір; frame ~ рамковий контракт; futures
~ строковий контракт, ф’ючерсний контракт; gratuitous ~ безпла-
тний договір; hire ~ договір оренди; import ~ імпортний контракт;
instalment ~ контракт із платежем частинами; insurance ~ договір
страхування; international ~ міжнародний контракт; joint ~ дого-
вір, який передбачає солідарну відповідальність боржників; li-
cense ~ ліцензійний договір; life ~ довічний контракт; life insur-
ance ~ договір страхування життя; lump-sum ~ контракт з
твердою ціною; maintenance ~ контракт на технічне обслугову-
вання; model (standard) ~ типовий контракт; nuptial ~ шлюбний
контракт; operating ~ чинний контракт; original ~ первісний конт-
ракт; outstanding ~ невиконаний контракт; period ~ довгостроко-
вий договір; preliminary ~ попередня угода; prime (principal) ~ ос-
новний контракт; purchase sale ~ контракт купівлі-продажу; repair
~ контракт на виконання ремонтних робіт; service ~ контракт на
обслуговування; spot ~ договір на реальний товар, звичайний до-
говір; tenancy ~ договір на оренду; terminal ~ строковий контракт;
turnkey ~ контракт на будівництво під ключ; underwriting ~ дого-
вір страхування; valid ~ діючий договір, контракт, який укладено
згідно з чинним законодавством; vendor (supply )~ договір на по-
стачання; void ~ недійсний контракт;

Exercise III. Remember the following useful expressions.

1. according to the contract — згідно з умовами контракту;
2. as per contract — згідно з контрактом;
3. contract between part owners — контракт між співвласниками;
114
 4. contract form — бланк контракту;
5. contract obligations — контрактні зобов’язання;
6. contract of partnership — договір про партнерство;
7. contract penalty — штраф за невиконання договору;
8. contract price — договірна ціна;
9. contract research — вивчення умови контракту;
10. contract terms — умови контракту;
11. contract uberrimae fidei — договір найвищої довіри;
12. expiry of contract — закінчення терміну договору;
13. subject to contract — за умов укладання контракту;
14. to accept a contract — приймати контракт;
15. to annul a contract — анулювати контракт;
16. to award a contract — ухвалювати контракт;
17. to be under contract — бути зобов’язаним контрактом;
18. to break a contract — порушувати умови контракту;
19. to cancel a contract — анулювати контракт;
20. to come under а contract — підкорятися чинності договору;
21. to commit a breach of contract — порушувати умови договору;
22. to complete a contract — виконувати / виконати умови конт-
ракту;
23. to conclude a contract — укладати / укласти договір;
24. to create a contract / to draft a contract — розробляти договір;
25. to draw up a contract — укладати договір;
26. to enforce a contract — виконувати договір, впроваджувати
договір;
27. to enter into contract — входити / увійти у контракт;
28. to fulfil a contract — виконувати договір;
29. to hold a contract — мати контракт; працювати за контрактом;
30. to execute a contract — виконувати договір;
31. to implement a contract — виконувати договір;
32. to fulfil a contract — виконувати контракт
33. to initial a contract — парафувати договір;
34. to prepare a contract — готувати договір;
35. to repudiate a contract — розривати договір; анулювати договір;
36. to rescind a contract — розривати договір; анулювати договір;
37. to revoke a contract — розривати договір; анулювати договір;
38. to secure a contract — захищатися контрактом; забезпечува-
тися контрактом;
39. to sign a contract — підписувати контракт;
40. to stipulate by contract — передбачати контрактом;
41. to tender for a contract — подавати пропозицію на виконання
контракту;
115
 42. to violate a contract — порушувати умови договору;
43. to withdraw from a contract — виходити з договору;
44. to insist on contract terms — наполягати на умовах договору.

Exercise III. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian phrases.
визначати взаємовідносини між двома сторонами; виховувати
дитину; з метою ведення бізнесу (комерції); мати протилежні ін-
тереси; входити до комерційного контракту; не зустрічатися осо-
бисто; різні суспільні цінності; правова система; підпорядковува-
тися закону; вести до непорозуміння; досягати взаєморозуміння;
стосовно наступних аспектів; сутність контракту; мати сильнішу
позицію; обмежувати права окремих покупців; пропонувати ти-
пову форму контракту купівлі-продажу; умови контракту, що не
обговорюються; баланс сил; мати перевагу на користь сторони,
що розробляє письмовий контракт; схилятися на чиюсь сторону;
ризик збитку; високорозвинена система впровадження контрактів
у життя; внутрішні контракти; погоджуватися без бажання; по-
рушення умов контракту; мати право виставляти претензію за
збитки (пошкодження); одноразова угода; контрактні положення;
міжкультурні очікування; мати різні культурні засади; власні очі-
кування, що обумовлюють особисте розуміння умов контракту;
відображати культуру іншої країни; спрощувати контрактні по-
ложення; писати зрозумілою мовою; забезпечувати взаєморозу-
міння; бути обізнаним із веденням міжнародного бізнесу; належ-
ний рівень складності; суперечки типово виникають, коли права
й обов’язки тлумачать по-різному; уникати незгоди.

Exercise IV. Translate the following text into Ukrainian in writing.

Governing Law
When trading internationally, parties frequently assume that they can
operate in accordance with their own domestic laws and practices. This
assumption is erroneous and can lead to grave misunderstandings.
When you trade across country borders, you are subject to not only
the laws of your own country but to the laws of other countries where
you do business. You need not physically enter another country to be-
come subject to its laws—merely selling goods by mail or electronic
means may establish a sufficient connection to bring you within the
jurisdiction of another country’s courts.
To a certain extent, you may control the application of a country’s
laws to your particular transaction by expressly setting forth the law
116
that will govern the contract. However, parties do not have complete
freedom of contract in choosing the governing law. Most countries
have laws that mandate domestic jurisdiction over particular types of
contractual arrangements, such as those involving land transactions.
Even in the absence of a statute, the determination as to which law
will be applied is nearly always left to the discretion of the court,
which may or may not respect the choice you have made. In practice,
courts tend to uphold the expressed intent of the parties provided it is
not contrary to statute. An express provision on governing law there-
fore has a significant effect on which laws will be employed to inter-
pret contractual rights and obligations in international transactions.

Exercise V. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or

word combinations. Mind your grammar.

risk of loss; to nurture; to enforce terms; in plain terms; trade terms; to define;
provisions; to have stronger position; balance of power; to avoid taking unfair ad-
vantage; to be more familiar with; to lead to misunderstanding; to enter into a
contract.

1. A contract is an agreement that _____ a relationship between

one or more parties.
2. A person who has a child contracts _____ and support that child.
3. When one party _____ with an unfamiliar party across a country
border, a contract takes on added significance.
4. Different societal values and practices, different legal systems
can easily _____.
5. In most contractual situations, one party _____ than the other.
6. _____ between contracting parties usually tips in favour of the
party who drafts the written contract.
7. A seller who drafts a sales contract may provide _____ by
which _____ passes to the buyer at the first possible moment of the
transfer.
8. In cross-border transactions, the balance of power may tip to-
ward the party who _____ written contracts.
9. Courts and arbiters often refuse _____ that unreasonably burden
one party.
10. Because of the problem with enforcement, parties to cross-
border transactions should _____.
11. You should write _____ to reflect the culture of the foreign party.
12. Contract provisions should be written _____ to ensure mutual
understanding.
117
 Exercise VI. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Комерційний контракт — це угода, складена між двома або
більше сторонами з метою ведення ділових операцій.
2. Оскільки контрактні взаємовідносини здійснюються між
сторонами, що можуть потенційно мати різні інтереси, умови ко-
нтракту зазвичай доповнюються й обмежуються законами, які
слугують захисту сторін.
3. Коли одна сторона вступає в контракт з незнайомою сторо-
ною з іншої країни, контракт набуває додаткового значення.
4. Створення міжнародного контракту є набагато складнішим
процесом за розробку внутрішнього контракту.
5. Різні суспільні цінності і практика та різні законодавчі сис-
теми можуть легко призвести до непорозуміння, і тому контракти
слід укладати в письмовій формі.
6. Сутність контракту полягає у досягненні взаєморозуміння
між сторонами, що мають протилежну позицію.
7. Наприклад, велика корпорація, яка пропонує товари на про-
даж, може наполягати на умовах, які є дуже вигідними для самої
корпорації, але водночас обмежують права окремих покупців.
8. Баланс сил між сторонами, що укладають договір, зазвичай
схиляється до сторони, яка готує письмовий контракт.
9. У міжнародних операціях баланс сил може бути на користь
тієї сторони, яка найбільш ознайомлена з письмовими контракта-
ми та яка має більш розвинену систему впровадження контрактів.
10. Добре підготовлений контракт може сприяти взаєморозу-
мінню сторін із різними культурними засадами щодо їх прав і зо-
бов’язань.
11. Положення контракту мають бути написані таким чином,
щоб відображати культурні традиції іншої сторони, не забуваючи
при цьому власних потреб і вимог.

Exercise VII. Read and translate the text given below. Explain what
issues mostly affect international contracts.
Cultural Issues
Your success in foreign trade will depend on how flexible you are
in recognizing and respecting the culture of other people. Cultural dif-
ferences will affect not only your negotiations with foreign traders,
but also the acceptance of your goods or services in foreign markets.
In a business context, culture is a set of rules that govern the way in
which commercial transactions are conducted between nationals of
particular nations. These rules dictate the etiquette, traditions, values,
communication, and negotiating styles of a group of people. You must
118
be aware and sensitive to other cultures, and you must adapt your
products and services to the preferences of the foreign market.
Culture should be considered as applying to people, not to nations.
Although it may be possible to identify an overall culture for a par-
ticular country, many subcultures are likely to exist. Even if you have
identified a foreign trader’s country and have learned the rules that
you think will apply, you should avoid clinging to preconceived no-
tions. In today’s world, people are on the move, and even more im-
portantly, cultures are crossing country borders and cultural rules are
constantly evolving.
Cultural awareness will be most important in the initial contact and
negotiation, since in subsequent contacts you will have figured out
many of the rules. In making initial contact, you should first establish
whether the general protocol in the country tends to be rigidly applied.
The next step is to determine what that protocol is, especially for the
issues that will arise at the first stage of contract negotiations. These
issues include greetings, courtesies, business ethics, decision making,
gender, meeting formalities, and business attire.
The final step should be to ensure that you are approaching cultural
issues with the proper attitude. Once you have researched the rules,
learned what you believe is the proper protocol, and made an attempt
to practice it, be willing to laugh at yourself. Cultural missteps are in-
evitable and will be made on both sides.
Humour will usually ease even the tensest situation. Pull out your
cultural pocket guide, show the rules and illustrations to your host,
and have a good laugh together.

Exercise VIII Read the text given below and answer the following
questions.
1. How do political events influence the economy of a country?
2. What role does international trade play in a country’s economy?
3. What should international traders bear in mind before making
commitment to do business in a particular market?

Role of Politics
Political events have a major impact on the economy of a country. In-
stability can be devastating to a country’s markets, while a stable gov-
ernment can be a great asset. A strong and growing economy will in turn
have a calming effect on political turmoil. Although some would argue
that politicians should take less of a role in regulating the commercial af-
fairs of private traders, the influence of politics will no doubt always be a
major factor because these two forces are so entwined.
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 International trade plays such a significant role in a country’s
economy that governments throughout history have used direct and
indirect trade barriers to force changes in the governments and poli-
cies of other countries. Trade barriers include boycotts, quotas, tariffs,
import and export prohibitions, licenses, consumer and labeling re-
quirements, and environmental regulations. Trade sanctions are often
used to influence another country’s domestic policies or practices and
to protest a country’s aggressive actions toward its neighbors. Favor-
able trade preferences are granted to countries that implement the
changes thought to be desirable.
As an international trader, you must stay in touch with political
trends. The stability or instability of a region will indicate whether
you will succeed in establishing long-term arrangements there.

As regulations and trade barriers are relaxed in a particular coun-

try, look for new opportunities. Take advantage of your own govern-
ment’s incentives for trading with other countries. Before making a
commitment to do business in a particular market, you should con-
sider whether the country’s political past and current political climate
are conducive to your trade.

Exercise IX. Round-table discussion. Study the following informa-

tion. Discuss with your fellow-students what you should do and what
you should not do negotiating contracts.

Cultural Dos and Don’ts of Negotiating Contracts

WHEN YOU MEET A FOREIGN TRADER DO use a title to
show respect and wait for the other party to initiate informality. Reply
to inquiries immediately, preferably by telephone. Be enthusiastic but
not overbearing. Allow the other trader equal speaking time.
DON’T be in a hurry. Determine in advance whether it is common
business practice in the other party’s country to «grow» deals over
time. If not, make your deal. If so, plan to establish a professional re-
lationship before you sign a contract. If you are seeking more than a
one-time sale, you may need months or even a year to reach a long-
term arrangement.
WHEN YOU CONFRONT GENDER OR RACE BIAS DO keep
your appearance subdued, your demeanor professional, and your ap-
proach formal. Present a business card, speak quietly with knowledge
and authority, and take a firm attitude. If possible, bring a business
partner or coworker who is of the same race or gender as the foreign
trader and who is prompted in advance to acknowledge your authority
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and aptitude. Find out whether you can deal with a different repre-
sentative of the company.
DON’T try to make a statement about rights. If the deal is impor-
tant, try not to take personal offense and refrain from lecturing the
other party. Do not assume that others from the same company or
even the same country share the same bias.
WHEN YOU ARE AT THE NEGOTIATING TABLE DO show
firm authority. Be aware of your host’s level of eye and physical con-
tact and remain within the bounds established. Research common
cultural traits and business practices of the foreign trader. Determine
in advance the points on which you can be flexible so that you start
the negotiations above your bottom line. Insert humor when appropri-
ate, balanced with reserve when the discussion is serious.
DON’T appear inflexible on all points. Avoid overt conflict or be-
laboring a point. Don’t jump to fill every conversation gap; silence
can yield golden results. Refrain from sudden shifts in your tone of
voice or changes in your demeanor.

UNIT X
DRAFTING INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTS

When dealing internationally, you must consider the business

practices and legal requirements of both the buyer’s and the seller’s
country. Parties to a commercial transaction generally have the free-
dom to agree to any contract terms that they desire, but the laws of
your country or the foreign country may require a written contract. In
some transactions, the laws may even specify all or some of the con-
tract terms.
However, you should always be certain to come to a definite un-
derstanding with the other party on four basic issues: the goods
(quantity, type, and quality); the time of delivery; the price; the time
and means of payment.

The following provisions are for a complete, simple, international

contract for the one-time sale of goods. Not every provision listed is
applicable to every contractual arrangement. The purpose for referring
to the following checklist is to ensure that you have defined your rela-
tionship with the other party as clearly as possible and that you have
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considered and provided for as many contingencies as may be antici-
pated in advance. The provisions should include:

1. Contract date 16. Transportation—carrier

2. Identification of parties
3. Subject of the contract: Goods—
description
4. Goods—quantity
5. Goods—price
6. Payment—method of payment
7. Payment—medium of exchange
8. Payment—exchange rate
9. Costs and charges—duties and taxes
10. Costs and charges—insurance
11. Costs and charges—handling and
transport
12. Packaging arrangements
13. Delivery—date
14. Delivery—place
15. Delivery—transfer of title
17. Transportation—storage
18.Transportation—notice provisions
19. Transportation—shipping time
20. Transportation—insurance or risk
of loss protection
21. Import/export documentation
22. Invoice preparation and delivery
23. Enforcement and remedies
24. Arbitration provisions
25. Time is of the essence
26. Modification of contract
27. Cancellation
28. Liquidated damages
29. Force majeure
30. Acceptance and execution

In drafting international contracts, it is extremely wise to go

through each contract provision with each party and expressly ask
them to indicate their comprehension, such as: «Do you understand
that you are assuming the responsibility for packing these goods ac-
cording to our shipper’s instructions?» If you are concerned that mis-
understandings over performance are likely, you may want to have
each party initial all or some paragraphs, and it is common practice to
have each party initial every page. Some multinational contracts have
every paragraph initialed after the parties have spent weeks negotiat-
ing the contract through interpreters.
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 Explanation of Specific Contract Provisions
Contract Date
This Agreement is made on [date].
The date when the contract is signed is usually also the date when
it becomes effective unless the contract provides otherwise. This date
is particularly important if payment or delivery times will be fixed in
reference to it. For example, a contract may provide for «shipment
within 30 days after the contract date».
When dealing internationally, you should remember that the con-
ventional format for dates differs from country to country. In some,
the day is stated before the month; in others, the month is given before
the day. To avoid confusion, it is highly recommended that you spell
out the month when dating your contract.(see «Letter writing»)

Identification of Parties
This Agreement is made between [full name of party A] of [ad-
dress of party A], a/an [description and nationality of party A]
(«Seller»), and [full name of party B] of [address of party B], a/an
[description and nationality of party B] («Buyer»).
The agreement is binding on the parties who sign it, and these par-
ties should be identified in this clause. To ensure that there is no mis-
understanding, the full name of each party to the contract should be
given. If a party is an entity, the type of entity (partnership, corpora-
tion, limited liability company, nonprofit corporation, and so forth)
should be disclosed here. Any question as to whether the entity or the
person representing the entity has authority to make the contract
should be resolved before the contract is executed.
The common practice is to include the address of each party in
this provision, although sometimes the addresses are included at
the end of the agreement with the signatures of the parties. The ad-
dress given should be the business address for the party. If a party
has more than one business address, the address given should be
for the registered office or the principle place of business. Unless
otherwise specified in the contract, this address is where the party
will receive the goods, the payment for the goods, and any notices
related to the transaction.
In international contracts, the description of each party includes the
party’s nationality. Examples of descriptions: «a Société Anonyme
organized and existing under the laws of France» or «a partnership
organized and existing under the laws of the State of California in the
United States of America» or «an individual who is a citizen of Sin-
gapore».
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 Subject of the Contract:
Goods—Description, Quantity, and Price

SALE AND PURCHASE OF GOODS. The Seller agrees to sell

to the Buyer, and the Buyer agrees to purchase from the Seller,
goods (the «Goods») that are of the following type for the price
and quantity stated:
Model Number:
Description:
Quantity:
Price:
Item:
Total Price:
The provision for goods contains two terms that are essential to all
contracts, whether international or domestic: a description of the
goods and the price. For the contract to be enforceable, the parties
must usually agree to both of these terms. Although a few jurisdic-
tions will allow these terms to be implied in commercial transactions,
the general rule is that these terms cannot be implied.
If a description of the goods is missing or is not specific, enforce-
ment of the contract may be impossible because the goods cannot be
identified. A clause is considered sufficiently specific if it is so clear
that both parties fully understand the specifications and have no dis-
cretion in interpreting them. The goods may be described by model
numbers, shown in plans or drawings, or defined by other specifica-
tions. For multiple goods, you should provide a detailed list attached
as an exhibit to the agreement.
If the parties fail to agree to a price or to a means for determining
the price, the courts are unlikely to enforce the contract. You may in-
dicate a total price for all goods or a price per unit or other measure,
such as per kilogram or ton, and the extended price. Even if the quan-
tity of the goods is not fixed at the time the contract is made, a means
of determining the price must nevertheless be stated (Drafting Precise
Contract Provisions). In an international contract, it is wise to state the
price using an abbreviation of the currency in which payment is to be
made, such as HK$ (Hong Kong dollars) or US$ (United States dol-
lars), to avoid any misunderstandings.
The quantity of goods is important. If the contract covers goods of
more than one type, the quantity of each type should be given. You
may specify a number of units or any other measure of quantity. If the
goods are measured by weight, be certain to specify net weight, dry
weight, or drained weight.
124
 TERMS OF PAYMENT. The Buyer will pay the purchase
price [specify e.g., on or before (date) or not later than (number)
days before the Delivery Date]. The payment must be remitted to
the Seller at [the address stated above or specify other address].

The payment must be made in [currency] by means of [instru-

ment of transfer].
In a one-time transaction, the seller will typically seek the most se-
cure form of payment before committing to shipment, while a buyer
will want the goods cleared through customs and delivered in satis-
factory condition before remitting payment. The parties will need to
negotiate a compromise between these two positions, and each should
insist on certain protective clauses to alleviate some of the risk.
In international contracts, you should always specify the acceptable
currency and the instrument of payment. The currency selected should
be strong and stable to allow some protection against fluctuating ex-
change rates, and the means of payment should be secure. For example,
the payment may be made by delivery of a documentary letter of credit
or documents against payment, by advance payment in cash or wire
transfer, or by a line of credit for a specified number of days.

COSTS AND CHARGES. The buyer is responsible for the

following costs and charges incurred in the sale and transport of
the goods: [list]. The seller is responsible for the following costs
and charges incurred in the sale and transport of the goods: [list].
You should specify which party is to pay any additional costs and
charges related to the sale. Even if you use a trade term in your con-
tract to indicate one party’s responsibility for the payment of costs and
charges, you should elaborate on the obligations of both parties. The
items to be considered include import, export, and other customs and
shipping fees, ad valorem and other taxes, and expenses for obtaining
requisite licenses.

PACKAGING ARRANGEMENTS. The Seller has discretion

in packaging the goods, provided that the packaging must with-
stand transportation, prevent damage to the goods during trans-
port, and comply with the following requirements: [specify, e.g.,
product warning and origin marking laws of the Buyer’s coun-
try]. The Seller will endeavor to complete all packaging within
time for the Delivery Date. If there is any delay, the Seller will
immediately notify the Buyer of the delay, the expected time for
completion, and the reason for the delay. The Buyer will then
125
have the option to renegotiate with the Seller for a new Delivery
Date, which the parties will confirm in writing as a modification
to this Agreement, or to notify the Seller that the Agreement is
terminated.
At a minimum, this provision should require the seller to package
the goods in such a way as to withstand transportation. If special
packaging requirements are necessary, you should specify them also.
Special packaging may be required to meet both legal requirements
and market expectations in the buyer’s country. Thus, products may
be subject to importation, transportation, health, agricultural, envi-
ronmental, navigation, construction, and consumer laws and regula-
tions. Compliance may involve getting a license or permit, arranging
for inspections, using proper packaging and labeling, providing proof
of insurance, and presenting proper entry documents for customs
clearance.

DELIVERY AND TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS. The

Goods will be delivered [trade term, e.g.,F.O.B.] [place] on or be-
fore [date] («Delivery Date»). The Seller will deliver the Goods in
a single shipment. The mode of transport to the point of delivery
is at the Seller’s discretion. The Seller will make every effort to
commence transport of the Goods so that they will arrive by the
Delivery Date. If there is any delay, the Seller will immediately
notify the Buyer of the delay, the expected time for delivery, and
the reason for the delay. The Buyer will then have the option to
renegotiate with the Seller for a new Delivery Date, which the par-
ties will confirm in writing as a modification to this Agreement, or
to notify the Seller that the Agreement is terminated.
Contracts for the sale of goods most commonly use international
trade terms—usually Incoterms (see Apendix C) as defined by the In-
ternational Chamber of Commerce in Paris—to assign responsibility
for the risks and costs of transport. Although international trade terms
have been standardized, in practice their meanings can vary. Precise
definitions of these terms are important to your contract because these
terms can determine such items as which party is responsible for in-
suring the goods at any one time, the time at which title to the goods
will transfer from seller to buyer, and the party responsible for paying
certain transportation costs.
If you do not use an Incoterm, the delivery and transport provision
may simply state the name of the carrier who will handle the freight
shipment, designate the point at which and the date on which the
goods will be delivered to the buyer, and identify the party who will
126
pay for transportation from point A to point B. If more than two or
three carriers are involved or your goods require special treatment,
you will have to add extra details to this provision.
It is often wise to name a preferred carrier for transporting the
goods. You should designate a particular carrier if, for example, a car-
rier offers you special pricing or is better able than others to transport
the product. If the carrier is designated, however, you may be locked
into using that carrier under unfavorable terms. Therefore, the choice
of carrier should remain flexible, even if a preference is stated. An-
other alternative is to describe a type of carrier, particularly if special
handling of the goods is required. The transport clause should also
specify any particular requirements for storage of the goods before or
during shipment, such as security arrangements, special climate de-
mands, and weather protection needs.
The parties may include notice provisions, particularly if goods are
not ready for immediate transfer. Thus, a seller may be required to
notify the buyer when the goods will be ready for delivery or pickup,
particularly if the goods are perishable or fluctuate in value. If your
transaction is time sensitive, you could even provide for several no-
tices, which will allow you to track the goods and to take steps to
minimize costs and damages if delivery is delayed.

INSURANCE. The [Buyer/Seller] will obtain and pay, on its

own account, for all insurance on the Goods while in transit, pro-
vided that the insurance obtained will include for the protection
of the [Seller/Buyer] coverage for the following: [specify]. Evi-
dence of this insurance, in the form of a copy of the policy or
other statement provided by the insurer, will be provided to the
[Seller/Buyer] before the Goods are shipped. Each party is re-
sponsible for obtaining on its own account any other insurance
coverage for the Goods that he/she may desire.
You should specify the insurance required, the beneficiary of the
policy, the party who will obtain the insurance and who will pay for it,
and the date by which it must be obtained. You should also agree on
which documents will be considered satisfactory evidence of insurance.

TITLE TO GOODS. Title to the Goods will pass to the Buyer

at the time the Goods are delivered to [place], provided the Buyer
has transmitted payment to the Seller by that time.
This is a critical provision because, if the goods are lost during
transit, the party with title generally bears the risk. The general rule is
that title transfers at the point when the seller delivers the goods to the
127
buyer. Thus, if the buyer picks up the goods at the seller’s place of
business and carries them off, title has transferred and the buyer bears
the risk of loss or damage during transport. If the seller ships the
goods, title may transfer at any point during transit, even right up to
the buyer’s door, depending on the agreement of the parties.
Each party should be certain to insure «their» goods for at least the
time they have possession, hold title, or have responsibility for the
goods. If Incoterms are used, each term defines the time and place of
transfer of responsibilities and title.

IMPORT/EXPORT DOCUMENTATION. The Seller will be

responsible for obtaining, completing, and presenting to [country]
customs all export documentation and fees required for clearance,
including the following: [list].The Buyer will be responsible for ob-
taining, completing, and presenting to [country] customs all import
documentation and fees required for clearance, including the fol-
lowing: [list]. The Buyer must notify the Seller that all import re-
quirements have been met. The Seller is not required to ship the
Goods until the Buyer furnishes the Seller with proof that the im-
port requirements and fees have been or will be timely met. If
shipment is delayed because the Buyer fails to furnish such proof
timely, the Seller will not be deemed to have breached the contract.
Shipment of the goods, and even the contract itself, may be made
contingent on a party’s having obtained or arranged in advance the
proper licenses, inspection certificates, and other authorizations. Al-
ways make complete import and export documentation—that is,
documentation that is satisfactory for customs clearance and entry—a
requirement of your contract for the purchase of products or com-
modities.
As written, this provision is intended to split the responsibility for
customs clearance between the parties in accordance with the re-
quirements most familiar to each—the seller for the exporting coun-
try, the buyer for the importing country. The clause may be amended
to provide that one party will make all arrangements for customs
clearance.

INVOICES. The Seller will issue provisional invoices and final

invoices for the shipment of the Goods. The invoices must specifi-
cally describe the Goods, the quantity of the Goods, and the price
of the Goods.
In international transactions, invoices serve to confirm the ship-
ment, notify the buyer of shipment, and furnish documentary evidence
128
for customs clearance. The contract should also require that the in-
voice be in compliance with any specific requirements imposed by the
laws or regulations of the buyer’s or seller’s country, and it is wise to
append those requirements to the contract to facilitate compliance.

EXPRESS AND IMPLIED WARRANTIES. The Seller ex-

pressly warrants that the Goods are free from all defects of mate-
rial, workmanship, or installation. Within [ number] days after
delivery, the Seller will replace free of all charges, including the
cost of transportation, any part of the Goods found defective. Ex-
cept as expressly stated in this agreement the seller does not war-
rant the goods in any manner at all. Implied warranties of fitness
for a particular purpose or of merchantability are disclaimed.
The goods are sold «as it is» and the buyer understands and
agrees that no reliance has been placed on the seller’s skill and
judgment to select or furnish goods for any particular purpose.
The seller may agree to offer extended or limited warranties, or no
warranties at all, as to fitness or quality of the goods. The exact terms
of the warranties should be given in the contract. In some countries,
the law will imply warranties unless the seller expressly disclaims
them. Implied warranties also arise under the UN Convention on In-
ternational Sale of Goods. Because of enforcement difficulties, it may
be wise to have both parties initial the warranties paragraph.

TIME. The parties agree that [specify, e.g., time is of the es-
sence or timely performance of this Agreement is important, pro-
vided that if a party fails to perform on time, the parties will
strive to renegotiate the terms].

In the United States, the parties to a contract often stipulate that

timely performance is essential. The inclusion of this clause allows a
party to claim breach simply because the other party fails to perform
within the time prescribed in the contract. In other countries, a clause
of this type is considered less important because contracting parties
often waive or renegotiate terms, rather than sue for damages on
breach of the contract. An optional provision is included here in case
you prefer to amend this clause to more closely reflect the interna-
tional practice.

RIGHT TO CANCEL. The Buyer has a right to cancel this

Agreement if the Seller fails [specify, e.g., to ship all or any of the
Goods on time]. The Seller has a right to cancel this Agreement if
129
the Buyer fails [specify, e.g., to make any payment required by
this Agreement within (number) days of its due date]. If either
party notifies the other party that it will not, or is unable to, per-
form this Agreement, the party receiving notice is entitled to can-
cel the Agreement. To make the cancellation effective, the party
seeking to cancel must give notice to the other party that the
Agreement is deemed canceled. The date of the cancellation will
be the date on which the party receives the notice of nonperform-
ance.

If either party has a right to cancel the contract, the grounds for ex-
ercising that right should be specified, and there should be a require-
ment for notice of cancellation. The provision of a right to cancel fur-
nishes a party with a remedy that can be utilized without having to
seek satisfaction through legal proceedings.

FORCE MAJEURE. This Agreement will be deemed canceled,

and neither party will have any liability to the other for losses re-
sulting from nonperformance, if delivery is prevented by causes
beyond the control of the Seller. Such causes include, but are not
limited to, acts of nature, labor disputes, failure of essential means
of transportation, or changes in policy with respect to exports or
imports by the [country] government or the [country] government.

A common clause in all contracts, the force majeure clause merely

expresses what is no doubt the intent of the parties: if performance is
prevented by a natural disaster or other catastrophic event beyond the
control of the parties, the agreement is canceled.

ARBITRATION. Except when liquidated damages apply, if a

dispute arises between the parties to this Agreement with regard
to any of the provisions or the performance of any terms and con-
ditions of this Agreement, the dispute will be settled by [bind-
ing/nonbinding] arbitration to be conducted in accordance with
the [name of arbitration rules] in [location].

You might provide for arbitration as an alternative to litigation for

resolving contract disputes. Arbitration is less formal procedurally
than a court trial but still allows the parties to present their claims be-
fore a neutral person or panel for an objective decision. This remedy
is increasing in popularity in commercial disputes, largely because it
is less adversarial, less costly, and faster than litigation. However, be
130
certain that you seriously intend to settle disputes in this way. If you
agree to arbitrate but later file suit, the court is likely to uphold the ar-
bitration clause and force you to settle your dispute as you agreed un-
der the contract.

An arbitration clause should specify whether arbitration is binding or

nonbinding on the parties; the country where arbitration will be con-
ducted; the procedure for enforcement of an award; the rules governing
the arbitration, such as the U.N. Commission on International Trade Law
Model Rules; the institute that will administer the arbitration, such as the
International Chamber of Commerce (Paris); the law that will govern
procedural issues or the merits of the dispute; any limitations on the se-
lection of arbitrators (for example, a national of a disputing party may be
excluded from being an arbitrator); the qualifications or expertise of the
arbitrators; the language in which the arbitration will be conducted; and
the availability of translations and translators if needed.

Arbitration is not used in all countries. For example, disputes in

Mexico are rarely settled by arbitration, and throughout Asia, arbitra-
tion is frowned on nearly as much as litigation in court. Moreover,
some countries do not recognize arbitration awards from other juris-
dictions. You should consult an attorney familiar with the law of the
country of your supplier before assuming that you will be able to ar-
bitrate potential contract disputes.

MODIFICATIONS AND WAIVERS. All modifications of this

Agreement must be in writing and signed by the parties or their
authorized agents. If a party waives any of its rights under this
Agreement to make a claim for breach, that waiver will have no
effect with regard to the party’s right to enforce the Agreement as
to any subsequent breach.

Require the parties to make all changes to the contract in advance and
in a signed written modification. This provision is common to all con-
tracts. It is a wise protection against oral alterations and, if there is an oral
or written waiver of a right, against the expectation that other rights are
also waived. You should insist on this clause in contracts with foreign
traders to avoid misunderstandings that can arise from oral modifica-
tions—when it’s your word against that of the other trader.

ACCEPTANCE. To accept this offer, the Buyer must sign and

return it without any modifications to the Seller, who must receive
131
it no later than [date]. The Seller is entitled to revoke this offer at
any time before receipt of acceptance.
Signed this [date]
By: [signature of officer or agent]
Seller/ [title of seller’s representative] for Seller
Accepted on [date]
By: [signature of officer or agent]
Buyer/ [title of buyer’s representative] for Buyer
If the terms of an offer specify the means for acceptance, the accep-
tance must be in compliance or no contract will arise. This provision re-
quires acceptance without modification, which means that any modifica-
tion by the «accepting» party will in fact result in a counteroffer.
The full name of each person who is signing the contract should be
typed below his or her signature to avoid any question as to who rep-
resented each party to the transaction. For any party who is not an in-
dividual, the relationship of the party and the signer should be stated.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions.

1. What factors must be considered dealing internationally?
2. What are the basic issues parties to a contract should always agree to?
3. Give the list of provisions for a complete simple international
contract.
4. Are all the provisions applicable to every contract?
5. Why is it important to go through each contract provision with
each party?
6. Why is the date of the contract so important?
7. How should you write the date to avoid confusion?
8. What information should be disclosed in the Identification of
Parties provision? Why?
9. What terms in the provision for goods are essential to all contracts?
10. What can you say about the Payment terms clause in interna-
tional contracts?
11. Is the Transportation and Delivery of Goods provision obliga-
tory or optional in the international contracts?
12. What terms are traditionally used in this clause?
13. Which is the critical provision in international contracts?
14. What other provisions are essential for the successful enforce-
ment of international contracts.
132
 Exercise II. Learn the following terms.
1. arbitration арбітражний розгляд; арбітраж; третейський
розгляд; третейський суд.
Процедура розв’язання суперечки між двома сторонами арбіт-
ром (arbitrator), якого обирають сторони за взаємною згодою або
призначають згідно з законом; рішення арбітражного розгляду є
обов’язковим для виконання обома сторонами;
accommodative ~ пристосувальний арбітраж; binding ~
обов’язковий арбітраж; зобов’язуваний арбітраж; commercial ~
торговельний арбітраж; compulsory ~ примусовий арбітраж; in-
dustrial ~ промисловий арбітраж; single ~ одноразовий арбітраж;
voluntary ~ добровільний арбітраж;
~ agreement арбітражна угода; ~ award арбітражне рішення; ~
board арбітражна комісія; ~ clause арбітражне застереження (пункт,
зауваження); ~decision арбітражне рішення; ~ hearing арбітражний
розгляд справи; ~ panel арбітражний склад, члени арбітражної комісії;
~ proceedings арбітражне судочинство; to apply to ~ подавати (подава-
тися) до третейського суду; to go to ~ подавати (подаватися) до тре-
тейського суду; to refer (something) tо ~ передавати до арбітражу; to
settle by ~ вирішувати суперечку через третейський суд; to suspend ~
відкладати арбітраж; to turn to ~ звертатися до третейського суду;
2. freight n. вантаж; фрахт; перевезення вантажу; a. вантаж-
ний, фрахтовий товар, який перевозиться; перевезення товарів
водним, автомобільним, залізничним чи повітряним шляхом;
air ~ авіафрахт; back ~ зворотний фрахт; bulk ~ насипний (на-
ливний) вантаж; cartonized ~ вантаж у коробках; chartered ~ за-
фрахтований вантаж; conventional ~ звичайний вантаж; cross ~
зустрічні перевезення;directed ~ адресований вантаж; double ~
подвійний вантаж; excess ~ надмір вантажу; forward ~ фрахт,
який оплачується в порту вивантаження; fragile ~ ламкий вантаж;
gross ~ брутто — фрахт; homebound ~ зворотний вантаж; inland ~
річковий вантаж; in-transit ~ транзитний вантаж; lost ~ загублений
вантаж; missing ~ відсутній вантаж; вантаж, якого бракує; motor ~
вантаж, який перевозиться автотранспортом; net ~ нетто —
фрахт; original ~ первісний вантаж; outbound ~ експортний ван-
таж; outward ~ експортний вантаж; package ~ упакований вантаж;
perishable ~ швидкопсувний вантаж; unclaimed ~ незатребуваний
вантаж; ~ charges плата за перевезення вантажу ; ~ list перелік ва-
нтажів; to handle ~ перекласти вантаж; to increase ~ збільшувати
фрахт; to receive ~ одержувати фрахт; to take in ~ брати фрахт;
3. terms умови обставини, які стосуються платежу, угоди, за-
робітної плати, ціни, страхового полісу тощо;
133
 acceptable ~ прийнятні умови; attractive ~ привабливі умови;
berthing ~ умови причалювання; cash ~ умови платежу готівкою;
collection ~ умови інкасо; concessionary ~ пільгові умови; con-
signment ~ умови консигнації; contract ~ контракті умови; current
~ поточні умови; delivery ~ умови постачання; easy — tax ~ піль-
говий податковий режим; exclusionary ~ обмежувальні умови,
зворотні умови; financing ~ умови фінансування; general ~ загаль-
ні умови; inequitable ~ нерівноправні умови; initial ~ первісні (по-
чаткові) умови; insurance ~ умови; legal ~ юридичні умови; lend-
ing ~ умови кредиту; negotiated ~ узгоджені умови; payment ~
умови платежу; preferential ~ пільгові умови; soft ~ пільгові умо-
ви; special ~ спеціальні умови; stipulated ~ узгоджені умови; trade
~ умови торгівлі; trading ~ торговельні умови; in money ~ у гро-
шовому виразі; ~ of freight умови фрахту; to hold to ~ дотримува-
тися умови; to meet the ~ виконувати умови; to negotiate the ~ до-
мовлятися про умови; to observe the ~ дотримуватися умов; to
outline the ~ визначати умови; to quote the ~ визначати умови; to
sell on easy ~ продавати на вигідних умовах; to specify the ~ засте-
рігати про умови; to stipulate the ~ застерігати про умови; to tailor
the ~ of the loan пристосовувати умови позики;

Exercise III. Translate the following contract into Ukrainian.

CONTRACT 0/1
Kyiv December 11, 20__. Firm ………………………., Kyiv,
hereinafter referred to as the «Seller» on one part, and
……………………………………………… hereinafter referred to as
the «Buyer» on the other part have concluded the present Contract to
the effect that:
1. Subject of the Contract
The Seller shall sell, and the Buyer shall buy the goods (FOB
Kyiv) ………………………………………………………… which
quantity, assortment, and quality are indicated in Specification, Ap-
pendix to the present Contract, forming its integral part.
2. Price and Total Cost of the Contract
The price for the goods supplied in accordance with the present
Contract amounts to …………………………………….. (FOB Kyiv).
The total cost of the Contract shall amount to
…………………………………………………
134
 3. Quality of the Goods
Quality of the goods to be delivered under the present Contract
shall be in full conformity with the standards in force in Ukraine or
with norms of the plants, manufacturing the goods and shall be con-
firmed by manufacturer’s certificate of quality.
4. Guarantees
The Seller shall guarantee the quality of the delivered goods for
…………………… month from the date of beginning its operation,
but for not more than ……………………. month under favourable
conditions of its operation.
5. Dates and Terms of Delivery
The Seller shall deliver the goods to the Buyer in dates, indicated
in Appendix № to the present Contract.
Delivery shall be effected under the shipping documents, indicated
in Appendix № to the present Contract.
The Seller shall notify the Buyer not later than …………………
days after the ……………..(vessel’s) departure from the Seller’s
(port) about the shipment of goods with indication of
…………………… (data of Waybill or Bill of Lading etc.)

6. Packing and Marking

The goods shall be shipped in export packing suitable for the na-
ture of the goods under supply.
The packing shall protect the goods against any damage and corro-
sion during their inland and sea transportation. The packing shall be
fit for transshipping by means of cranes or manually.
Marking shall be inscribed on three sides of the cases (on two op-
posite sides and on the top of the case).
The following marking in the English language shall be inscribed
with indelible paint on each package:
Top
Handle with care
Gross weight ………………kg
Net weight …………………kg
Dimmesions of case (length, width, height) ………………cm.
Do not turn over
Consignor ………………….
Country of Destignation ………………………..
Contract № ………………………………….
135
 Package № …………………………………
Port (Station) of destination
Consignee ………………………..

7. Terms of Payment
Payment under the present Contract shall be effected by the Buyer
by means ………………against presentation by the Seller the fol-
lowing documents to the Bank: ……………………….………………
………………………………………………………………………….

8. Satisfactions and claims

8.1 Claims for shortage or damage of goods during transportation
are to be made by the Buyer against the Carrier or the Insurer.
8.2 The Seller shall be liable to the payment of Liquidated Dam-
ages for default of the several responsibilities under the Contract, as
follows:
For the delay in the delivery of the goods the agreed Liquidated
damages shall be as follows: for each week of delay in the submission
of a required document an amount of ……………. subject to an over-
all maximum liability of under this article.
For delay in supply of 95 % of the goods beyond the period of
……………… month after Effective Date of the Contract for each
week of delay an amount to ………………. of the Contract Price.

9. Force Majeure
Should any force majeure circumstances arise which hinder the
fulfillment by any of the parties of their respective obligations under
the contract, neither party is responsible for the non-fulfilment of its
liabilities to the extent owing to such circumstances.
Natural disasters, war and military operations of any sort, block-
ades, embargo, prohibition of exports and imports, epidemics and
other circumstances beyond the control of the parties are considered
as force majeure. ……………………… have the right to extend the
time stipulated for the fulfillment of the contract by a period equal to
that during which force majeure circumstances last.

10. Settlement of Disputes and Arbitration

Should any differences or disputes connected with the present
Contract arise between the Seller and the Buyer, the parties will strive
to reach friendly settlement of them. Should such friendly settlement
136
appear impossible and the parties fail to reach an agreement within 15
days in the manner of arrangement, the disputes will be submitted for
the consideration of parity commission composed of 4 persons, 2 per-
sons from each party. This parity commission will be set up within 10
days from the date of a written request from one of the parties hereto.
Should the parity commission fail to set the dispute within 15 days
from the date of its establishment, or one party failed to appoint its
representatives to the parity commission within 10 days mentioned
above, the dispute will be at the written request of one of the parties
submitted for the consideration of the Arbitration Court of the
……………………………………………………….Trade Chamber,
………………………………………., the decisions of which will be
final, liable to no protest, appeal and irrevocability and will be
obligatory for both parties.

11. Miscellaneous
Any alterations and amendments to this Contract shall be valid
only if made in writing and duly signed by authorized representatives
of both parties concerned.
After the contract has been signed all the previous negotiations and
correspondence pertaining to it become null and void.
Neither party is entitled to transfer their rights and obligations to a
third party without a written consent of the other contracting party.
The present Contract shall be valid from the date of signing.
Legal Addresses of the Parties.

Seller …………………………………………..
Buyer ………………………………………….

Exercise IV. Remember the following useful expressions.

1. hereinafter referred to as ... — у подальшому (тут і далі) нази-
вається
2. the contract is made — даний контракт складено
3. parties to the contract — сторони, які склали даний контракт
4. as set out below — як вказано далі
5. to conclude the contract to the effect that (whereby it is agreed
as follows) — укладати контракт про таке
6. the seller shall sell and the Buyer shall buy c.i.f. (f.o.b.) the fol-
lowing goods specified in the enclosed appendix… — Продавець зо-
бов’язується продати, а Покупець купити на умовах СІФ (ФОБ)
такі товари, специфікація яких зазначена у додатку до контракту
137
 7. forming its integral part — що становить його складову
8. the prices are fixed in ... — ціни встановлені в ...
9. export packing, marking, insurance are included — експортна
упаковка, маркування, страхування включені
10. all expenses incurred in connection with the present contract
(duties, taxes etc) are to be paid by the Buyer (Seller) — усі витрати
пов’язані з даним контрактом (грошові збори, податки, мито то-
що) стягуються з Покупця (Продавця)
11. the total cost of the Contract shall amount to ___ — загальна
сума контракту становить __
12. the quality of the goods sold ( to be delivered) under the pres-
ent Contract shall be in full conformity with standards in force —
якість проданого товару (що має бути поставленим) за даним конт-
рактом, повинна повністю відповідати чинним стандартам
13. payment shall be effected by the Buyer by means ___ —
оплата товару буде здійснена Покупцем __.
14. the Seller shall guarantee the quality of the delivered goods for
___ month from the date of the beginning of its operation — Прода-
вець гарантує якість поставленого товару на термін __ місяців з
дати його експлуатації.
15. the quality of the goods shall be according to the Manufac-
turer’s certificate issued by the manufacturing works — якіст товару
повинна бути підтверджена сертифікатом про якість заводу ви-
робника.
16. in respect to (of) quantity (quality) — щодо кількості (якості).
17. the Seller shall deliver the goods to the Buyer in dates indi-
cated in Appendix № ____ — Продавець постачає товари Покупцю
у термін, зазначений у Додатку ___
18. the goods shall be shipped in export packing suitable for the
nature of the goods — товари, які транспортуються, пакуються
відповідно до характеру товарів.
19. claims for shortage or damage of goods are to be made by the
Buyer against the Carrier or the Seller — претензії щодо постачання
або пошкодження товару виставляються Покупцем Перевізнику
або Продавцю.
20. the Seller shall be liable for the payment of Liquidated Dam-
ages for default of the responsibilities as follows — Продавець від-
повідає за сплату компенсації збитків за невиконання зо-
бов’язань, такі як.
21. claims will be considered by the Seller only if submitted
within the guarantee period — претензії будуть розглядатися По-
купцем тільки за умови їх подання протягом терміну гарантії.
138
 22. should any force majeure circumstances arise, neither party is re-
sponsible for the non-fulfillment of its liabilities — сторони звільня-
ються від відповідальності за невиконання зобов’язань, якщо це не-
виконання стало наслідком об’єктивних обставин нездоланної сили.
23. natural disasters, war and military operations, embargo, prohi-
bition of export and import, epidemics and other circumstances be-
yond the control of the parties are considered as Force majeure —
стихійні лиха, війна і військові операції, ембарго, заборона екс-
порту та імпорту, епідемії та інші обставини нездоланної сили
поза контролем сторін вважаються форс-мажором.
24. all disputes and differences which may arise out of the present
contract and / or in connection with it are to be referred for settlement
to the Foreign Trade Arbitration Commission at the Chamber of
Commerce of Ukraine in Kyiv in accordance with the Rules for Pro-
cedure of the Said Commission, the awards of which are final and
binding upon both parties — усі суперечки та розбіжності, які мо-
жуть виникнути з теперішнього контракту та/або в зв’язку з ним
підлягають розгляду в Міжнародному комерційному арбітраж-
ному суді при Торгівельно-промисловій палаті України, м. Київ,
відповідно до правил провадження справ в указаному суді, рі-
шення якого є остаточним та обов’язковим для обох сторін.
25. any alterations and additions to the present contract will be
valid only if made in writing and duly signed by both parties — усі
зміни та доповнення до теперішнього контракту дійсні лише за
умови, що вони здійснені в письмовій формі та підписані обома
сторонами.
26. the Present Contract shall be valid from the date of signing —
теперішня угода набирає чинності з дня її підписання.

Exercise V. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words.

Mind your grammar.
in conformity with; null and void; to notify; marking; commission; to amount to;
charges; cost; inland; Letter of Credit; claims; dates; delay; packing

1. The total ___ of the Contract shall amount to … .

2. The price for the goods supplied in accordance with the present
contract ___$123.000
3. The quality of the goods under the contract shall be ___ the
standards in force in Ukraine.
4. The Seller shall deliver the goods to the Buyer in ___, indicated
in Appendix.
139
 5. The Seller shall ___ the Buyer not later than 5 days after the
vessel’s departure from the port.
6. The ___ shall protect the goods against any damage during their
___ and sea transportation.
7. The following ___ in the English language shall be inscribed on
each package.
8. Payment for the goods is to be effected by an irrevocable con-
firmed ___ to be opened in US Dollars with the Export-Import Bank.
9. All expenses connected with the establishment and extension of
the Letter of Credit and any other Bank ___ as well as Bank’s ___ to
be for the Buyer’s account.
10. ___ for storage or damage of goods during transportation are to
be made by the Buyer against the Insurer.
11. For the ___ in the delivery of the goods the agreed Liquidated
Damages shall be as follows.
12. After the contract has been signed all the previous negotiations
pertaining to it become ___.

Exercise VI. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian phrases.
Непередбачувані обставини; передбачати заздалегідь; парафу-
вати; визначати час; юридична особа; неприбуткові корпорації;
особливо зазначати у контракті; багаточисленний; загальна ціна;
ціна за одиницю товару; чиста вага; безпечні форми платежу; не-
сти витрати; пройти митну очистку; пом’ягшити ризик; витриму-
вати перевезення; запобігти збитків; мати можливість діяти на
свій розсуд; відповідати юридичним вимогам; маркування; при-
чина затримання; мати вибір; точне визначення; здійснювати
фрахтові перевезення; перевізник; додаткові деталі; залишатися
гнучким; положення про попереднє повідомлення; страховий по-
ліс; право власності; зазнавати ризик збитків; залежати від умов;
надавати докази; відкрито відмовлятися; позиватися у суді за
пошкодження; повідомлення про невиконання; арбітраж є
обов’язковим; арбітражне рішення; відкликати пропозицію; з од-
нієї сторони, ... з іншої сторони; указувати в специфікації; не-
від’ємна частина; повністю відповідати стандартам; підтверджу-
вати сертифікатом якості; гарантувати якість; з початку
експлуатації; захищати від пошкодження; кількісна невідповід-
ність товару; компенсація збитків; затримка; стихійні лиха; забо-
рона експорту або імпорту; передбачати у контракті; перенести
термін; мирне урегулювання суперечок; паритетна комісія; Тор-
говельна палата; незмінний та обов’язковий; дійсний; недійсний
140
 Exercise VII. Translate the following contract into English
Контракт купівлі-продажу
м. Одеса, Україна
Фірма ____________________, яка називається в подальшому «Продавець»,
в особі _______________________, діюча на основі Статуту, з одного боку,
та підприємство ____________________________, яке називається надалі
«Покупець», в особі _____________________, який діє на основі Статуту, з
другого боку, керуючись _____________________, уклали теперішній контр-
акт про таке:
1. ПРЕДМЕТ УГОДИ
Продавець зобов’язується поставити Покупцю на умовах СІФ ____________
________________________ такі товари: ______________________________
_________________________________________________________________,
а Покупець зобов’язується прийняти ці товари та оплатити їх.
2. ЦІНА ТА ЗАГАЛЬНА СУМА УГОДИ
2.1. Ціни на товари встановлені в доларах США. Дані ціни включають
вартість товару, тари, упаковки, навантаження, експортної ліцензії (за необ-
хідності її мати), митні тарифи, вартість доставки товару на місце, страху-
вання, а також будь-які інші грошові збори, які стягуються з Постачальника
у зв’язку з виконанням даної Угоди. Ціна та сума Угоди залишаються не-
змінними на весь строк чинності Угоди.
2.2. Загальна сума Контракту становить________________доларів США.
2.3. Вибір транспорту та доставка товару лежать на Постачальнику.
3. ПОРЯДОК ОПЛАТИ
Оплата товару буде здійснена Покупцем шляхом переказу на рахунок
Постачальника, за вказаним ним банком указаної в Контракті суми в строк
не пізніше 30 днів з дня прийняття товару.
4. ПРИЙНЯТТЯ ЗГІДНО З ЯКІСТЮ І КІЛЬКІСТЮ, РЕКЛАМАЦІЇ
4.1. Якість поставленого за даної Угоди товару повинна бути підтвер-
джена сертифікатом якості заводу-виробника та відповідати зразкам, нада-
ним Постачальником. Ці зразки є еталонами до цього Контракту.
4.2. Приймання товару згідно з якістю та кількістю здійснюється Покупцем
у присутності представника Постачальника або особи, уповноваженої Постачаль-
ником, протягом трьох робочих днів з дати митної очистки вантажу. У разі
встановлення недостатньої якості товару або його кількісної невідповідності вик-
лик представника Торговельно-промислової палати* обов’язковий.
4.3. У разі постачання неякісного товару Покупець зобов’язаний повідомити
про це Продавця протягом ____діб з моменту встановлення неякісності товару.
4.4. У разі пред’явлення претензій щодо якості та кількості товару Поку-
пець зобов’язаний протягом _____з дати виявлення недоліків подати Поста-
чальнику рекламаційний акт, складений за участю представника торговель-
но-промислової палати країни Покупця.
4.5. Продавець зобов’язаний розглянути одержану претензію в строк не
більше одного місяця.
4.6. Покупець не має права без погодження з Постачальником викорис-
товувати товар, за яким заявлена претензія щодо якості.

141
 5. ВІДПОВІДАЛЬНІСТЬ СТОРІН
5.1. У разі якщо Продавець не поставить товар повністю або частково в
строк згідно з Угодою, Продавець сплачує Покупцеві неустойку у розмірі
______ вартості непоставленого товару за кожен день прострочки.
5.2. За безпідставну відмову в прийнятті або оплаті переданого товару,
а також несвоєчасну або неповну оплату товару Покупець підлягає штрафу
у розмірі вартості неоплаченого товару за кожен день прострочки.
5.3. У разі безпідставної відмови однією зі сторін від виконання своїх
зобов’язань за даним Контрактом винна сторона повністю відшкодовує зби-
тки потерпілій .стороні, включаючи упущену вигоду.
5.4. У разі постачання товару неналежної якості Продавець зобов’язаний замі-
нити товар товаром належної якості. При цьому неякісність товару підтверджу-
ється актом, виданим торговельно-промисловою палатою країни Покупця.
6. ФОРС-МАЖОР
Сторони звільняються від відповідальності за часткове або повне неви-
конання зобов’язань за Контрактом, якщо це невиконання стало наслідком
об’єктивних обставин нездоланної сили, про що сторони зобов’язані пові-
домити одна одну протягом _ днів телексом, факсом і т. п. При цьому термін
виконання зобов’язань відсувається пропорційно до часу, протягом якого
діяли такі обставини. Якщо ці обставини будуть продовжуватись більше
трьох місяців, кожна сторона має право анулювати цю Угоду, і в цьому разі
жодна зі сторін не буде мати права на відшкодування збитків.
7. АРБІТРАЖ
Усі суперечки та розбіжності, які можуть виникнути з даного Контракту або в
зв’язку з ним, за якими сторони не можуть досягти згоди шляхом переговорів
один з одним, підлягають розгляду виключно в Міжнародному комерційному ар-
бітражному суді при Торговельно-промисловій палаті України, м. Київ, відповід-
но до правил провадження справ в указаному суді, рішення якого є остаточним та
обов’язковим для обох сторін.
8. ДОДАТКОВІ УМОВИ, ТЕРМІН ДІЇ УГОДИ
8.1. Постачальник зобов’язаний протягом _____ телефоном або факсом пові-
домити дату відправки товару і переслати товаросупроводжувальний документ.
8.2. Усі зміни та доповнення до даного Контракту дійсні лише за умови,
що вони здійснені в письмовій формі та підписані обома сторонами.
8.3. Даний Контракт набуває чинності з дня його підписання та діє з
«__» ____20__ р.
8.4. Даний Контракт складений на — аркушах, підписаний у двох екзем-
плярах українською та англійською мовами, причому екземпляри мають од-
накову чинність.
9. ЮРИДИЧНІ АДРЕСИ ТА БАНКІВСЬКІ РЕКВІЗИТИ СТОРІН
9.1. Покупець: 9.2. Продавець
___________________ ____________________
___________________ _____________________
___________________ _____________________
ПІДПИСИ СТОРІН
ПОКУПЕЦЬ: ПРОДАВЕЦЬ:
______________________ ______________________

142
 Exercise VIII. Act as an interpreter.
A. Чи ви ознайомилися з проектом контракту, який ми віді-
слали 20 жовтня?
B. Yes, we received it not long ago. But we had enough time to
study it. I should say we are quite ready to discuss it.
A. Ви пам’ятаєте, що пункт 5 контракту «Платіж» викликав у
нас найбільшу кількість розбіжностей? Ми намагалися врахува-
ти вашу позицію при його написанні.
B. I see. But still we cannot accept it as it is. First, we should ex-
clude 5 per cent advance payment, second, drafts shall be drawn at 3
month.
A. Але якщо ми погодимось на ці умови. Нам доведеться збі-
льшити розмір штрафів за затримку платежів.
B. No objections. We are not going to break the terms and condi-
tions of the contract anyway.

Exercise IX. Make up a letter according to the situation below.

Напишіть листа вашому контрагенту, у якому необхідно спо-
вістити його про те, що в порту відправлення профсоюз оголосив
страйк (to go on strike). Проінформуйте ваших партнерів, що Вам
невідомий час закінчення страйку, який ви розглядаєте як форс-
мажорну обставину. У зв’язку з цим Ви звернулися до торго-
вельної палати з приводу отримання сертифіката про форс-
мажорні обставини (certificate of contingencies). Додайте копію
отриманого сертифіката до листа.

Exercise X. Roleplay.
Card I. Ви отримали листа від вашого контрагента, у якому він
сповіщає, що в порту відправлення профсоюз оголосив страйк.
Ви вирішили телефоном з’ясувати, коли, на думку вашого парт-
нера, буде відвантажена нафта за контрактом № 226.
Card II. Раніше ви відправили листа вашому контрагенту з повід-
омленням, що в порту відправлення профсоюз оголосив страйк. Ваш
партнер отримав листа і вирішив зателефонувати вам, щоб з’ясувати,
коли можна очікувати відвантаження нафти за контрактом.
Поінформуйте Ваших партнерів, що вам не відомо, коли за-
кінчиться страйк, який ви розглядаєте як форс-мажорну обстави-
ну. Сповістіть, що у зв’язку з цим ви звернулися до торговельної
палати для отримання сертифікату про форс-мажорні обставини.
Пообіцяйте надіслати копію отриманого сертифіката протягом
двох днів.
143
Part III
The Employment-Seeking Process

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION. PRE-RÉSUMÉ ANALYSIS
Finding the right job will make a significant contribution to your happi-
ness in life. The right job is one that uses all your talents and expresses
your values. You are making an important decision, but reward will be a
job that offers satisfaction and achievement rather than «the daily grind».

The five steps of the job-seeking process are outlined briefly be-
low. At each step you have to present a confident, positive image of
yourself if you are to proceed to the next step.
1. Initial Contact. Your first step as a job seeker is to approach a
perspective employer and ask to be considered for employment, either
by responding to an advertisement or by approaching the employer
«cold» (in the hope that the employer either has or shortly will have
an opening). You may make this initial contact by presenting yourself
at the employer’s door, by writing a letter, or by telephoning. The per-
sonal visit and the letter are better, because they let you place your ré-
sumé in the employer’s hands.
2. Formal Application. In the step 2 of the job-seeking process the
employer will likely ask you to complete a company application form
so that all applicants are documented in the same way.
3. Screening Interview. The first interview you attend helps the em-
ployer identify which applicants have the strongest potential. In a large
firm the screening interview may be conducted by only one person, usu-
ally the employment manager or an employment representative.
4. Selection Interview. The most promising candidates are asked to
attend a second interview. This time the manager of the department
where the successful applicant will work also is present, and some-
times is accompanied by technical specialists.
5. Job offer. The employer makes a formal offer of employment to
the successful applicant, often first by telephone and than by letter.
The applicant responds, also by telephone and letter, so confirms his
or her acceptance.
144
 Not all employment-seeking processes develop exactly along these
lines. Sometimes an applicant will obtain a company application form
beforehand and submit it in step 1, with his or her letter and résumé.
At other times there may be only one job interview or, in some cases,
there may be three or more.

Before preparing your résumé you are to spend some time thinking
about yourself and do your pre-résumé analysis. This serves two pur-
poses: first, it puts you in touch, with your personal short-term and
long-term goals, and helps you to identify what you want out of life,
what gives you satisfaction and a sense of achievement. Knowing
these things will help you identify the kind of job you want and the
kind of organizations you would like to work for. Second, it helps you
work out a strategy, in your résumé, application letters, and inter-
views, for presenting your skills and knowledge in an effective way to
a perspective employer.
To assess your previous training and interests you might prepare a
permanent personal data record (PDR), which becomes particularly
useful in later years, when one’s ability to recall names, addresses,
dates of earlier employment diminishes.
There are four topic areas for which you will need to record details
(and update them approximately once a year): education, work experi-
ence, extra curricular activities and references.

Be thorough and immodest at this stage; you are generating infor-

mation for yourself, not for anyone else. And don’t forget your special
talents and accomplishments; if you speak a foreign language or play
the violin, write that down. Many people do not have such skills, and
what is unexceptional to you may be very exceptional and interesting
to an employer. For example, the ability to speak two or more lan-
guages might be a big plus if you wanted to work for a company or
agency with international operations. Note that not everything you
write down in the PDR will appear in your letter or résumé. You are
writing to ensure that you don’t leave out something important; you
still have to select the information you will finally put in the letter.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions.

1. Is it important for you to find the right job? Why?
2. What are the main steps of the job-seeking process?
145
 3. In what way can you make your initaial contact with a
prospective employer?
4. Why are all applicans asked to complete a company aplication
form?
5. What helps the employer make a formal offer of employment?
6. Who usually conducts a selection interview?
7. How does the employer make a formal offer of employment?
8. Do all job-seeking processes develop along these lines?
9. What should a person do before preparing a résumé?
10. What purposes does your pre-résumé analysis serve?
11. What is PDR?
12. Why should a person prepare his or her personal data record?

Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian words and phrases.
Важливий внесок; тяжка одноманітна щоденна робота; предста-
влятися впевнено і позитивно; перспективний роботодавець; відпо-
відь на рекламне оголошення; вакансія; віддавати безпосередньо в
руки; анкета для влаштування на роботу; відвідувати співбесіду;
офіційно пропонувати роботу; підтверджувати згоду; короткостро-
кова та довгострокова ціль; оцінювати попередню підготовку; здіб-
ність запам’ятовувати імена; послаблюватися; позааудиторна діяль-
ність; вийняткові навички.
Exercise III. In three or four pages, try to describe your significant
family experiences, activities you enjoyed and didn’t enjoy, subjects you
did well in at school and ones you had difficulty with, jobs you’ve had,
values and/or experience that led you into your present course of study.
Exercise IV. Activities Checklist.
Circle any of the activities in the following list that you think you
are good at. Then circle the ones you enjoy doing.

fixing thinking
teaching designing
communicating evaluating
writing learning
analysing organising
listening motivating
co-ordinating managing
co-operating selling
counseling decision-making
supervising decorating
146
 negotiating leading
creating performing
helping planning
understanding persuading
explaining researching
reading scheduling
observing speaking
problem-solving supervising
coping budgeting
investigating building
directing

Exercise III. From the previous list, identify the activities that you
have circled as ones that you both enjoy and are good at. List them in
the left-hand column of the chart below. In the right-hand column,
write down situations that demonstrate that you have the skills that
you have listed.

Example:

Skills Evidence
LEADING elected student council president in high school,
successful minor hockey coach
SCHEDULING able to maintain «good» average while working
part-time and participating in variety sports

Exercise V. The following list describes a wide variety of rewards

that people obtain from their jobs. Look at the definition of each and
rate degree of importance that you would assign to it for yourself, us-
ing the scale below.
1. Very important
2. Important
3. Somewhat important
4. Not very important

_______Helping others: Involved in helping other people

in a direct way, either individu-
ally or in small groups.
_______Public contacts: Frequent public contact with
people.
147
_______Making decisions:
_______Influencing people:
________Working Alone:
________Knowledge
________Creativity:
________Change and Variety:
________Precision Work:
________Stability:
________Security:
________Excitement:
________Recognition:
________Profit, Gains:
________Independence:
148
Have the power to decide the
courses of action, polices, etc.
Change attitudes or opinions or
alter people’s behaviour.
Do a project by myself.
Consider the pursuit of knowl-
edge, truth, and understanding of
greater importance than money.
Innovative, creating new ideas, pro-
grams, systems; not following a for-
mat previously adopted by others.
Prefer work responsibilities that
frequently change in their con-
tent and setting.
Work in situations where there is
very little room for error.
Prefer job duties that are largely
predictable and are not likely to
change over a long period of
time.
Be assured of keeping my job
and a reasonable financial re-
ward.
Experience a high (or frequent)
degree of stimulation in the
course of my work.
Visible or public recognition for
the quality of my work, so that
people are aware of my accom-
plishments.
A strong likelihood of accumu-
lating large amount of money or
possessions.
Be able to work without much
intervention/direction from supe-
riors or others.
 ________Physical Challenge:
________Time-Freedom:
Have a job which makes physi-
cal demands, that I would find
rewarding.
Prefer work responsibilities
which I can do according to my
own schedule; no specific
working hours required.

UNIT II
PREPARING A RÉSUMÉ
1. DESIGNING A RÉSUMÉ
Once, you have increased your awareness of your areas of interest
and competence, you will be ready to begin to put this information
into a form that will be easily accessible to a potential employer. A ré-
sumé is a summary of relevant data about your qualifications and ac-
complishments. It contains key information about yourself, carefully
assembled and presented so that perspective employers will be im-
pressed not only by your qualifications but also by your ability to dis-
play your wares effectively. Whether you’re a student about to finish
school, a person re-entering the job market after not working for some
time, or simply someone who wants to find a more attractive position
than the one you have, your résumé is usually the first contact be-
tween you and any organization. The purpose is to convince the re-
cruiter who reads it to schedule an interview.
In reading a résumé the employer seeks the answers to five basis
questions:
1. Do you have the basic credentials for the job ( a business degree
or diploma, basic job experience, etc.)
2. Do you have any education or experience that elevated you be-
yond the basic qualifications?
3. Do you have the personal qualities that will make you a reliable,
long-term employee?
4. Are you good at what you do?
5. Do you know what you want?
Most résumés transmit information to answer the first question,
and many supply answers to the second and third. Few, however, take
full advantage of the fourth and fifth questions.
149
 2. CHOOSING A FORMAT

What should the résumé look like? First, it ought to be easy to

read: not too long, not too much material crammed on a page, easily
visible headings, and if you prefer, short phrases rather than full sen-
tences. Second, it ought to give your vital statistics: your name, ad-
dress, telephone number, etc. Third, the résumé ought to suggest
where you are headed professionally.
You can select from a variety of formats the one you think presents
your résumé components in the best way. Some people tend to be
conservative when they write their résumés, yet today’s employment
environment really demands they be competitive. If a résumé is to
capture an employer’s attention, it must display its writer’s wares to
full advantage. We’ll introduce two such formats here: chronological
and functional.
The chronological format is the résumé format you are probably
most familiar with. The examples (See Figures 1, 2) are typical
chronological résumés. They have a separate section for education, job
experience, and other activities. Within the first two categories, the
writer presents a year-by-year summary of his or her educational
achievements and job responsibilities. The chronological format high-
lights dates and job titles. It is a good choice if you want to emphasize:
a) the length of time you have spent in a particular job area;
b) a consistent work history;
c) a work history that shows progressive responsibility;
d) your age.
For example, if you have a diploma in marketing, have spent sev-
eral years in a firm, starting as a sales-person and progressing to sales
manager, and now you wish to move to a larger firm as a sales man-
ager, a chronological résumé would be a good choice. It would be a
poor choice if you are looking for your first- time job after graduation.
The chronological format will draw attention to your youth. The em-
phasis on job titles will not be appropriate if the job titles are not ob-
viously related to your career goal or if they are low-level titles like
«salesclerk», «waiter» or «goods delivery person». The description of
duties performed will be pointless in the case of many of these jobs; if
this description is omitted, however, there won’t be much to put in
the résumé. Many important achievements — for example, as an ath-
lete or student leader — will be relegated to the last part of the ré-
sumé. In this case, a better choice would be the functional or skills
format. This format (See Figure 3) emphasizes what you can do rather
than when or where you learned how to do it. It integrates skills ac-
150
quired through education, work, and other activities, so that achieve-
ments outside paid work get more recognition. The functional résumé
is becoming increasingly popular because of its focus on qualifica-
tions- what you have to offer the employer — rather than on length of
service. Identifying your major skills leaves less work for your reader.
Remember that during the initial screening a potential employer
spends less than ten seconds on your résumé.

3. COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE RĖSUMĖ

Just as résumé formats vary widely so do résumé components.
Even though you probably won’t use all possible components in your
résumé, we’ll discuss each one, so that you can choose those you
think best represent your accomplishment. Remember that this pres-
entation is not necessarily in the order that is most efficient for you for
all job applications.

COMPONENT 1: RÉSUMÉ HEADING

A required part of every résumé, the heading, should contain the
word Résumé, your name, address, and telephone number. Résumé is
an optional part of the heading. But since your résumé will likely be
copied and passed around among members of the organization where
you apply, the word in the title will help them identify it quickly.
Your address should be one where you can be reached by mail. If you
have two addresses, for example, if you are returning home at the end
of the school year — include both with appropriate dates. The phone
number should be a daytime number. If you are regularly out during
the day and cannot receive calls or massages, add «after 6 p.m.» or
whatever other information is relevant. Employers take a dim view of
applicants who appear to be unreachable.
Here are examples of a résumé heading:

1)

RĖSUMĖ
Taras M. Petrenko
Address (unil June 20_) Address (after June 1, 20_)
46 Peremohy Prospect, Apt.7 3755 Mazepy St, Apt. 10.
Kyiv, Ukraine, 252057 Ivano-Fankivsk, Ukraine,284000
(044) 441-5055 (03422) 317-71
151
 2) Alison V. Withney
134 Ansley St., Apt. 48
Vancouver, B.C. V5Z 1C2
(604)863-2717(after 7 p.m)

COMPONENT 2:AVAILABILITY DATE

Companies budget many of their position openings to coincide
with graduation dates. Of course, openings do occur every month. But
as courtesy and convenience for your potential employer, place your
date of availability on the résumé. If you do so, employer can more
easily fit you into a budgeted position.
Give the month and year, and, if possible the specific day of your
availability.

AVAILABLE: June 1, 20__

If you are available for a position at the time you complete your
rėsumė, than you might write the availability component like this:
AVAILABLE: Immediately

COMPONENT 3: OBJECTIVE
The impression you make upon your potential employer comes in
large part from how clearly defined you goals are. To many employers,
applicants with clear-cut goals show more maturity and readiness to
pursue a profession than applicants who have no clear goals in mind.
Here is an example of a goal statement:
Objective: Responsible career position in accounting or finance.

Choose your words carefully. The word responsible says that you
want and are willing to assume responsibility. Don’t let a potential
employer wonder whether or not you are responsible.
The word career says to the reader that you want to stay with the
company that hires you. Employees are expensive to replace. In some
organizations the cost of replacing you if you quit could be as high
as $ 3000 for such things as severance pay and hiring and training
your replacement.
Therefore, in front of every interviewer’s mind is the question:
«How long will this applicant stay with my company?»
Be sure that the position you list in the goal statement is as specific
as you can make it. A vague, openended phrase like «a responsible
position that uses my education and skills» is worse than useless,
152
since it applies to virtually everyone in the world. Never mention that
your long-term objective is self-employment. You are telling the
reader that you wish to learn the business from his or her company,
then become part of the competition. This information will not get you
an interview.

COMPONENT 4: EDUCATION
The education section of your résumé contains five important
items:
1. When you received your degree (s) or diploma (s);
2. Where you earned your degree (s) or diploma (s);
3. Your major, department, faculty, or field of concentration;
4. Relevant course or diploma work;
5. Your grade average, if appropriate.
Where your place this component in your résumé depends partly
on which format you decide to use. Most students finishing school can
place their education directly beneath their objective.
If you have or are expecting to receive a university degree, you
might write your education like this:

EDUCATION:
June, 20__ Bachelor of Economics (Honours), Kyiv National
Economic University. Major in marketing. Minor
in Advertising. Course work included marketing
principles, business communication, administrative
practices, and accounting theory. Maintained 85
average.
June, 20__ Graduated with honours from Kyiv Secondary
School # 32, Kyiv.

If the location of the college or university from which you receive

your degree is well known, omit the city. But always include the city
for your high school entry.

The course work you list should be related to the objective in the
previous section of your résumé. Be careful about listing courses by
name. Often the name of a course is misleading or ambiguous. For ex-
ample, if a course called «Human Resource Management» focuses
primarily upon such topics as leadership and interpersonal relations,
than your course work statement should read «Leadership and inter-
personal relations».
153
 Finally, list your grade average if you want to call attention to it.
However, many employers are more interested in your major work
experience, and activities than in your overall average.
If you write your résumé before you receive your final degree, you
can place the word Expected beneath the date when you expect to re-
ceive the degree. If that date is only two or three months away, you
might omit the word. Most potential employers reading your résumé
will understand that the date you have listed is the expected date.

COMPONENT 5: WORK EXPERIENCE

Work Experience or Employment should be the next section, be-
cause it is likely to be the strongest factor in obtaining a job. For any
full-time or part-time job that you have had, include the following in-
formation:
1. When you held the job
2. Your job title was …
3. Who your employer was
4. What your responsibilities were
Here is an example:

WORK EXPERIENCE:
September 20__ — Part-Time, Registration Clerk, Rus Hotel, Kyiv
to present Responsibilities include regestering hotel guests,
making reservations, processing check-out, and
handling guest problems.
Summer 20__ Sales Representative, Ukrainian Book Company,
Kyiv, Responsibilities included calling on po-
tential customers, processing orders and deliv-
ering merchandise.
Was top salesperson in 12-person territory.
First, notice that jobs are listed in reverse chronological order —
most recent job first.
Second, if you have held a number of jobs during the school, you may
not want to list them all. Choose those most related to your objective. Just
remember that no matter how menial the job seemed to you, to a poten-
tial employer your having worked says two things: (1) this applicant has
been out in the «real world» and therefore has actual business experience
and (2) this applicant shows initiative and responsibility.
Dates of Employment. Notice that the dates in the example are
not exact — you don’t need to list the actual days you began and
154
ended your employment. If you held the same job at different times,
you can state «Summers, 2005, 2006», or «Summers, 2005, 2006, and
Christmas 2007».

Job Title. Some jobs don’t have specific titles. If you have had
such a job, simply make up a descriptive title for it. For example, if
your job was serving customers at the counter of a fast-food restau-
rant, you could put «Counter Clerk».

Name of Employer. When you list employers, show both their

names and locations. If your potential employer wants to call for a
reference or verify your employment, having the information will
make that job easier. Sometimes employer’s name is listed first and
underlined. The person’s position or job title is identified next.

Responsibilities. Notice that we draw attention to the responsi-

bilities of the job rather than merely list the duties you performed.
Verbs should be chosen carefully so they make the position sound as
comprehensive and self-directed as possible. Use words that create
strong images of your self-reliance, such as:
coordinated organised
monitored implemented
presented supervised
planned directed
If the paragraph grows too long, it can be broken into sub-
paragraphs like these:
... appointed crew chief responsible for:
— installing interconnection and distribution systems
— hiring, training, and supervising local labor
— ordering and monitoring delivery of parts and materials
— arranging and supervising subcontract work
— preparing progress and job completion reports.

Accomplishments. Any accomplishment that your potential em-

ployer can verify belongs in your list of accomplishments. For example,
earning money to attend school or succeeding as a salesperson. Other
types of accomplishments to list include supervising other people or
training your replacement; many potential employers regard both as
showing leadership skills. If you assumed your own supervisor’s duties
while he or she is absent, include that information. Perhaps you made
some suggestion that was adopted by your employer. If so, list it. Even
155
seemingly minor accomplishments, such as an employee-of-the-month
award, can impress the person who read your résumé.
The two-column arrangement of dates and work experience is im-
portant because it gives a less crowded appearance to the page. If the job
descriptions were carried to the left under the dates — the job details
would appear as heavy, less visually appealing blocks of information.
COMPONENT 6: HONOURS
Any school-related honour you have received belongs in the hon-
ours section of your résumé. If you have no honours, simply omit this
section. If you have only one honor, consider including it in the ac-
tivities section and renaming that section «Honors and Activities»
HONOURS: University
— The Bank «Finance and Credit»
Awarded Scholarship for proficiency in finance, 20__
— The Society of Management Accountants Award in
Accounting (Academic Achievement), 20___
Secondary School
— School certificate of good work and conduct, 20__
Never list your honours in paragraph form. An interviewer is likely
to forget what honors you have received. But if you list them, he or
she may at least remember how many you have.

COMPONENT 7: ACTIVITIES
After your field of study and your work experience, the activities
in which you have been involved constitute the most important part of
your résumé. To most potential employers, the activities you list show
your interest to other people, practice in developing interpersonal re-
lationship, and possession of social skills.
Include in your activities organizations at school, volunteer, and
other outside activities.
ACTIVITIES: University
— Students Scientific Society (Vice President)
20__/20__
— Chairperson, campus Red Cross Blood Drive,
20__/20__
High School
— English club, 20__—20__
— Captain of basketball team, 20__
156
 COMPONENTS 8:INTERESTS
You may have wondered, when filling out an application for a job,
why you were required to list your hobbies and interests. To many
potential employers, your interests are as important as your activities.
They want to know if the person is more than a routine employee who
arrives at 9 a.m., works until 6 p.m., then drives home, eats supper, and
presumably watches television all evening. Information of your
hobbies, interests, and participation in sports and community activities
tells prospective employers that you recognize your role in society, you
are not too rigid or too narrow, and adapt well to your environment.
Employers reason that such an applicant will make an interesting, ac-
tive employee who will not only contribute much to the company, but
also take part in social and sports functions.Consider the following:
INTERESTS: Reading, jogging, skiing, photography.
Some interviewers perceive a person with interests like these to be
an isolate because no real group pastimes are listed.
Other interviewers have an equally negative perception of:
INTERESTS: Tennis, basketball, chess.
Interests such as these might suggest a total group orientation and
draw the reaction, «Perhaps this person is too dependent upon others».
In short, your interests include a mix of group and individual pas-
times. However do not list interests that you don’t actually have. An
interviewer may ask you to discuss the book you’ve read most re-
cently or how often you jog. If you don’t actually read or jog, you’ve
placed yourself in an embarrassing predicament.

COMPONENT 9: PERSONAL DATA

Jurisdictions of many countries prohibit employers to make selec-
tion decisions based on various personal factors. Given these prohibi-
tions, the personal data section of your résumé is optional. However,
if you do not mind revealing some kinds of personal data, they may
help you get the position. For example, if you are an unmarried female
who is willing to relocate, your marital status might help you (al-
though legally it should not).
An entry pertaining to military service may be appropriate. If your
military service was extensive (more than two years) and ties to your
objective, you might enter it as part of your work experience compo-
nent. Otherwise, list it briefly with other personal data.
157
 Personal data on a résumé usually include the following:
PERSONAL: Age 22; excellent health
If you have only one address at the top of your résumé (see the ré-
sumé heading component); then you might place your personal data at
the top right-hand corner so as to create balance and save space:
Age: 22
Marital Status: Single
Health: Excellent
Military Service: Armed Forces of Ukraine, 20__ — 20__ dis-
charged as private after service on destroyer
escort

COMPONENT 10: LICENCE AND OTHER ACCREDITATIONS

Possessing a licence or professional certificate may be important to
your getting a position. For example, if you are applying for a real
estate sales position, then having your licences should help. Other ex-
amples of licence or accreditations that might be entered on your ré-
sumé are: Charted Accountant, Certified General Accountant, Li-
censed Practical Nurse, and any teaching certificate relevant to your
objective. An entry for this component can appear like this:
Professional — Charted Accountant, Kyiv.
Licences — Certified General Accountant

COMPONENT 11: SPECIAL SKILLS

Some jobs require special skills. For example, many computer
programmers are expected to know several computer languages as
well as different types of computer systems. If you are one of these
persons, then your special-skills component can appear like this.
Microsoft office,
COMPUTER OPERATION Widows Vista OFFICE Openoffice,ERP
SKILLS: SYSTEMS: Windows XP PROGRAMS: systems

Knowledge of one or more foreign languages may be necessary for

positions in international business. Even if it is not required, it may be
an asset in many situations. So if you know a foreign language and are
not sure of its pertinence to your résumé, consider including the skill:

1) FOREIGN LANGUAGES: Speak and write English

Read and write German
2) FOREIGN LANGUAGES: Fluent English; some German

158
 COMPONENT 12: REFERENCES
Unless you are changing jobs and want to keep your decision to
change private as long as possible, consider listing your references on
your résumé. Phrases such as «References available on request» are an
inconvenience to the personnel specialist, who must either call or write
you, ask for your references, and then contact them. You’ll save the spe-
cialist time if those references are on the résumé. He or she may be more
inclined to consider you if your references are easy to check.
You supply references for possible verification of the facts you
have presented elsewhere on the résumé or for additional information.
References fall into three main categories: (1) professional references
who can speak about your professional ability for this gob, such as
your knowledge of accounting or computer science; (2) character ref-
erences, who know your personality and can speak about factors such
as your industriousness or ambition; and (3) educational references,
who can respond to questions about your scholarly achievements and
background, such as your performance in a management class.
Former employers are frequently used as professional references;
friends, neighbours, or colleagues as character references; and teach-
ers as educational references. Keep in mind, though, that it’s how they
know you that determines the category of reference they serve. A boss
may be a friend (character reference), for example. Of course, one ref-
erence may fit more than one category.
Some types of people should generally be avoided as references.
Employers assume family members, clergy, and fellow students are
biased in your favour. Their opinions therefore are discounted.
Never list a person as a reference until you have obtained his or her
permission to do so.
Here is an example of a reference section from a résumé:
REFERENCES
Dr.Dmitro Ivanchenko Ms. Galina Dmytruk Dr. Olena Pylipenko
Professor Distribution Professor
Department of International manager Department of Foreign
Economics Ukrainian Book Languages
Kyiv National Economic Company Kyiv National Economic
University University
54/1 Peremohy Prospect, 34 T.Shevehenko 54/1 Peremohy Prospect
Kyiv, 252057 Boulevard Kyiv, 252057
Ukraine Kyiv, 252052 Ukraine
(044)459-2088 Ukraine (044) 441-2087
(044) 224-8650.

159
 List a title (for example, Dr., Mr., Mrs., or Ms.) for each of your
references so the personnel specialist who telephones them know how
they are to be addressed. Give the complete business address and tele-
phone number (never list the reference’s house address unless the ref-
erence prefers it).
What your references say about you will not — unless it is nega-
tive — have a great impact on your evaluation. Some potential em-
ployers will not even contact your references, though others will. Em-
ployers expect that anyone you list as a reference will support your
application. Nevertheless, you will be required normally to submit at
least three names of people who are willing to recommend you.
Should you decide not to list your references on the résumé, you
might use the following statement
REFERENCES: Excellent references available upon request.
In writing your résumé, you can choose from 12 components those
that you think will best show your accomplishments.
The order of the components may determine the image or tone of
the message. You need to organize your résumé to serve your specific
situation.

4. PRESENTING THE RĖSUMĖ

The appearance and accuracy of your résumé are extremely im-
portant. Your readers will be judging you using whatever evidence
they can find, including the physical appearance of this document. If
you want to convey a professional image, you should make your ré-
sumé look professional.
1. Paper. This should be good quality, in conservative shade.
White is always a safe choice.
2. Typeface. Clear type in an easy-to-read style will be appreciated
by your reader. Print your original from your disc on a latter-quality
printer. Photocopy on a high-quality machine, or have copies made for
you by a printer. If your résumé is professionally typed, choose a con-
servative typeface. Italics and other fancy type are hard on the eye.
3. Layout. A one-page résumé is ideal, but only if it fits easily on
the page without overloading it. Lots of white space invites the reader
into the page A dense, crowded page discourages the potential reader.
Leave generous left and right margins. Ensure that your spacing and
margins are consistent. If you need two pages, try to make the amount
on each page fairly equal. The layout is particularly significant to
someone glancing at the résumé for an overall impression.
160
 4. Emphasis. Quick reading will be easier if key information
stands out. Add emphasis and variety by underlining, capitalization,
shading, and other devices.
If your résumé passes the first test and is read more closely,
other factors will determine whether you are called for an inter-
view. Mechanical errors in spelling and grammar will almost al-
ways be fatal.
This was demonstrated in an experiment conducted by D. Char-
ney and J. Rayman of Penn State University. They had 18 campus
recruiters evaluate 72 résumés from fictitious engineering students.
The résumés were deliberately varied according to four variables:
relevance of previous work experience, elaboration of independent
coursework, stylistic quality and mechanical correctness. Charney
and Rayman found that mechanical correctness was the most im-
portant of these variables. In fact résumés of well-qualified appli-
cants that had errors of grammar, spelling or punctuation, parallel-
ism, etc., were rated lower than résumés of less-qualified applicants
that were better written.
Thus, proofread rigorously, then ask someone with good English
skills to go over it again. Don’t forget your name, address, and
proper names. Personnel officers report that this is where mistakes
are most often made, because proofreaders assume these words are
easy and therefore will be error-free. Your résumé will represent you
to your potential employer. Everything about it should reflect your
best effort.

5. COMPLETING A COMPANY APPLICATION FORM

Filling in company application forms can become a boring and re-
petitive task, yet any carelessness on an applicant’s part can draw a
negative reaction from readers. Each company or organization usually
uses its own specially designed form that, although asks for generally
the same basic information, may vary in detail. Consequently the sug-
gestions below apply primarily to the approach you should take rather
than suggest what you should write.
— When visiting prospective employers, always carry your per-
sonal data record with you so that you can readily search for detail
such as dates, telephone numbers, and names of supervisors.
— Treat every application form as though it were the first one you
are completing -write carefully, neatly, and legibly. Never let an un-
tidy application form subconsciously prepare an employer to meet an
untidy worker.
161
 — Complete every space on the form, entering N/A (not applica-
ble), «Not known», or a short horisontal line in spaces that do not ap-
ply to you or for which you genuinely do not have information. This
will prevent an employer from thinking you cafelessly (or, worse, in-
ternationally) omitted answering the questions.
— Take care that your familiarity with your city and street names
does not cause you to abbreviate or omit them. If you omit the «St.»,
«Ave», or «Crescent» from your street name (because you know it is a
street, avenue, or crescent), you may create the impression that your
approach to work is to take shortcuts whenever possible.
— Use words that describe the responsibility and supervisory as-
pects of each job you have held (as you would for a résumé) rather
than list only the duties you performed.
— Particularly describe extracurricular activities that show your
involvement in the community, or activities in which you held a
teaching or coaching role.
— Pay particular attention if there is a section on the form that
asks you to comment on how your education and past experience have
especially prepared you for the position. Think this through very care-
fully before you write so that what you say shows a natural progres-
sion from past experience to the job you are applying for. If you can,
and if they fit naturally, add a few words to demonstrate how the po-
sition fits your overall career plan. This can be a particularly difficult
section to write so do not be afraid to obtain an opinion of its effec-
tiveness from another person.

RÉSUMÉ
Taras M. Petrenko
Address (until June 1, 20__) Address (after June 1, 20 )
46 Peremohy Prospect, Apt. 37 55 Mazepy St., Apt. 10
Kyiv, Ukraine. 252057 Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine 284000
(044) 441-5055 (03422) 317-71
AVAILABLE: June 1, 20__
OBJECTIVE: Responsible career position in marketing or advertising.
Willing to travel and relocate.
EDUCATION: June, 20__Bachelor of Economics (Honours), Kyiv National
Economic University. Major in Marketing. Minor in Adver-
tising. Course work included marketing principles, business
communication, administrative practices and accounting the-
ory. Maintained 85 average.
162
 June, 20__Graduated with honours from Kyiv Secondary
School No.32, Kyiv

WORK EXPERIENCE:
September, 20__
to present Part-time Registration Clerk, Rus Hotel, Kyiv.
Responsibilities include registering hotel guests, making res-
ervations, processing check-outs, and handling guest prob-
lems. Have earned approximately 30 percent of university
expenses.
Summer 20__ Sales Representative, Ukrainian Book Company, Kyiv.
Responsibilities included calling on potential customers,
processing orders, and delivering merchandise. Was top sales-
person in 12-person territory.
HONOURS: University
— The Bank «Finance and Credit»
Awarded Scholarship for proficiency in finance, 20__
— The Society of Management Accountants Award in Ac-
counting (academic achievement), 20__
Secondary School
— School certificate for good work and conduct, 20__
ACTIVITIES: University
Students Scientific Society (Vice President), 20__/20__
— Chairperson, campus of Red Cross Blood Drive,
20__/20__
Secondary School
— English Club, 20__/20__; 20__/20__
— Captain of basketball team, 20__/20__
INTERESTS: Reading, tennis, basketball, photography
PERSONAL: Age 21; excellent health

REFERENCES:

Dr.Dmytro Ivanchenko Ms. Galina Dmytruk Dr. Olena Pilipenko

Professor Distribution Manager Professor
Department of Ukrainian Book Company Department of
International Economics 34 T.Shevchenko Foreign Languages
Kyiv National Boulevard Kyiv National
Economic University Kyiv, 252032 Economic University
54/1 Peremohy Prospect, Ukraine 54/1Peremohy Prospect,
Kyiv, 252057 Kyiv, 252057
Ukraine (044) 224-8650 Ukraine
(044) 459-2088 (044) 441-2087

Figure 1. Sample Chronological Résumé

163
 RÉSUMÉ
Holly M. Clark
1554 Westside Dr. Age: 22
Saint John N.B. Marital Status: Single
E2L 4J5 Health: Excellent
(506) 638-2196 Languages: Fluently bilin-
gual in French and English
AVAILABLE: July 1, 20__

OBJECTIVE: Responsible entry-level position in computer pro-

gramming. Willing to relocate

EDUCATION: Diploma in Information Systems andTechnology, New

June, 20__ Brunswick Community College, Saint John Campus.
(Expected) Concentration in Computer Economic Analysis and
Design, Computer Programming.

June, 20__ Graduated from Southwest High School, Dartmouth,

M.S.

WORK EXPERIENCE: Part-Time Computer Programmer, New Brunswick

September, 20__ Community College Computer Centre, Saint John. Re-

to present sponsibilities include programming, checking system
malfunctions, assisting students with computer jobs,
keeping time-sharing records on all users.

Summers and Christ- Salesperson. Annette’s Dress Shop, Saint John. Re-
mases, sponsibilities included assisting customers,
20__ to 20__ stocking merchandise, creating displays, and inventory.
Trained replacement at the end of summer 20__

ACTIVITIES: — Student Association President, 20__ to present

— Staff writer, The Blue and Gold (College Newspaper)

COMPUTER SKILLS: — Operation systems: Winows XP, Windows Vista

— Office programs: Microsoft Office, Openoffice,ERP
systems, F.A.P.I Scala

INTERESTS: Computers, writing, tennis, singing

REFENCES: Available upon request

Figure 2. Sample Chronological Résumé

164
 RÉSUMÉ
Harold D. Williams

25 Clerkston Place
Montreal, Que. HMK 1H6
(514) 326 –5926

AVAILABLE : Immediately

OBJECTIVE: Responsible general management

position in textile or related field.
EXPERIENCE:

General Management Have supervised more than 100 hourly workers in two
textile plants. Responsible for scheduling and em-
ployee-relations problems.
Quality Assurance Met or exceeded quality standards 95 percent of the time.
Helped establish quality standards for new product

Production Assisted in introduction, set-up, and operation of new

machines. Familiar with Crossland and Weaveright,
equipment.

WORK HISTORY: — 20__ to present: Production Manager, Bostick

Mills,Montreal
— 20__ to 20__: Production Supervisor, Quality Fab-
rics, Inc., Trois Riveras
LANGUAGES: Fluently bilingual in English and French; some German

EDUCATION: Graduated from Owens technical School, Trenton, Ont.

June, 20__ (two year program). Concentration in Textile Manage-
ment. Course work included Production Planning
Quality Control, Supervisory Control, Supervisory
Methods, Machine Design, and Human Factors Engi-
neering.

June, 20___ Graduated from Westham High School, Montreal

ACTIVITIES: — Lion’s Club, 20__ to present
— Toastmaster’s International, 20__ — 20__

INTERRESTS: Hunting, golf, platform tennis

REFERENCES: Excellent references available upon request

Figure 3. Sample Functional Résumé

165
Exercises:

Exercise I. Answer the following questions

1. What is a résumé?
2. What basic questions does the employer seek the answers to?
3. What should your résumé look like?
4. Describe and differenciate two résumé formats.
5. What components of a résumé do you know?
6. Are the components presented here in the order that is most effi-
cient for all job applications?
7. Is heading a required part of every résumé?
8. Why is it advisable to include «objective» component in your
résumé?
9. What does the education component of a résumé contain? The
work experience component?
10. What is meant by a «balance of interests» on your résumé? Why
is this balance important?
11. What are «special skills» on a résumé?
12. When should you emphasize your ability in English or German? Why?
13. Briefly discuss the appearance of a résumé.
Exercise II. Complete the following sentences:
1. The first step in finding a job is to analyse your _______.
2. The chronological résumé is not suitable if you _______.
3. The functional résumé concentrates on identifying your personal
________.
4. Under the identification section of both types of résumé, it is not
necessary to give ________among other things, unless they are related
to the job.
5. In the chronological résumé list _________ or ________after
the identification section, depending on which is most relevant to the
job you are seeking.
6. Diplomas obtained and jobs held should be listed in__________
order.
7. One long-term objective that should never be used on a résumé
is _____
8. Four things that stand out during the first ten seconds that a po-
tential employer is reading your résumé are _________
9. The ideal length for a résumé is ________

Exercise III. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian words and phrases.
166
 Відповідна інформація; ретельно зібрана інформація; призначати
співбесіду; надійний працівник; передавати інформацію; привертати
увагу роботодавця; яскраво висвітлювати; переносити до останньої
частини резюме; первинний вибір; необов’язкова частина; дивитися
песимістично на когось; чітка ціль; зрілість; вихідна допомога; за-
кінчувати університет з відзнакою; середній бал; працювати непов-
ний робочий день; досягнення; брати на себе обов’язки; легко при-
стосовуватися до середовища; бути впевненим у доцільності
включення компонента до резюме; рекомендації; цілеспрямованість;
шрифт; ретельно вичитувати текст; позааудиторна діяльність.
Exercise IV.
Select a partner in the class (try to find someone you do not know
very well). Tell your partner about your top three achievements —
things you have done that you are proud of. Ask your partner to write
down the skills and personal qualities that each achievement demon-
strates, in his or her opinion. When you have finished, change roles.
Exercise V.
Select a partner in the class. Take turns interviewing one another
about your personal histories. Here are some sample questions:
a) Where were you born?
b) How does coming from _______benefit you?
c) What is the most important value you learned from your family?
d) Can you give an example of how this value applies to your future?
e) What did you enjoy most about your past experiences in school?
f) What did you enjoy least?
g) Why did you choose your present course of study?
h) Do you have a job? (If yes) What is it?
i) If the money were right, would you do this job full-time? Why
or why not?
Exercise VI.
Write a draft of your own résumé using the chronological format.
Exchange your résumé for a classmate’s. Evaluate one another’s
drafts, suggesting changes.
Exercise VII.
Rewrite your résumé using the functional format. Do you see any
advantages in this format for your own résumé?
Exercise VIII.
Make an appointment to interview a personnel officer in a com-
pany in your community. Your purpose of this interview is to find out:
167
 a) What he or she considers most important in a résumé .
b) How he or she uses résumés in making selection decisions.
c) What he or she doesn’t like in a résumé.
Write a brief report summarising your interview findings.
Exercise IX.
Select a company or organisation you might like to work for. Us-
ing the resources of your library, collect several articles about your
company. On the basis of your material, give a five-minute class pres-
entation on the positive features of working there.
Exersise X.Case study
Ray’s Résumé 1
Many new graduates have less than outstanding scholastic aver-
ages and only meagre work experience. Yet they must compete with
apparently better-qualified graduates for the available job openings.
Raymond Wilson is one such graduate. Here is what he told his friend
about his predicament:
«Susan, Pioneer Technologies has asked for résumés to screen
candidates before it interviews for two sales-support openings. Sales-
support people get data from the engineers and the production person-
nel and translate it into benefits and procedures for the marketing rep-
resentatives to use when selling to potential customers. Sales-support
staff do some customer contact, too, so they’re half sales, half techni-
cal. I really want that job, but so do at least 30 other grads I’ve talked
to. Pioneer will only interview 12, and I’m not really even qualified.
The company wants a minimum average of 75 percent and all I’ve got
is 70 percent. Look, here’s my résumé. What do you think?

RESUME
Raymond F. WILSON
481 Ferris Street, London, Ont. N6K 2X2; 830-4145
OBJECTIVE: Responsible position in sales with opportunity for
advancement.
EDUCATION: University of Western Ontario, London, Ont.,
20__—20__. Faculty of Business Administration,
marketing major. Maintained a 70 % average.
Graduate from Eaton High School, London, Ont., 6/03
1
Adapted from a case by R.Ponysian. St. John’s University, New York.

168
WORK
EXPERIENCE: Helper, Al’s Auto Service, summers 20__—20__.
Helped with all areas of auto service and repair.
Attende, Frank Pizza Place, part time, 20__—
20__. Made and served pizzas.
Newspaper route, London Free Press, after school,
20__—20__.
SPECIAL
SKILLS: Chauffer’s license.
ACTIVITIES: Football, restoring old cars.

REFERRNCES: Rev. Michael Walsh William Petersen

First Unity Chirch Instructor
Main and Circle St. University of Western
London, Ont., N5W 2Y1 Ontario
London, Ont. H66 163

Susan: What do you think of it? You don’t stand a chance

with this résumé.
Ray: Yeah, my grades…
Susan: That’s not the worst of it. There are misspellings, it is
incomplete, it’s not well spaced. Even the objective is
wrong — it’s for a sales job, not…
Ray: But this is a standard résumé.
Susan: Change it. At least say that you’re graduating. And
don’t start out with your poor grades — that’s starting
with a negative point. And let’s see what we can do
with the job titles and descriptions to show that you
can interface effectively with technical people, mar-
keting people and customers.

After interviewing Ray for a grueling hour and a quarter, Susan

found out the following:
Ray expects to graduate with a B.Comm. in June,20__. In addition
to marketing courses, he took courses in management, organizational
behavior, interpersonal communication, psychology and group dy-
namics as well as sales promotion and audiovisual presentations. His
average in his major (marketing) was 74 percent.
Regarding work, the auto service job had no formal title, but it
could legitimately be called Mechanic’s Helper.
169
 He wrote up customer orders, repaired transmissions, and became
the resident expert on lubricants and high-performance (racing)
equipment. If he doesn’t find a job in his field, he wi11 probably re-
turn to the shop this summer as Al has been asking him to do. During
each of the two summers he worked for Al, he made enough money to
cover almost all his tuition without using the Ontario Student Aid
Program loan he was eligible for.
At Frank’s Pizza, Ray ordered supplies, opened and closed when
Frank wasn’t there, and created a contest idea and a profitable
«Kitchen Sink Pizza» (everything on it) as well as a hotline service for
delivery to Western’s student residences. He also fixed some of the
equipment. On the newspaper route, he started with 30 customers and
had 54 when he quitted after discovering that the job didn’t mix with
his university schedule.
Ray has joined a few campus organizations and won some aca-
demic honours. He likes dancing and, with a girl friend, won a dance
contest last year. He also enjoys hockey and played on the school
team, though his career was undistinguished.
One semester, when he had been injured, he served as an assistant
manager; he was responsible for uniforms and some promotion work
and traveled with an assistant coach as part of an advance team to set
up for away games.
Ray has no formal training in French beyond required high school
courses, but he has had no trouble meeting French speaking people
and carrying on conversations during several trips to Quebec. His
Italian-speaking grandmother taught him her language when he was a
child.
During the past year, Ray bought two wrecked European cars and
restored them with the help of original-language manuals (French and
Italian); he sold both cars at a profit. He got a Class A driver’s license
thinking he might drive a truck some time. The summer before he
started at Western, he worked for his father’s swimming pool business
and wrote a customer quality checklist, but he quitted after two weeks
because he did not like the business.
Case question
Help Susan and Ray. Revise Ray’s résumé and be able to defend
your revision.

170
UNIT III
WRITING A LETTER OF APPLICATION

1. RESEARCHING THE JOB MARKET

Your résumé is now complete. The next question is, «Where do I
sent it»? Of course you can send it in response to a newspaper adver-
tisement for a job that is known to be open, but only about 20 percent
of the jobs available are advertised in this way. You will want to en-
hance your chances of finding the right job by tapping remaining 80
percent. This research can take two forms, depending on how firm
your ideas are about what you want to do. You may have fairly fixed
ideas by now, especially if you are graduating from a well-defined
course such as Marketing, Accounting or Finance. In this case, you
will be interested in discovering potential employers. Ideally, this is a
long-term project. Newspapers, especially the business section, com-
munity newspapers and special web-sites are a good source of infor-
mation about new companies, expansions, new branch offices, or
other changes that will open up jobs. Visit your library regularly to
look at professional journals and newsletters in your field. These will
not only report new job opportunities, but often give you an inside
look at potential workplaces.
Another way of obtaining an inside look is to talk to as many peo-
ple as possible who are working in your field. The information gath-
ered in either of these two ways will always be useful, if not in
choosing an employer then certainly in a job interview. An applicant
who is knowledgeable and curious about the field will have a strong
advantage.
When it is time to begin sending out application letters, gather
names and addresses from trade directories,web-sites, newspapers and
magazines. Tell everyone — literally everyone — you know or meet
that you are looking for a job in a particular area, and follow up any
leads. It has been estimated that 60 percent of all jobs are filled
through personal contacts. If you have prepared yourself by keeping
up-to-date on the job market in your career area, you will be able to be
more selective about the employers’ names you take from directories
and personal contacts. You will also be able to write a more effective
letter of application.
If you are graduating from a general program, such as Business
Administration, or if you are contemplating a career change, you will
want to research the job market in a broader way. You should also be
reading the newspaper and a variety of professional journals to learn
171
not only about employers but also about occupations. A first-rate way
of getting up-to-date information is to visit a company, social agency,
or whatever interests you, and talk to a supervisor who works there.
This will not only give you an idea of the duties performed, but also
tell you what personality factors would be important in that work-
place. The exercises at the end of this unit give more information
about how to arrange an information-gathering interview.
Talk to employed friends and relatives about their jobs and em-
ployers. As you begin to focus on job areas that would be appropriate
to your skills and values, you can start to use the research techniques
suggested for the job hunters who have defined their career goals. It is
generally a mistake to choose a career simply because there are lots of
jobs available in it, if it doesn’t otherwise appeal to you very much.
Job markets will change a lot in the thirty or forty years you’ll be
working. If you are in a career because your personality and skills are
suited to it, you will survive the ups and downs. If not, you won’t; it’s
as simple as that.

2. PARTS AND TYPES OF APPLICATION LETTERS

Although some résumés may be delivered personally, the majority
are mailed with a covering letter. Because potential employers will
probably read the letter first, it must do much more than simply intro-
duce the résumé. The letter needs to state your purpose for writing
(that you are applying for a job) and demonstrate that you have some
very useful qualifications that the reader should take the time to con-
sider.
An assertive, interesting, and well-planned application letter can
prompt employers to place your letter with those whose authors they
want to interview. Conversely, a dull, unemphatic letter may cause the
same employers to drop your application on a pile of «also runs», be-
cause its approach and style seem to imply you are a dull, unemphatic
person.‘
A letter of application should adopt the pyramid method of writ-
ings: it should open with a brief summary that defines the purpose of
the letter, continue with strong, positive details to support the opening
statement, and close with brief remark that identifies what action the
writer wants the reader to take. These three parts are illustrated in
Figure 4.
There are two types of application letter. Those written in response
to an advertisement for a job that is known to be open, or at the em-
ployer’s specific invitation, are called «solicited» letters. Those writ-
172
ten without an advertisement or invitation, on the chance that the em-
ployer might be interested in your background and experience even
though no job is known to be open are referred to as «unsolicited»
letters. The overall approach and shape of both letters are similar, but
the unsolicited letter generally is more difficult to write.

An attention-grabbing opening statement that announces the writer

INITIAL is applying for a specific job and demonstrates that he or she is
CONTACT well qualified to hold it.
Details and solid facts that support the writer’s contention that he
EVIDENCE or she is well equipped to hold the position
A closing statement that, rather than just ending the letter, opens
ACTION the door to the next step (the employment interview)

Figure 4. Plan for a job application letter

3. AN UNSOLICITED LETTER OP APPLICATION

An unsolicited letter of application is a persuasive message.
Attention
The best way of getting attention is by using the name and title of
the appropriate reader. Phone the organizations you wish to apply to
and get the name (with the right spelling,) and title of the person who
normally screens applications for the type of position you are seeking,
Focus your reader’s attention by stating your employment objective in
the first line.
EXAMPLES:
Poor
Dear Sirs:
I will be graduating from Kyiv National Economic University in
June this year and I have done a lot of research into employment op-
portunities in my chosen field.
Improved
Mr. Osacava
Personnel Director
MAZDA Motors
Kyiv, Ukraine
253160.
173
 Dear Mr.Osacava,
I will be graduating in International Economics and Management
from Kyiv National Economic University this June, and I am writing
to enquire about employment opportunities in the international rela-
tions department at MAZDA Motors.

Interest
Like any persuasive massage, an application letter creates interest
by appealing to a need. In this case, the need is not a personal, but a
corporate one. For example, a manufacturing company needs sales-
people, a social agency needs people with interpersonal skills and ex-
perience, a film production company needs people with technical
skills. The more you have been able to learn about a particular organi-
zation, the more specific your analysis of their needs can be and the
more persuasively your interest section can be written. Naturally, you
will want to emphasize your reader’s benefit and reinforce it by using
«you» and «your».

EXAMPLES:
Poor
I will be graduating with diploma in Accounting and I am looking
for an opportunity to gain experience at some industrial enterprise.
Improved
Your reputation as an industry leader is built on well-trained, dedi-
cated staff; I believe my education and commitment would make me
an asset to your team.

DESIRE
Create a desire in your audience to learn more about you by de-
scribing your particular qualifications. Do not repeat what is on your
résumé. Make sure that your reader looks at your résumé by drawing
attention to it with a sentence like this one:
As you can see from my attached résumé, I have a diploma
in International Economics and Management and three years
part-time experience as a sales person.
Then use the rest of the paragraph to tell some things about your-
self that do not find place on a résumé, such as personal qualities. Do
not be afraid to say that you are hard-working, flexible, self-starting
— assuming that you are. It won’t sound arrogant, just confident. If
174
you can give some evidence supporting your statement, as in the fol-
lowing example, it will be even more effective.
During the past three years I have demonstrated my capacity
for hard work and organization by maintaining a high grade-
point average while holding down two part-time jobs.
Knowledge of the organization you are applying to should be
demonstrated in a way that emphasizes reader’s benefit.
Since MAZDA Motors is expanding into Western Ukraine,
my language skills would be an asset to your firm.
If you have a particular interest in the organization or job you are
applying for, it is a good idea to mention this, as long as you state it in
a reader-centred way. After all, employers want motivated, enthusias-
tic employees.

EXAMPLES:
Poor
Working at Mazda Motors would really be a thrill for me.
Improved
As a person loyal to MAZDA, I would bring sincere dedica-
tion to maintaining your image of quality and value to any job
with your firm.

A well-written desire section should add a personal, more subjec-

tive dimension to the skills and achievements listed on your résumé.
The flavour of your personality should come through.

Action
The purpose of a letter of application is to get you an interview.
Always make a specific request at the end of the letter.
I believe my education and skills could contribute to the suc-
cess of your company. I would appreciate the opportunity to
discuss this with you in person at your convenience.
If your schedule is not completely flexible, suggest time, or a
number of times, when you will be available. You may want to put
your phone number here, even though it is on your résumé.
The letters on pages 177,178 (Figure 5,6) are examples of effective
unsolicited letters of application.
175
 Usually responses from your prospects arrive about two weeks af-
ter you mail your letter and résumé. If you don’t hear from a company
after about 14 days, consider a follow-up by phone or letter. If you
decide to call, try to reach the person to whom you addressed it. Iden-
tify yourself as the sender of the letter, ask if it has been read, and if
so, if you could come .in for a discussion. This serves several pur-
poses. It will motivate your audience to read the letter, if he or she
hasn’t yet. If he or she is undecided about interviewing you it may tip
the balance, since it is harder to say no over the phone. If you are
turned down, ask why. This may be painful, but you will get valuable
information, perhaps about the present situation of the organization
and its hiring plans, perhaps about how your qualifications fit, or
don’t fit, the needs of that workplace, or even about the contents of
your résumé and letter. Even if you don’t get an interview you will be
gathering valuable information,

With a letter, you can organize your thoughts to achieve your fol-
low-up goal. A sample follow-up letter is printed below (Figure 7).
Notice first that the writer uses tact by implying that the original letter
and résumé may have been lost in the mail. Second, another résumé is
enclosed in case the original is indeed missing. Third, another sum-
mary of relevant qualifications is provided. New information can, of
course, be added at this time. This is another opportunity to emphasize
your qualifications. Finally, available times for receiving phone calls
are repeated.

Alison V.Witney
167O Fulham Boulevard
Truro, NOVA Scotia
B2N 6C4
February 15, 20__
Ms. Patricia Markham
Personnel Manager
Able Computers, Inc.
P.O Box 1511
Toronto, Ontario
M5W 3Q1

Dear Ms. Markham

The reputation and growth of Able Computers have led me to apply for a posi-
tion in your management trainee program. Information in the Career College Plan-
ning Annual indicates you hire university graduates with business degrees. The An-
nual states you prefer computer, management, and sales or marketing majors.
My B.Comm. degree from Queen’s University incorporates a major in mar-
keting and minor in management. Further, my two years of part-time work for the

176
Bank of Montreal in its data processing department used capabilities aquired in
my university- level computer classes.
The fact that Electronic Industry Magazine rated you number 1 in its poll of
the most promising companies of the 2000s is impressive. The challenge of help-
ing you maintain your position of leadership in computer industry is especially
exciting.
As you will note on my attached résumé, I am willing to accept challenges
and carry them through to successful completion. Mr. Grover Jefferson of the
Bank of Montreal, has offered to support this view. His address, and the names
and addresses of other references, are found on the résumé.
May I have an interview at your convenience? I am available at (613) 922-
9676 between 2:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. weekdays.
Sincerely
Alison V.Witney

Figure.5.Sample Unsolicited Application letter

95 Borden Gate
North York, Ontario
M5Q 2
May15, 20__
Mr.Jerome Doucette,
Director, Personnel Division
IBM Microelectronica Canada Ltd.
3900 St.Hilaire Ave.E.
Montreal, Quebes
HIO 219
Dear Mr.Doucette
I am writing to enquire about employment opportunities in the
sales division of IBM Canada. As a graduate of the Business Computer Stud-
ies program at Seneca College and an IBM-PC owner, I can offer your company a
thorough knowledge of IBM products and their business applications. In addition,
I have completed courses in marketing and personal sales.
As you can see from the enclosed résumé, I have financed my college educa-
tion by working part-time at Gentlemen’s Tailors. While this experience gave me
the chance to apply knowledge acquired through college courses, the most im-
portant thing I learned at Gentlemen’s Tailors is I CAN SELL.
I believe that my education and sales ability would be an asset to your com-
pany and I would appreciate an opportunity to discuss this personally with you in
an interview. I am available any weekday before 2 p.m.
Sincerely
James Gatt

Figure.6.Sample Unsolicited Application letter

177
 Alison V. Witney
1670, NOVA SCOTIA
B2N 6C4

April 5, 20__
Ms. Patricia Markham
Able Computers, Inc.
P.O.Box 1511
Toronto, Ontario
M5W 3G1

Dear Ms. Markham

Several weeks ago I wrote you applying for a management traineeship with
Able. In case my application letter has been lost in the mail I do wish to ensure
that you know of my enthusiasm for Able. As my February 15 letter stated, I am
impressed with your positions of leadership in your industry.
You are interested, I understand, in recruits with computer, management, and
marketing abilities. My marketing major, management minor, and data processing
job experience meet those qualifications.
The enclosed résumé presents information about how my educational, job and
extracurricula activities well prepare me for your traineeship.
An interview with you, at your convenience, is still my goal. My schedule
remains the same; I am still available at (613) 922-9676 weekdays from 2:00 p.m.
until 6:00 p.m.

Sincerely
Alison V. Witney

Figure 7.Sample Follow-up Letter

4. A SOLICITED LETTER OP APPLICATION

At the same time that you are researching potential employers

through directories and personal contacts, you will of course, be par-
ticipating; in the other job seeking ritual: reading job postings in
newspapers, placement offices special web-sites and Employment
Centres. While you will want to adapt good ideas from your un-
solicited letters, the solicited letter of application has some different
feature. Begin by reading the advertisement or job posting several
times, very carefully. Typical advertisements are shown below.
178
 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Planner

We are looking for an experienced com-
puter professional to assume both tech-
nical and consulting responsibilities. A
strong background in business and in-
dustrial applications on a variety of
computer systems is required. Good
communication skills and a minimum of
four years experience are essential.
Please submit résumé to:
Mr. Edward Delaney
Compuware Consulting Ltd.
101-800 Bloor Street West.
Toronto, Ontario
M5W 1E8

SHIPPING/RECEIVING/CUSTOMER SERVICE
Nansen Laboratories, a leading manufacturer of veterinary drugs, requires a ma-
ture, self-motivated individual to fill the Assistant Manager position at our Regina
location.
Experience incorporating shipping/receiving, customer service, computer entry is
preferred.
Company benefits package available.
Résumé to Nansen Laboratories.

Underline or highlight the words and phrases that would be par-

ticularly relevant if you were answering this ad. Remember that it
costs money to run an advertisement. If an employer pays for space to
include more than the job title and where to apply for it, it would be a
fatal mistake to ignore this additional information. This may include
both objective and subjective requirements. Objective requirements
are measurable; for example, previous sales experience, type 55 wpm,
college diploma, speak English. Subjective requirements and personal
qualities such as motivated, self-starting, able to work without super-
vision, detail-oriented. Pay particular attention to these subjective
qualities; they give you valuable insight into the way the employer
perceives the job and the work environment.
Compare the following advertisements:
CASH AUDIT/ACCOUNTING CLERK
We are a ladieswear chain looking for a responsible individual who has an apti-
tude for figures and enjoys problem-solving. This person must be detail- oriented
and capable of meeting deadlines. Familiarity with relevant computer programs,
and word processing required.
Please send your résumé to…

179
 ACCOUNTING ASSISTANT
We are an expending retail chain with an aggressive young management team.
You posses the accounting, interpersonal, and organizational skills necessary to
provide support for our busy operations. If you are familiar with relevant com-
puter programs, have word processing experience and are interested in career ad-
vancement, call…

The objective requirements are the same, but the wording of the
advertisements, and particularly the personal qualities considered ap-
propriate by each firm, reveal the different styles of the two work-
places. Perhaps you can see immediately that you would enjoy work-
ing at one place, but not the other. In this case you need to write only
one letter, showing that you are compatible with this job. If you feel
that you could work in either environment you could apply for both
jobs, but of course you would need two very different letters of appli-
cation.
Do not be tempted to falsify your personality. You may be flexible,
but if you are quiet, steady worker who prefers doing things on your
own, with your own system, you would be very much frustrated in a
team-oriented environment that required everyone to achieve consen-
sus and then abide by the decision of the group. On the other hand, if
you like to socialize at work and be in a lively environment, you will
soon grow depressed in a two-person office where you spend long pe-
riods of time staring at the phone. You may get a job by misrepre-
senting your personal qualities, but you won’t keep it, or want to keep
it if you have to be someone you’re not for forty hours a week.
Assuming that the employee profile identified by the advertise-
ment matches your attributes and qualifications, and that you have
marked in the ad the information you will need to write in your letter,
you can begin. The solicited letter of application is also a persuasive
message.
Attention
Bring your letter to the attention of the appropriate reader by using
his or her name and title. This may be stated in the advertisement. If
not, or if the information is not complete, phone the company to get it.
This is an important step, it demonstrates that you can take initiative
and gives your letter a professional-looking opening. If it is absolutely
impossible to get the name and title, for example, if you are replying
to a box number or you can’t afford to phone across the country to get
the name, use a subject line instead of a salutation.
180
 EXAMPLE
Government Employment Office
10 Khreshchatik Street
Kyiv, Ukraine
252001
Subject: Application for position as Director of Market Standards.

Interest
By advertising a job opening, your potential employer has already
identified his or her need. Begin by starting the position applied for,
using the job title exactly as posted and where and when you heard of
it. This will ensure that your application reaches the appropriate per-
son. As organization may have advertised a number of different job
openings.
EXAMPLE
I am applying for the position of Assistant Co-ordinator advertised
in the April 21 Business News
Remember to underline the title of a newspaper or magazine.

Desire
Since you have prepared a résumé to summarize most of the exact
details normally included in the desire section, make sure your reader
takes a look at it. If specific qualifications are called for in the adver-
tisement (university graduate, previous experience, etc.) mention
briefly that you meet these requirements.
EXAMPLE
As you can see from the enclosed résumé, I have a diploma in
Business Administration from Kyiv National Economic University. In
addition, I have worked part-time for four years as a receptionist.
If you do not have a particular qualification, say nothing about it.
Avoid negative sentences like, «Although I do not have any work ex-
perience in this field…».
If relevant experience for this particular job is not on your résumé,
add a sentence describing it.
Begin a new paragraph to describe your personal qualities. If some
are called for in the ad, of course, you will talk about those. Try to
support your statements with evidence.
181
 EXAMPLE
As a sales assistant in a small sporting store, I was frequently left
in sole charge. This required responsibility, self-direction, and lots of
problem-solving skills.
If no qualities are specifically mentioned, you should still describe
your strong personal attributes. Look at the section on creating desire
in the unsolicited letter for some suggestions.

Action

Ask for an interview, following the suggestions under action in the

unsolicited letter.
Here are the replies to the advertisements.

23 Applewood Rd.
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
S7B 1E9

May 10, 20__

Ms. Lorna Harris

Manager, Nansen Laboratories
2250 Mill gate Pkwy
Regina, Saskatchewan
S4G 5K2

Dear Ms.Harris
I am applying for the position of Assistant Manager advertised in the May 9
Regina Leader Post. As you can see from the enclosed résumé, I will be graduat-
ing from the General Business program at Prairie College this June. Before re-
turning to school, I had three years experience as a shipper/receiver.
College courses in data entry and microcomputer operations, as well as cus-
tomer service training as night manager at Cooperative Cable, have given me the
employment experience you require.
As a returning student, I maintained a high B average working at a demand-
ing part-time job and doing volunteer work with the People’s Food Bank. Your
firm would benefit from my motivation, attention to detail, and excellent commu-
nication skills. I would welcome the opportunity to discuss this position with you
further in an interview at your convenience.

Sincerely
George Smith

182
 152 Bedford Road
Toronto, Ontario
M4B

August 14, 20__

Mr. Edward Delaney
Compuware Consulting
101-800 Bloor St.W.
Toronto, Ontario
M5W 1E8

Dear Mr. Delaney

Your advertisement in last Friday’s Globe and Mail calls for an experienced
computer professional with a strong background in business and industrial appli-
cations; this description matches my qualifications. As a computer system plan-
ner, I could serve you and your clients well.
I have four years experience in computer systems development. Holding in-
creasingly responsible positions, I have worked on both commercial and engi-
neering applications, I am equally proficient at home calculating cost of sales,
solving complex equations, and scheduling industrial processes.
In each of my positions, I have learned how the business functioned so that I
could talk to the users in their own terms. This knowledge allowed me to under-
stand and contribute to discussions at development meetings and to produce clear
proposals with realistic examples.
When you have had an opportunity to review my résumé, I would appreciate
an interview to discuss my qualifications with you. You can phone me at 922-
6804, during office hours to arrange an appointment.
Sincerely
Joshua Reynolds
encl. (1)

When you send such a letter, follow up if the firm doesn’t respond
within two weeks, just as you would with an unsolicited letter.
If a firm grants you an interview as a result of your direct mail
campaign or your response to an advertisement, then you might write
a letter confirming the date, time and place for the interview and ex-
pressing your appreciation for being given the interview. Here’s an
example of the body of such a letter:
Thank you for scheduling an interview with me about opportuni-
ties in Able Computer’s manager trainee program.
183
 I am looking forward to our meeting.
As you requested during our telephone conversation, I’ll be
in Room 117 of the Able Building at 10:00 a.m. on Tuesday
August 9.
Your interest in my application is appreciated.

5. ORAL COMMUNICATION: REPLYING

TO A JOB POSTING BY TELEPHONE

Sometimes organizations prefer to screen applicants by phone. In

this case, the advertisement will invite you to call a number and ask
for a particular person. The person taking the calls will probably ask
you a few questions, describe the job, then take your name or ask you
to come in with your résumé for an interview, or to fill out an appli-
cation. Since a phone conversation can’t be revised like a letter if you
make mistakes, and since phoning can be naturally stressful anyway,
you will need to prepare yourself if you are going to make a good im-
pression.
Here are some general hints:
1. Read the ad thoroughly and look over your résumé just before
you call.
2. Have the advertisement and your résumé in front of you for ref-
erence. Have a pen and paper for directions and your calendar or date
book.
3. When you are connected, identify yourself and the purpose of
your call.
4. Listen carefully. Ask questions if you are confused or need to
know something important. The location of the job, whether it is full-
time or part-time, and the type of business would be examples of im-
portant questions. Don’t get into details about the dental plan.
5. Listen carefully to the questions you are asked. Answer as
briefly as possible; this is a screening call, not an interview. Put your-
self in a positive light; sound confident. Don’t apologize or put your-
self down, even as a joke.
6. If you are asked to come in, be prepared to suggest the time and
date (that’s why you need your calendar or date book handy). Get di-
rections and write them down.
7. If you are not asked, but you think you might like working
there, take the initiative and ask if you can bring or mail a copy of
your résumé.
8. Thank your listener and hang up.
184
Here is a sample telephone application:
Reception: Hello, Tetra Laval.
Dmytro Petrenko: Hello. May I speak to Donna Ross, please?
Reception: May I ask who’s calling?
Dmytro Petrenko: My name is Dmytro Petrenko. I’m calling
about the advertisement for a Junior Program-
mer in this morning’s «Kievskie Vedomosty».
Reсерtion: One moment, please.
Donna Ross: Donna Ross speaking.
Dmytro Petrenko: Hello. My name is Dmytro Petrenko, and
I’m calling about the Junior Programmer po-
sition advertised in the «Kievskie Vedomo-
sty» this morning.
Donna Ross: Yes, Mr .Petrenko. Could you tell me some-
thing about your educational background?
Dmytro Petrenko: I’m graduating this month in Information
Systems and Technology from Kyiv Na-
tional Economic University.
Donna Ross: Have you had any work experience with
computers?
Dmytro Petrenko: I’ve used a computerized inventory system
at my part-time job at MEGA TRADE Inter-
national and I’ve also demonstrated software
at the Computer show this spring.
Donna Ross: Well, we’re looking for someone who’s fa-
miliar with open office ERP and is prepared
to do some shiftwork. We’re located in an
industrial plaza so you would need your own
transportation.
Dmytro Petrenko: Would this shiftwork involve weekends?
Donna Ross: Saturdays, but no Sundays. Would you be
available for an interview later today or to-
morrow?
Dmytro Petrenko: I could come in after eleven o’clock tomor-
row.
Donna Ross: Fine, if you could come in at 11:15 tomor-
row and ask for me. Please bring a copy of
your résumé; I’ll just put you back to Re-
ception and you can get the directions.
Dmytro Petrenko: Thank you very much. I look forward to
meeting you.
Donna Ross: Yes, I’ll see you tomorrow, then. Good-bye.
185
Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. Where can you find information about available jobs?
2. What method of writing should a letter of application adopt?
3. What types of application letter do you know?
4. What parts does an unsolicited letter of application consist of?
5. Speak about a solicited application letter.
6. What information should you pay attention to reading an adver-
tisement?
7. What should a person do, if he or she doesn’t hear from a com-
pany after about 14 days?
8. How to prepare yourself for replying to a job posting by tele-
phone?
9. Why is it advisible to answer as briefly as possible when you
reply to a job posting by telephone?

Exercise II. Complete the following sentences:

1. Usually, only about _______ of available jobs are advertised.
2. Some places to research the job market are_________.
3. An unsolicited letter of application is___________.
4. A solicited letter of application is__________.
5. The purpose of the letter of application is to obtain
an__________.
6. The best way of getting attention in the letter of application is
by using________.
7. Like any persuasive message, an application letter creates inter-
est by_______.

Exercise III. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the

following Ukrainian words and phrases
Збільшувати шанси; стукати у двері; переживати підйоми та
спади; підказувати, застосовувати метод; заява (ствердження);
відданий персонал; звучати самонадіянно; підтримувати імідж
компанії; практикант (стажист); оголошення про посаду у газе-
ті; бюро з працевлаштування; центр зайнятості; використовува-
ти хороші ідеї; мати в наявності пільговий пакет; швидкість
друкування — 55 слів на хвилину; об’єктивні та суб’єктивні ви-
моги; схильність до цифр; бути спроможним виконувати роботу
до кінцевого терміну; твердо дотримуватися рішення; непра-
вильно представляти персональні якості.
186
 Exercise IV. Select a company or organization for which you might
like to work. Phone the company and request an appointment for an
information-gathering interview with an appropriate person. The pur-
pose of the interview is to obtain information about employment op-
portunities for university graduates. Here are some sample questions:
(a) Does your company hire university graduates?
(b) What kinds of job are presently held by university graduates?
(c) What university programs prepare students for employment at
this company?
(d) What further training, if any, is offered?
(e) What strength do university graduates bring to employment
with this company?
(f) Has this employer identified any consistent weakness in the
preparation of university graduates?
(g) What additional skills or education would enhance a university
graduate’s chances of promotion?
Share the information you have gathered with your classmates
Exercise V. Using your clipping file and/or interview as a resource,
write an unsolicited letter of application to a company or organization
that interests you.
Exercise VI. Take a page from the employment section of a news-
paper that contains jobs for which you will be qualified after gradua-
tion. Make a list of all the personal qualities asked for. Identify those
that are requested most frequently. Select five qualities that you pos-
sess. For each one write a sentence beginning « My ______ is demon-
strated by _______».
Exercise VII. Choose an employment advertisement from a news-
paper, magazine or web-site. Write a letter applying for the job, using
your own qualifications.
Exercise VIII. From the newspaper files in your library, select an em-
ployment advertisement for a job in your field that appeared about a
month ago. Call or visit the company and ask the following questions:
a) Why did you choose a newspaper advertisement to fill this job?
b) Did you use additional methods?
c) How many applications responded to the advertisement?
d) Were most of them qualified for the job?
e) Did the successful applicant learn about the job from the newspaper?
f) Did the successful applicant have all the qualifications you asked for?

Report your findings to the class.

187
UNIT IV
ATTENDING AN INTERVIEW

1. PURPOSE OF AN INTERVIEW

An employer has many ways of assessing the skills and qualifica-

tions of a potential employee. Besides the résumé and letter of appli-
cation, there may be an application form, an exam, or aptitude test;
sometimes employers request academic transcripts, letters of recom-
mendation, or portfolios of your work.
The interview is designed to provide information that cannot be
obtained in any of these ways — information about your personality,
values, and goals. A face-to-face meeting helps a potential employer
see you as a whole person and evaluate your compatibility with the
job and the people you would be working with. It follows that the best
advice for an interviewee is «be yourself». But sometimes anxiety,
and stress can prevent you from being your best self, and you give the
interviewer a false impression. Preparation is the best way to over-
come nervousness and ensure that your interviewer gets a look at the
real you.

2. PREPARING FOR AN INTERVIEW

The key to a good interview is thorough preparation. If you have
prepared yourself well, the interview will most likely run smoothly
and you will present yourself confidently.
As we pointed out earlier, your qualifications for a job include not
only your previous applicable work experience, education, and ex-
tracurricula activities, but also any salable personal characteristics you
have. Be prepared to show that you are dependable, adaptable, mature
and so on. Any activity in which you have been involved can provide
evidence. For example, playing basketball or any other team sport re-
quires the ability to work with others. Earning part of your university
expenses shows initiative. A clear and logical explanation of why you
changed fields or transferred from one school to another can indicate
decision-making ability and, perhaps, adaptability. Leadership skills
can be shown through various activities, including working as a coun-
selor in a summer camp, or even training your replacement for a job
you left.
In short, pick your major qualifications, document them, review
them, and be prepared to talk about them during the interview.
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 One of the most important steps in preparing for an interview is
to research the company. Presumably, you had done some research
before submitting your letter of application. Now you need to iden-
tify additional information, such as the number of persons the com-
pany employs, specific fields in which it is involved, work for which
it is particularly well known, its major products and services, im-
portant contracts it has received (news of which has been released to
the media), locations of branch offices, and the company’s involve-
ment in community activities. Such knowledge can be extremely
useful during the interview, because it permits you, to ask intelligent
questions at appropriate places — questions that indicate to the in-
terviewer that you have done your homework. When recruiters dis-
cuss major problems or errors in interviews, they invariably point to
interviewees’ lack of knowledge about the company as a serious
shortcoming.
In order to arrive in time phone ahead to get directions to the place
of interview. Ask how long it should take to get there from your
house, by car or public transport, whichever you will be using, at the
time you will be coming. If the answer seems hesitant or vague, check
with someone who drives that route. Being late makes a terrible im-
pression, so if this interview is important and the territory is unfamil-
iar you may want to make a trial run. Arriving an hour early can look
over-eager and will give you a lot of time to become nervous.
Plan your wardrobe and check that everything will be ready to put
on. Don’t discover a missing button or fallen hem on your way out of
the door. Choose a conservative outfit, not necessarily your «best
clothes». A suit is always appropriate for men and women, so con-
sider investing in one if you don’t own one and expect to attend sev-
eral interviews. Certain occupations — day care worker, entertain-
ment industry accountant — may allow you to dress in a fairly casual
way, but «dressing up» for an interview in conventional business at-
tire is a mark of respect and an indication that you take the interview
seriously. Dress to daytime standards — minimal jewellery and colog-
ne, low-key hair. Avoid up-to-the-minute high fashion unless you are
working in that field. Your outfit shouldn’t attract attention away from
you. One survey found, that in a 20-minute interview the average in-
terviewer, makes a selection decision within the first four minutes of
the interview. Some interviewers claim that they can decide whether
or not an applicant is suitable for a job the very instant he or she en-
ters the room.
Obviously, these early decisions are based in large part on physical
appearance.
189
 3. TYPES OF INTERVIEW
Most interviews or interview situations are found in one or more of
the following classifications.
1. The screening interview, as its name implies, screens prospects
into groups, such as, «Interview them further», «Reject them», or,
«Hold for future decision». Such an interview usually occurs before
other categories of interviews and typically lasts about 30 minutes.
2. An open-ended interview (sometimes called an «unstructured»
or «non-directive» interview) follows no discernible pattern. Your an-
swer to an initial question may determine the next question. The inter-
actions and responses direct the interview.
3. A panel interview involves one interviewee and more than one
interviewer. Since an interviewee may feel outnumbered by only one
interviewer, imagine the pressure you are likely to feel with several
people questioning and observing you. On the other hand, if the com-
pany feels your interview is important enough to justify the time of
two or more recruiters, perhaps it is already impressed with you.
4. The group interview is the reverse of the panel interview several
interviewees are present with one interviewer. You’re likely to en-
counter a group interview in a social setting, such as a party to which
many job prospects are invited or a mass screening situation when the
company has a large number of applicants for few positions. Since
these interviews may not last long, each interviewee seeks to make a
quick and positive impression — often at the expense of other appli-
cants. Do try to impress your interviewer but avoid direct comparison
to others in the room if possible.
5. The stress interview — probably the most unpleasant of the six
categories — places the interviewee in a stressful situation in which
the interviewer carefully observes reactions. Examples of these situa-
tions are inviting you to smoke but not supplying an ashtray and put-
ting you in a lengthy business simulation full of tricks and pitfalls.
Questions the interviewer knows to cause stress may also be used. At
one time deliberate stress questions and stress interviews were fairly
common. Today they are less frequent, but they are sometimes used,
especially for high-level executive and high-stress positions.
6. The office visit (or plant headquarters) is not a single interview
but a series of them that may incorporate several of the categories al-
ready discussed. Some of the interviews may be stressful, others may
be conducted by a panel, and still others may be open-ended. A six or
seven-hour day, including breakfast, lunch, and coffee breaks with
company officials, is not unusual. In addition to interviews, the visit
190
may include physiological or ability testing, building tours, discus-
sions with potential peers or subordinates, and the completion of ap-
plication or travel reimbursement forms.

4. SURVIVING THE INTERVIEW

Try to arrive ten minutes early, so you will have enough time to
relax, but not enough to get nervous again. Stand up when the inter-
viewer comes into the waiting area to get you, or the receptionist indi-
cates that it is your turn to be interviewed. The interviewer may take
the initiative in greeting you; otherwise put out your hand for a hand-
shake and say: «Hello, I’m…». Shake hands firmly, because a limp
handshake creates an image of a limp, indefinite applicant. Wait to be
invited to sit down. Push yourself well back in the chair, making your-
self comfortable, and avoiding folding your arms across your chest
(which physiologically suggests you are resisting questions).
Don’t try to be someone you’re not. Allow your true personality to
emerge. Try to make a good impression, but avoid developing an im-
age that is inaccurate. The company will make hiring decisions on
what shows in the interview. Problems may occur if the «real you»
who turns up for work is substantially different.
An interview normally falls into three fairly easy-to-distinguish
parts. The initial part is an exchange of pleasantries between yourself
and interviewer. There will be a few general remarks, perhaps about
traffic or the weather. The interviewer may then ask the «ice-breaker»
questions about hobbies and interests mentioned above, or ask you
about sports or movies or a current news story. The interviewer’s
choice of topic probably reveals his or her own interests, so try to be
positive even if you are not informed. For example, if he or she says,
«who do you think is going to win Hockey World Championship?»,
I don’t have the slightest idea; I hate hockey» is not a tactful reply.
A better choice would be «I don’t really follow hockey very closely;
I am a football fan», or «I don’t really follow hockey; I’m very in-
volved with music». This will get the conversation going in a direc-
tion where you are interested and knowledgeable, without putting
down the interviewer. Likewise, if you are offered coffee and you
don’t want any, try «No thanks, but I’d love a glass of water», rather
than «No thanks. Coffee’s bad for you».
This initial part of the interview is normally short. In comparison,
the middle part of the interview is quite long. So that the interviewer
can find out as much as possible about you, he or she will want to
191
hear your opinions and have you demonstrate your knowledge of
certain topics. The interviewer will probably ask questions about
your own perceptions of your strengths and weaknesses, your long-
term goals, what you learned at school and on the job. If you have
prepared, you should be able to speak fairly, fluently and confidently
about yourself. Never put yourself down, even as a joke. Don’t say,
«Well, I haven’t done much supervision, except for supervising kids
at summer camp». Say, «I’ve supervised kids at a summer camp».
Don’t put down teachers, school, jobs, or supervisors, either.
Reinforce your self-confident image by suppressing nervous hab-
its. Don’t smoke, even if you’re invited to. Don’t touch anything on
the interviewer’s desk. Fold your hands if you find yourself fiddling
with your hair or jewellery. Nervous tics are very distracting to the
interviewer.
Brief, one-word answers — «Yes», «No», «Three years» —
make the interviewer feel like a game-show host. Ideally, you want
to develop your answers in a way that shows thought and interest
without going on and on. An answer developed in this depth often
provides the prompt from which the interviewer can frame the next
question.
After about ten minutes or so, if things are going well, the, inter-
viewer should change the emphasis from you to the job. If this doesn’t
happen, you had better try harder to make a good impression.

The closing portion of the interview is also short. The interviewer

will ask if you have any questions and will discuss details about the
company and employment with it. Assuming the interviewer is de-
scribing the job and the organization, your role is to look interested
and be prepared to ask questions about anything you don’t understand.
For example, «What do you manufacture?», «Do you have more than
one location?», «What’s the population of the city you’re located in?»
are not impressive questions because you are expected to have done
some basic research on the organization. Do not suggest self-serving
motives with questions like «Are you planning a move, because I live
right around the corner from here?», «Will you be introducing a dental
plan?», or «Will I be able to get time off at Christmas to pursue my
training as a biathlete?»
Here are some examples of questions you might ask.
1. How important are advanced degrees, such as an MBA, to ad-
vancement in this company?
2. Do you normally promote from within the company?
3. What kind of training do you provide for new employees?
192
 At the end of the interview the interviewer should tell you when a
decision will be made. If he or she doesn’t, it is appropriate to ask.
Stand up, shake hands, say good-bye, thank the interviewer, and say,
«I look forward to hearing from you».
In summary, a successful job interview involves polished, pro-
fessional behavior during it. You can gain the needed skills by prac-
ticing the suggestions we’ve mentioned with anyone (classmates,
friends, relatives) who will take the time with you.

5. INTERVIEW FOLLOW-UP

A job interview follow-up consists of three steps: (1) immediate

follow-up, (2) delayed follow-up, and (3) follow-up to letter of ac-
ceptance or rejection.

1. Immediate Follow-up

As soon as possible after the interview, write the interviewer a

follow-up letter. Basically, this letter consists of three paragraphs:
Paragraph A: Express appreciation for the interview and your
continued interest in the position.
Paragraph B: Add any important information about yourself that
you failed to mention during the interview. Or em-
phasize one of your qualifications that the inter-
viewer stressed as being important, especially if
you feel personally confident about the qualifica-
tion. Or mention some information, which you
learned about the company during the interview and
which impressed you. Try to say something that
will remind the reader of you and the interview;
pick something that would not have been discussed
with other interviewees. You may also mention,
when appropriate, that you have competed and en-
closed an applications form.

Paragraph C: Communicate your willingness to answer further

questions about your qualifications and assume
a positive attitude toward hearing from the
interviewer.
193
 Here is an example of such a follow-up letter:

Dear Mr. Markham

Thank you for the time you spent with me on Thursday discussing employ-
ment opportunities in Able Computer’s Manager trainee program. Your descrip-
tion of Able’s program was very impressive and reinforced my serious interest in
the position.
You mentioned during the interview that Able is interested in individuals who can
assume responsibility. Both my work experience (where I trained new employees and
replaced the manager when she was out of town) and my extracurricula activities
(where I had leadership positions in three different campus groups) show the kind of
responsible experiences you might be seeking in an applicant.
If you wish to discuss any questions about my qualifications for the manager
trainee position, please call me. I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely

Your follow-up letter may also serve as a cover letter for a job ap-
plication form. Most companies use application forms which ask for
much the same information as is supplied on your résumé. You may
be asked to complete the organization’s form before a screening inter-
view, immediately after it, or at the office visit. Frequently, at the
completion of a successful screening interview, you are asked to take
a form with you and return it by mail. This request can be an indica-
tion that you are preceding through the job-getting process. As you
complete the form, keep in mind that neatness, spelling, grammar, and
punctuation are important.

2. Delayed Follow-up
Most interviewers close a job interview by telling you how soon a
selection decision will be made: «We’ll let you know something by
the fifteenth of next month». If you don’t hear from the company by
the deadline specified, telephone the interviewer to check on the
«progress» of your application. If a decision has not yet been made
you will have simply gained the advantages of immediate follow-up.
If a decision has been made and you have not been chosen, you will at
least know where you stand.
If you are turned down, you have little to lose by remaining dili-
gent. Recruiters sometimes talk about the employee they hired who
wouldn’t take «no» for an answer.
A final note on follow-ups: you might have wondered why we
have emphasized follow-up so extensively. The follow-up (whether
by letter or telephone) has two purposes. First it is a public relations
194
device assigned to enhance your relationship with the interviewer.
Second, it is a means of bringing your name back to the interviewer’s
attention. Recall that many interviewers, especially those who do
campus recruiting, interview as many as 15 applicants in one day.
You want to stand out as a qualified person, who is genuinely inter-
ested in the position,

3. Follow-up to letters of Acceptance or Rejection

You’ll probably get both kinds of letters — some offering you a
position with a company and some turning you down. You should re-
spond to both kinds of letters.
If you are offered a position which you accept, you follow-up letter
should:
a. Formally accept the position.
b. Express appreciation for the offer.
c. Confirm the details of the offer, including:
(1) salary
(2) starting time
(3) location of position
(4) name of the person to whom you’ll be reporting.
d. Show anticipation of doing good work.
Here is an example of such a letter:
Dear Mr.Markham
Your offer of a position in Able Computer’s manager trainee program is en-
thusiastically accepted. Thank you for your confidence in my potential to perform
well in the program.
Confirming your letter offering the position, I understand that the starting sal-
ary is $ 16 150 per year, to be paid monthly. I will report to Room 2356 of the
Аb1е Building at 8:00 a.m. on Monday, January 4, and ask for Phillip Slone, who
is to be my training coordinator.
As we discussed earlier, I am impressed with the opportunities Able Comput-
ers provides qualified applicants. I will do all I can to justify your trust in my po-
tential.
Sincerely

Sometimes an applicant may receive two offers of employment at

the same time and will have to decline one. The letter declining em-
ployment should:
a. Express appreciation for the job.
b. Compliment the interviewer or the company offering the position..
c. Clearly refuse the position and explain your refusal.
d. Express appreciation for the offer again.
195
 Here is an example of a letter refusing a job offer.

Dear Mr. Markham

Thank you very much for your letter of September 23 offering me a position
in Able Computer’s manager trainee program. I am sincerely impressed bу both
your confidence in my potential and the opportunities Able offers to qualified ap-
plicants.
Just this morning Stover Chemicals offered me a training position in their
employee relation department. Because of Stover’s closeness to my home and the
immediate opportunity to work directly in the employee relations field, I have
decided to accept that offer.
Your interest in me and your consideration of my application are appreciated.
Sincerely

Declining a job offer pleasantly and formally in a carefully worded

letter like this is insurance for the future: one day you may want to
work for that employer.
If you receive a letter rejecting your application for a position, you
should follow it up, especially if you might reapply with the company
in the future. Such a letter should:
a. Express appreciation for considering your application.
b. Express appreciation for the learning experience the application
process has provided you.
c. Introduce future application possibilities.
Here is an example of a response to a letter of rejection:
Dear Mr. Markham
I received your letter of September 23 indicating that I will not be offered a
position in Able Computer’s manager trainee program.
I do appreciate your time and effort in considering my application. Inter-
viewing with you has been a learning experience that provided me with valuable
insight into my qualifications and opportunities for improvement.
As we discussed earlier, I am genuinely impressed with the opportunities
Able provides qualified applicants. Therefore, when I have taken the courses you
suggested in your letter, I intend to reapply for a position with Able. Please keep
my application on file.
Sincerely

Summary

1. To get started on your job search:

— decide what you want
— decide what you can offer
196
 2. To get an interview:
— identify prospective employers
— interview prospective employers
— conduct a direct-mail campaign
— respond to advertisements
3. Plan for the interview by:
— reviewing your qualifications
— researching the company
— anticipating what will happen in the interview
— practising answering questions
— considering your appearance
— arriving on time
4. During the interview:
— have a firm handshake
— establish and maintain eye contact
— consider your posture
— avoid criticising past employers
— avoid evaluating past jobs
— ask questions about the company
— be honest
— express appreciation for the interview
5. Following the interview:
— write a follow-up letter
— call if you haven’t heard by a specific deadline
— respond to letters of acceptance and rejection

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of an interview?
2. What are the steps in planning for a job interview?
3. Why is it important to research the company you would like to
work for?
4. Why is a concervative outfit the best choice for the interview?
5. When does an interviewer make a selection decision?
6. Speak on the types of interview.
7. What are the three parts of an interview?
8. What are the appropriate answers and questions during the in-
terview?
197
 9. Discuss the importance of follow-up as it applies to job inter-
views.
10. Describe three situations in which you would be likely to use a
follow-up
11. Why is it necessary to write a letter if you decline a job offer?
Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Академічна довідка; співбесіда, яку проводить комісія; уника-
ти прямого порівняння; моделювання ділової ситуації; засідка;
огляд приміщення; транспортна компенсація; слабке потискання
руки; схрещувати руки на грудях; з’являтися на роботі; обмін
люб’язностями; питання, що починає розмову; принижувати се-
бе; посилювати імідж; стримувати нервові звички; вертіти в руці
(гратися); підказувати; покращити взаємовідносини; виправдати
довіру.
Exercise III.Form a trio with two of your classmates. Person A is
the interviewer, Person B is the interviewee, and Person C is the ob-
server. A should interview B for approximately ten minutes, asking
any questions. A and C should give feedback to B about his or her an-
swers and nonverbal communication. Allow B to practice answering
difficult questions. Then switch roles for the next 20 minutes, making
sure that each member of your trio plays each person in the exercise.
Exercise IV. Make an appointment to interview the personnel offi-
cer of a local company. Your purpose in this interview is to find out:
a. What kinds of questions the person likes to ask in job interviews.
b. The role this person thinks nonverbal communication plays in
the job interview.
c. The most difficult problem this person has in selecting among
applicants.
d. What qualities this person looks for in people with your level of
education.
Summarise your findings in a brief report or a short oral presenta-
tion to the class.
Exercises V. Case study
Case I1
Ian was starting to panic. Achieving perfect hair had taken a little
longer than he’d planned, and then a broken shoelace added five min-
1
Taken from a case study by Mary Finlay, Communication at work, Holt, Rinchart and
Winston of Canada, Limited.

198
utes while he looked for another pair. In the end, he had to change
shoes. Now he was down to his last litre of gas. He didn’t want to risk
his good suit at a self-serve, so he was forced to take an eight-block
detour to a full-service gas station. Seriously behind schedule now, he
finally found a parking spot several streets away from the head office.
Even at a dead run he knew he’d be late for the interview.

Arriving finally, out of breath and wind-blown, Ian managed to

point out his name to the receptionist. «Oh, go right in; they’re wait-
ing for you». This was it, then his shot at the assistant manager’s job
he really wanted. Let’s hope the interview went better than the rest of
the morning.

Interviewer 1: Hello, I’m Laura Murphy from Personnel. This is

Amir Salloum, our Operations Manager.
Ian: Hi! I’m Ian Chandler.
Interviewer 2: Did you have some problems finding the office?
Ian: Well, not really; I couldn’t find a place to park.
Interviewer 2: Oh, we have our own car park. If we’d known you
were coming by car we could have given your name
to the attendant.
Interviewer 1: Well, now that you’re here, Ian, we’d like to get to
know a bit more about you, and then tell you about
the job we want to fill. It says on your résumé that
you enjoy reading. What kind of things do you like
to read?
Ian: Uh, well — I read the newspaper.
Interviewer 2: There’s certainly a lot going on these days. Are
there any particular stories you’re following?
Ian: Well, I’m hoping Calgary makes the playoffs.
Interviewer 1: Are you following any of the developments in
China or Europe?
Ian: No, um, not really, I haven’t noticed much about
them…
(Half an hour later)
Interviewer 2: Now, Ian, you must have some questions about the
job.
Ian: I guess I don’t know much about textiles I’m not
much into fashion.
Interviewer 1: Richmond Textiles makes industrial textiles. We’re
not in the fashion business.
Ian: Oh, what exactly are industrial textiles?
199
 Ian had worked hard to complete his diploma in Business Admi-
nistration with good marks. His résumé had been impressive enough
to get him onto the short list of candidates to be interviewed for the
job at Richmond Textiles. But poor preparation probably cost him the
job when he got to the interview.
Case question
How could Ian have improved his chances of success? Give some
guidelines Ian should have followed to prepare for a successful inter-
view.

Case II. Lost opportunity2

On the advice of a friend, Sid Flaccus called Data Preparation As-
sociates and obtained an interview for an entry-level technical writing
position a well-known company was seeking to fill.
Flaccus is 22 years old and has a B.A. in English. He now works
part-time for Personnel Service, where he writes manuals, letters,
memos, and reports.
Sid arrived 15 minutes early for his interview with Betty Boman,
the chief editor of the company. He had dressed in a suit and tie and
had even shined his shoes. Two days earlier he had his hair styled and
cut short.
Ms.Bomen was dressed casually and appeared relaxed. Sid could
see that she was an experienced interviewer. She let Sid do most of
the talking, but interrupted his digressions about his writing experi-
ences to ask pointed questions about his knowledge of computer soft-
ware. Sid knew a little about computers from his required course in
computer science, and he added that he «didn’t see much difference
between journalism and tech writing». He recommended that
Ms.Boman read a recent article about computer software writers and
their jargon and quoted several humorous examples from it.
When the conversation turned to Sid’s writing he quickly pointed
out that he had had a scholary paper on poetry published in a Cana-
dian journal as well several short stories in the campus magazine. He
also mentioned that his English professors had praised his writing and
encouraged writing career.
The interview lasted nearly an hour, and for the last half an hour
Ms. Boman asked no questions. She and Sid discussed the novels of
Margaret Atwood, in whose work they shared an interest. The inter-
view ended cordially, and Ms.Boman told Sid to call in about a week.
2
Adapted from a case study by Michael T.O’Neill, Personnel Finders of-Arlington, Inc.

200
 When Sid called a week later, he was surprised to find that another
applicant had received the job.
Case questions
1. What do you suspect caused Ms.Boman to turn Sid down?
2. What would you have done differently at the interview that
might have changed its outcome?
3. Would you tell Sid to do anything differently at his next inter-
view? What?

201
Part IV
Reports and Oral Presentations

UNIT I
WHAT IS A REPORT?
Let’s begin with two dictionary definitions of a report:
«A formal statement of the results of an investigation or of any
matter on which definite information is required, made by some per-
son instructed or required to do so.»
(Oxford English Dictionary)
«An account prepared for the benefit of others, especially one that
provides information obtained through investigation.»
(Collins English Dictionary)
These definitions can help us to identify the key criteria for a re-
port, which are:
— Formal — following an established form or convention.
— Factual — containing information obtained through investigation.
— For the benefit of others — supplying the reader with the in-
formation he or she needs in a form he or she can understand.
— Requested — either expressly or implicitly.
Business reports are written to communicate facts and ideas to oth-
ers. Without facts and ideas, without data on costs and expenses, and
without statistics that indicate trends, business could not operate. The
flow of information and ideas is necessary for business executives to
make their decisions. The quality and accuracy of their decisions de-
termine the future of the company. To make successful decisions, ex-
ecutives, managers, and supervisors rely heavily on the information
that is reported to them.
Information is reported on all levels of business. The board of di-
rectors studies the report from presidents and vice presidents, who in
turn rely on reports from their department heads and assistants. Man-
agers and supervisors rely on reports from their sales staff, their ac-
counting department, and so on. The information reported may be
complex and detailed, or it may be simple and straightforward.
202
 The format, contents and purpose of reports vary a lot. A report
could be, for instance:
— a pre-printed form, which the report writer completes by answer-
ing a series of questions;
— a memo;
— a précis of another report;
— a technical report: informational, analytical and so on.
Defining the purpose of the report you have been asked to produce
is essential as the first stage in its preparation and successful conclu-
sion. You need to know why you are writing the report. You may find
it helpful to ask yourself the question — «What is the purpose of this
report?» Will it be to INFORM, to INSTRUCT, to INFLUENCE, to
INTERPRET or to INTEREST?
Let’s take a look at each of these in turn:
Purpose of Report Examples
— Circulate new policies/ideas.
— Inform others of work done/progress made.
INFORM Specific example:
Providing update on the progress of a project.
— Tell others how to put new policies into practice.
INSTRUCT Specific example:
Explaining how a new system will operate.
— Sell your ideas and persuade the reader to make a
decision.
INFLUENCE — Recommend a course of action.
Specific example:
Selling the benefits of the start up of a new project.
— Assess a situation.
— Draw conclusions.
INTERPRET Specific example:
Analysing the performance of your company from the lat-
est company report.
— Use the presentation to appeal to a wide audience.
INTEREST Specific example:
Summarising the findings of a market research project.

Every report will serve at least one of these five purposes. Since
they all begin with the letter «I» you can remember them as:
The FIVE I’s

203
 Before you begin each new report always bear in mind the five
«I’s» and ask yourself «Is the purpose of this report to inform, in-
struct, influence, interpret and/or interest?»
Drawing up the specifications
Sometimes the person writing a report does not have a clear idea of
what type of report is required. Clear, agreed instructions are the
foundation upon which you build your report. Instructions define the
scope of your report and the lines you are required to follow. They
outline the areas you must consider and the restrictions you must ob-
serve. If you don’t obtain specific instructions before you start, you
could waste a lot of time and effort.
We can illustrate this important point with an example. Jane Green
the newly appointed Head of Administration, asks Peter Smith, a Sec-
tion Supervisor, to «prepare a report on the company’s fire precau-
tions». Peter doesn’t want to give his new boss the impression that he
isn’t completely efficient by asking for any further details. So he
agrees and goes back to his office, feeling vague about what he is
supposed to do. Should he write about:
— the adequacy of the company’s existing fire-fighting equipment?
— the frequency and extent of fire drills?
— a review of the alarm system and the instructions given to staff?
— a survey of fire escapes?
— consultations with the local fire service?
— review of the complete fire precautions system and recommenda-
tions for improvements?
You can see that the amount of work required will obviously vary
considerably between these options. Peter will waste a lot of time if
the information he produces is not required.
But rather than risk Jane thinking him inadequate if he asks her
questions, Peter decides to do a really thorough job. He decides to
carry out a review of the complete fire precaution system. He also in-
vestigates the purchase and installation of the latest «state of art»
equipment.
Two days later Jane asks for the completed report. Peter thinks she
is an over-demanding boss, because he could never complete such a
comprehensive task in two days. Jane thinks he is slow because he
should have been able to finish it in 24 hours.
When Peter finally does finish his review and presents his report
two weeks later, Jane is amazed because what she wanted was:
How many new fire extinguishers were needed to meet «Health
and Safety» standards following the extension to the company prem-
204
ises, and what was the most competitive price they could be bought
for!!!
The message for Peter Smith, and for all of us is:
If someone asks you for a report, make sure you get a proper
briefing. If anything is not clear, don’t make assumptions, ask ques-
tions. If you don’t ask questions at this stage you could look a fool
later if you produce a report that is not wanted! Asking relevant ques-
tions is the mark of a good report writer, not a fool.
Here is a checklist of key questions you should ask and have an-
swered:
A. What is the subject of the report?
— What angle should I take?
— Are there any aspects in particular you want me to concentrate on?
B. What is the purpose of the report? (refer back to the previous
section)
Inform — Is this report intended to give information?
Influence — Is the report intended to analyse alternatives
and make recommendations to the reader to help
towards a decision?
Interest — Is it intended to arouse interest or enthusiasm?
Interpret — Is the report intended to analyse facts?
Instruct — Is it intended to give instructions?
C. Who is the report intended for?
— What do the readers already know?
— What do they need to know?
— What are their attitudes?
— What do you want them to think/do after reading the report?
D. How long should the report be?
— What degree of detail should I go into?
E. What information is already available?
— Do you have any information which you particularly want me
to include in the report?
F. What is the timescale?
— When must my report be completed by?
— Does the time allocated match the amount of work involved?
— What additional resources can I draw on?
The secret of successful report writing is a systematic approach
and you must complete this stage before you do anything else. Other-
wise you could make the same mistakes as Peter Smith.
205
 Your next step is to arrange with the report commissioner to spend
some time going through each of these questions for the report you
have agreed to write. Fix the time and place for the meeting that will
allow you to cover all the questions. Don’t forget to make notes.
Your questions are designed to form the basis for a discussion to
help you and report’s commissioner. So be careful not to conduct the
meeting like an interrogation.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. Give definitions of the word «a report».
2. What are the key criteria for a report?
3. Why write a report?
4. What levels of business is information reported on?
5. What types of reports do you know?
6. What is the purpose of a report? Give examples of each «I»
7. What is necessary to do before starting to write a report?
8. Why is it so important to interview the report’s commissioner?
Give your own example.
9. What is the secret of successful report writing?
10. What are the key questions you should ask and have answered?
11. In what way is it necessary to conduct the meeting with the re-
port commisioner?
Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Встановлена форма; висловлювати прохання непрямо; значно
покладатися; забезпечувати новою інформацією; навіювати ідею;
притримуватися необхідного напряму діяльності; окреслити сфе-
ри діяльності; притримуватися обмежень; марно витрачати час;
зусилля; засоби протипожежної безпеки; почуватися невизначе-
но; відповідність обладнання нормам; система сигналізації; по-
жежний вихід; вогнегасник; відповідати нормам безпеки; замов-
ник звіту.
Exercise III. Complete the following sentences.
1. Business reports are written _______.
2. _______ determine the future of the company.
3. To make a successful decision managers rely on ________.
4. The information reported may be ______, or ______.
206
 5. Defining _______ you have been asked to produce is essential
as the first stage in its preparation.
6. Since all of these five purposes begin with _________ you can
remember them as ________.
7. ________ are the foundation upon which you build your report.
8. If someone asked you for a report, make sure ________.
9. The secret of successful report writing is _________.
Exercise IV. Obtain a copy of a report of a company or organiza-
tion in your field and indicate its type and purpose.
Exercise V. Select a topic for your final report. Choose one that is
related to your academic research or practical work. Make a list of key
questions you should ask and have them answered.

UNIT II
DECIDING WHAT TO INCLUDE
Deciding what to include in your report, gathering and analysing
the information, is the most difficult aspect of a report. It is also po-
tentially the most rewarding.
Let’s look at ways in which you can minimise your difficulties and
maximise the effectiveness of this part of report writing.
Your product is the finished report. Many people find it difficult to
produce their best product if they try to write the report from begin-
ning to end, attempting to get everything right in the first draft.
The task becomes more manageable if you concentrate on different
parts of the problem at each stage of production. For example, you
could start by listing what you need to do and what you know already.
Break down a large task into smaller sections: «The best way to eat an
elephant is a bit at a time!»
You could picture your report as a problem to be solved and your-
self as the detective whose task is to solve it. Here are a number of
techniques that you can use to solve your problem:

A. DEFINE THE PROBLEM

As your starting point you will have the terms of reference from
the person who has commissioned the report. This gives you the pa-
rameters within which you will work. You should refer back to the
notes you took at your briefing interview with the report’s commis-
207
sioner, and extract the essential points. Just jot down the key words on
a sheet of paper.

B. FIND THE FOCAL POINT

Here is a way to help you find the focal point of your report. It’s
called Nutshelling. This is a technique to help you find the overriding
theme of your report. You simply try to state the essence of your ma-
terial in a few sentences. Imagine you are writing a statement for
someone who knows nothing about the subject of your report. We
have used the Flexible Hours report, which you can find at the end of
this part for the example. The purpose of this report is to address con-
cerns about staffing levels outside of core time when flexible hours
are introduced.

C. KEEP ON COURSE
All reports are intended to answer a question, so you can make
sure you are still on course, if you keep asking yourself: «Does this
activity help me to answer the question that is the purpose of this re-
port?»

D. MAKE NOTES
Make notes and rough drafts before you try to reach conclusions
about the final contents and shape of your report. This will help
you to clarify and improve your understanding as you collect mate-
rial.
At this stage, don’t worry about appearance, structure, order of
contents and grammar, or even whether or not all the information will
be included. Your aim is to capture ideas and then sort them out.
How many ideas can you keep in your mind at once? Space in our
short-term memory is limited. We can’t keep all the ideas for a report
in our heads at once. If you try, the ideas will get jammed up and start
crashing into each other — and your stress level will rocket!
Try using the following technique:
- Brainstorming — a technique for generating ideas. Brainstorming
allows you to think about the subject freely and laterally (outside of
your usual boundaries). You may not reach the best conclusion unless
you are able to go beyond «conventional wisdom» and think laterally
in your search for ideas. Brainstorming lets you drop all the rules and
preconceptions which govern the way we think.
208
 Rules for Brainstorming:
— set a time limit — say 10 minutes;
— write the subject down;
— let your mind run free and jot down all the ideas you generate;
— don’t censor any ideas no matter how crazy they seem.
After your «brainstorm» you can decide which of your ideas will
work and which won’t. You can sort out the overlapping ideas at this
stage too.

E. BE CLEAR WHAT YOU WANT TO SAY

Evidence suggests that writers who understand what they are try-
ing to say write more effectively.
If you are still getting no grips with the subject matter and thinking
it through while writing your report, the result is likely to be confu-
sion. Don’t start writing until you are sure that you are in full control
of the ideas you want to communicate. If you have started writing and
can’t make progress, it could be that you’ve not gathered sufficient in-
formation yet.

F. KEEP YOUR READER IN MIND

The good report writer is always aware of their readers needs —
you may find it helpful to use a table like the one below. This will
help you design and edit your report for your readers.

Analysis of your readers needs

Prior knowledge Attitudes Needs

G. ANALYSE YOUR INFORMATION

AND PLAN THE STRUCTURE
An «Issue Tree» will help you organise and structure your ideas.
You may like to construct an Issue Tree after you have done a «Brain-
storm».
Here is an example of an Issue Tree:
Purpose of the Report: Influence Concerns About Flexible Hours

What does operating How does it Explain that low atten- Help overcome
flexible hours in- operate? dance outside of core- departmental
volve? time has not happened heads concerns

209
Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the most difficult aspect of a report?
2. How can you minimise your difficulties and maximise the effec-
tiveness while gathering and analysing the information for the report?
3. What techniques can you use to solve the problem of writing a report?
4. What is Nutshelling?
5. What are the rules for brainstorming?
6. When is the report written more effectively?
7. What is the good report writer always aware of?
8. Why is it advisable to construct an IssueTree?
Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the
following Ukrainian phrases.
Значно збільшувати ефективність; проект (документа); компе-
тенція; виділити суттєві моменти; коротко записати; головна
проблема; стисле викладення (матеріалу); службовий персонал
різного рівня; класифікувати; короткотермінова пам’ять; значне
зростання рівня стресу; розглядати з іншої точки зору; мудрість;
упереджена точка зору; піддавати цензурі; ідеї, які частково збі-
гаються; не розуміти предмета.
Exercise III. Complete the following sentences
1. _______ is the most difficult aspect of a report.
2. People find it difficult to produce their best report if _______
3. You could start writing a report ________
4. As a starting point you will have ________ from the person who
has commisioned the report.
5. Nutshelling is ________
6. If you keep asking yourself: _________, so you can make sure
you are still on course.
7. ________ before you try to reach conclusions about the final
contents and shape of your report.
8. Try to use the following technique: ________.
9. Evidence suggests that writers __________ write more effec-
tively.
10. ________ will help you organize and structure your ideas.

Exercise IV. Read and try to understand:

Below you will see four sets of information. You have to decide
the importance of this information for the reporting task.
210
 Your company, Interblock Inc., is a large manufacturer of indus-
trial machinery. You work as Assistant Manager in the Supply De-
partment of Interblock’s London headquarters. You have been asked
by the Finance Manager to write the following report.
Terms of Reference:
1. To investigate the range of photocopying equipment on the
market in order to make recommendations for the purchase of new
machines for the HQ offices.
2. To establish the relative costs of renting, buying and leasing
photocopying equipment and to make recommendations.
You have begun your investigation. So far, you have assembled four
pieces of information. Read through these four pieces of evidence (A, B, C
and D) and answer any questions that come before or after each one.
In deciding the relevance of some information, it is important to
distinguish who it was written for. Was the following extract written for:
• photocopying equipment manufacturers?
• general readers?
• office supervisors?
• purchasers of photocopying equipment?

A. ARTICLE FROM OFFICE EQUIPMENT SURVEY

It is essential to get the correct ma-
chine for the volume that is required.
In order to do this, it is necessary to
obtain accurate estimates of the
number of copies you make. A large
proportion of companies who have
replied to the Office Equipment Sur-
vey have not made proper estimates.
The result is that they are running the
wrong machine or are below mini-
mum billing.
We asked Charles Sands, a busi-
ness equipment consultant, to sug-
gest a simple method of checking
copy costs. He told us, «First,
establish the
monthly cost of your machine as
$x. Over three years this is, say,
3.3% of capital cost. For example, a
machine purchased for $2,670
gives a monthly cost of $88. Alter-
natively, work out a figure based on
your own financial method. Be-
cause of high maintenance costs, a
formula of $x + 1.25c per copy is
required so as to cover most ma-
chines.
Taking a machine at $88 a month
doing 7,000 copies, this works out
at 2.5c per copy. Or, for 3,000, it
equals 4.2c per copy. And then, of
course, there’s the paper, too».

You should be able to extract important details. Answer the

following questions:
1. What is most important when buying a photocopier?
2. Why do many companies have the wrong machine?
211
 3. How much is it necessary to allow per copy above the cost of the
machine?
4. If the cost of a machine is $95 per month, what is the copy cost
for 5,000 copies.
The second piece of evidence is the tapescript of an interview you
had with Mrs Clarke, Office Supervisor in the Sales Department.
During the interview, Mrs Clarke commented on the following aspects
of the AX20 photocopier used in her office:
a) speed
b) situation
c) breakdowns
d) quality noise
While you are reading the tapescript, decide which of these factors
is not relevant to your enquiry.
B. INTERVIEW WITH MRS CLARKE
I: Mrs Clarke, I’d like some information about AX20 photocopier used here
in this office. For example, its efficiency ... suitability?
C: The worst thing, as far as I’m concerned, is its position. It’s placed very
close to my desk and it also blocks the filing cabinets. It’s very difficult
for people...
I: I see. How long does it take to do a copy?
C: I’m not sure exactly, but it’s extremely slow. And there always seem to be a lot
of people waiting to use it. And more important, it’s always breaking down.
I: Can you be more specific on that last point?
C: I know the machine is unreliable because I had to call the engineer five
times last month.
I: Yes, that’s significant. What other disadvantages are there?
C: Well, I feel it’s an extremely noisy machine ... much noisier than the last
one we had and the quality is not good either.
I: The quality?
C: Yes, according to my records, there were over 8% spoilt copies in June
and nearly as many as that the month before ...

When deciding on the relevance of information, it is important to

judge the value of opinions. Answer the following questions:
1. In Mrs Clarke’s opinion, what is the most disadvantageous thing
about the photocopier?
2. What evidence does Mrs Clarke give for poor quality?
3. What evidence does Mrs Clarke have for slow copy time?
4. Which of the following pieces of information would it be useful
to obtain from Mrs Clarke:
a) personnel permitted to use the photocopier?
212
 b) type of documents photocopied?
c) number of photocopies done per day?
d) type of copy paper used?
The next piece of evidence is much more factual.
C. SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS REPORT MADE
BY THE PURCHASING DEPARTMENT
AT INTERBLOCK HQ IN JULY
The purpose of this report is to assess the relative costs of copy facilities based on
different methods of payment. The methods examined are:
1 Rental 2 Leasing 3 Buying
1.1. The rate of rental depends on copy volume. On an AX20 at the minimum rate
of 3,000 copies per month, the price is 2.9c per copy, excluding paper. At
10,000 copies a month, the rate is 1.75c. A total of $175.
2.1. On a five-year lease, the monthly charge, depending on tax relief, is approxi-
mately $44.13. In addition, 1.1c per copy is required for maintenance and service.
On 3,000 copies, this amounts to $77.13 a month. On 10,000, it is $154.13.
3.1. The capital cost of buying, after tax, is $1125.60. Over five years, that is
$18.76 a month. Add running costs of 1.1c per copy and that gives a monthly
total of $51.76 for 3,000 copies and $128.76 for 10,000.

1. When leasing, what does the machine charge depend on?

2. Which method gives the cheapest copy cost?
3. What is the copy cost at 3,000 copies per month when buying?
The fourth piece of evidence has been provided by Mr Madson of
the Accounts Department at Interblock. It is a written statement of his
views. While you are reading the statement, decide if Mr Madson is:
a) putting forward an argument against renting?
b) putting forward an argument against buying?
c) putting forward an argument for leasing?
d) putting forward an argument for renting?
D. MR MADSON’S STATEMENT
The question of whether to lease, rent or buy is very complicated. It very much
depends on the tax and cash position of a company. But one thing is clear: our pres-
ent policy of buying is unwise. Because this type of equipment is constantly improving,
it is necessary to make frequent changes. If you own a copier, you have to sell it. The
trouble is that there is a very poor market for used machines. A secondary point is
that Interblock is a large company that does not need to build up its assets in this way
or have a debt on the balance sheet. At the same time, the advantages of leasing have
been overstated. Many companies have regarded leasing as a means of avoiding tax.
In fact, it only postpones it. The company must face a tax bill in the end. The only way
to avoid making payment is for the company to go on leasing at an increased rate.

213
 1. What is Mr Madson’s principal argument against buying?
2. What have many companies misunderstood about leasing?
3. What causes companies to go on leasing at a higher level?
4. Now look back at the terms of reference on page 212 Which of
the following would you like to know more about:
a) costs of renting, buying and leasing equipment;
b) the range of photocopying equipment on the market.

UNIT III
STRUCTURE OF REPORTS

Reports vary considerably in their contents, but they all have

commonly recognized parts. The following information, which is suit-
able for a wide variety of subjects, covers the items that may appear in
reports:
Preliminary Sections
Cover
Flyleaf
Title page
Copyright page
Letter of authorization
Cover letter
Preface or Foreword
Acknowledgements
Table of contents
Summary
Main part of the report
Introduction
Body of the report
Conclusions
Recommendations
Supplementary material
Appendices
Bibliography
Glossary
Indices
214
 The pages of preliminary material are assigned lowercase Roman
numerals, beginning with ii on the first page after the title page of a
report that is typed on one side of the paper. The report and the sup-
plementary material are assigned Arabic numerals beginning with an
optional 1 on the first page or a necessary 2 on the second. If a report
has chapters, the number assigned the first page of each chapter may
appear or not as the writer wishes.
Each part of a report is discussed in the following sections. Some
of the preliminary and supplementary sections are optional. Some are
so similar that only one of the pair need be used.

PRELIMINARY SECTIONS
COVER. The cover of a report contains the title and the author’s
name. Optional additions are a security classification, the date of the
submission of the completed work, and if the report is one in a series,
the title of the series. Covers may be paper of higher quality suited to
harder use than typing paper.
FLYLEAF. Favoured by writers, a flyleaf is a blank page, some-
times of paper of higher quality than is used for the rest of the report,
sometimes containing a decorative background design. It is, of course,
optional. We have not seen a flyleaf in any unpublished papers, par-
ticularly in scholarly reports. It is too fancy for typewritten papers.
TITLE PAGE. The title page usually incorporates the following:
1. The Title. It should be brief, but it should convey the subject of
the report, e.g. «Introducing Flexible Hours into Head Office — Ad-
dressing Concerns».
2. The Author’s Name and his/her position and qualifications, e.g.
Ann Smith, Head/Personnel Department.
3. The Distribution List. A list of the people, or groups of people,
who are to receive the report. For example, the model report is to all
departamental heads.
4. The Date on which the report is presented. E.g. 17 June, 2000.
Other items that might be included are the approval signature and
date, the revision date, the series number, the security classification,
and the number of the contract.
COPYRIGHT PAGE. This page is noted in books on the back of
the title page as follows: date of copyright, name of the holder of the
copyright, and a statement like «All rights reserved. This book or any
part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written
permission of the copyright owner».
215
 LETTER OF AUTHORIZATION is necessary if the terms un-
der which the study was made should be recorded. It is written by the
person who requests or orders the study to the person who is to be re-
sponsible for the work and the report. Some letters of authorisation
contain detailed suggestions or instructions for the work; most do not.
COVER LETTER. A cover letter may be separate from the re-
port. If it takes the place of the preface, it becomes part of the report.
Cover letters may be addressed to the person or group that authorised
the report (this letter becomes part of the report), to a special reader in
order to call attention to subjects of interest to that reader (this letter is
not part of the report), to a reader who has requested a copy of the re-
port (this letter is not part of the report). Cover letters may be needed
when action is requested of a reader, when reports are sent to the divi-
sions of a company, when writers wish to remind readers of their pre-
vious connection with the project or with the writers.
A cover letter may include the main points of the report, the scope,
the material of interest to the reader or readers addressed, acknow-
ledgements, the need for and use of the report, major conclusions and
recommendations, personal comments of the writer. It should not have
the same wording as the summary (abstract).
PREFACE OR FOREWORD contains the same or similar in-
formation; therefore only one need be used, although occasionally
works have both. A foreword is written by someone other than the
author who knows and is willing to admire publicly the author and his
or her work. A foreword may include the background of the develop-
ment of the report, the report writer’s qualifications, the introduction
of the subject to the readers, references to related literature, evaluation
of the work. A preface is written in a personal style by the authors and
may include any of the material appropriate for the foreword, the
author’s reasons for writing, their ideas about using the report, and
their acknowledgements of help given by people and organisations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, however, are best presented in a
separate section. Removing them from the other material or a preface
gives acknowledgements more importance and is therefore more gen-
erous. This section should be revised with extra care to be certain that
names are spelled correctly and titles are given accurately. Acknow-
ledgements are, of course, optional except when writers must recog-
nize the financial contributions of persons or organizations. It is wise
to have the organization or person or both approve the expression of
gratitude. We can think of occasions when for one reason or another
acknowledgements have come as unpleasant shocks to those named.
216
 TABLE OF CONTENTS should give the main sections of the re-
port in the order in which they appear, together with their page refer-
ence. Table of Contents is essential for long reports or major topics,
but is not necessary for short reports.
SUMMARY. The purpose of the summary is to allow busy people
to get the gist of the report, without having to read it all. It should be
an «independent» statement of the content of the report, including:
a) a brief statement of the purpose and scope of the report;
b) a brief outline of what has been done and how it was done;
c) the findings;
d) the conclusions;
e) and the recommendations.
It should contain only the essential information which the reader
will need.
It should be written after completion of the rest of the report.
Summary may precede or begin reports. If these summaries precede,
the reports may begin in any way that the writers think will meet the
needs of their readers.

THE MAIN PART OF THE REPORT

INTRODUCTION. The introduction leads the reader into report
and sets the scene. It may include:
a) your terms of reference — the mandate you were given when
you were commissioned to write the report;
b) the name of the person who commissioned the report;
c) the reason for writing the report or conducting the investigation;
d) the scope (and limitations) of the report;
e) the method of enquiry used.
Although the introduction appears at the beginning of the report,
you will usually write it after the body of the report, when you will
know better what is needed. So, write your introduction last.
THE BODY OF THE REPORT. This section contains all the
facts and your findings. The number of parts that will appear in the
body will vary according to:
— subject matter;
— the type of investigation.
There are no rules on this! But you must give a logical and bal-
anced presentation and you must give each section a heading. Popular
report openings are statements of problem, of necessary background,
of interest-catching information, or questions and answers.
217
 Pattern reports — those with the material always arranged under
the same headings, which are always in the same order — may be
easy writing, but, as Sheridan noted, «Easy writing’s curst hard read-
ing». Some readers become impatient, some sleepy if they know just
where every report is going section by section. When they are not al-
ways familiar with the plan of reports, they are more alert and atten-
tive, anticipating the unexpected.
CONCLUSIONS. The purpose of the conclusion of a report is to
draw together the main points of the report and present a considered
judgement. But, you should not introduce any new material at this
stage. Some major reports may have «mini» conclusions at the end of
each section in the body of the report. These «mini» conclusions
should all be brought together in the general conclusions here.
RECOMMENDATIONS. The recommendations should follow
naturally from your conclusions.
Sometimes, the recommendations will be obvious and clear-cut,
and you won’t be able to offer any alternatives. However, there will
be occasions when there will be several possibilities open and in these
circumstances your recommendations must be based on clearly stated
facts and sound arguments.
Your recommendations for action should be:
— within your terms of reference;
— fully considered (including the financial implications of the
consequences);
— specific;
— well-defined;
— sound-practical and possible.
Recommendations are your advice as to the best choice or course
of action, which follows logically from your conclusions,
e.g. «Therefore, I recommend that six new posts be created
to deal with the increased workload».
Sometimes report writers give their writing what’s called «pseudo-
objectivity» by using phrases like:
It is recommended that...
It is considered that...
It has been established that...
This form of expression is called «pseudo-objectivity» because the
writer has avoided saying «I» or «We» which sounds like a subjective
judgement. If the writer «recommends», or is «proposing», or «be-
218
lieves» then this should be made clear. If more than one person has
prepared the report, then «I» becomes «We».
If someone else «recommends» or «proposes» then, likewise this
should be stated:
«The accounts department recommends that...»
Take care to ensure that the tone of your recommendations doesn’t
sound threatening to the reader. Don’t use words which indicate an
obligation to your reader, like «should», «ought», or «need».
Note: The main purpose of our model report is to INFLUENCE
(from the Five I’s). Because no decision is required from
the reader, no recommendations are necessary in this report.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
APPENDICES. Appendices are the place for material which sup-
ports the body of the report, but is too detailed to be included there. Mate-
rial which should be included in an appendix is that which the reader
does not need to study in order to understand the report, but which she/he
may turn to if she/he wishes to examine in detail the supporting evidence.
Give appendices a reference by which they are identified in the
body of the report. Here is an example:
The first appendix may be «Appendix A». The first page of this
appendix will be numbered «A(i)», the secon page «A(ii)», the third
page «A(iii)», etc.
If the material is needed to sustain the theme of the text, leave it in
the body of the report; otherwise your reader will be continually
turning back and forth between the report and the appendices.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A bibliorgaphy is a list of the books and other
works you have consulted. It has two purposes:
a) to show what resources you have used to gather information;
b) to help the reader find suitable background reading matter on
the subject of the report.
Publishers, universities, companies, and government bureaux may
have their own rules for entries in bibliographies and references, and
writers should follow those rules. If no such standards exist, writers usu-
ally follow one of several authorities: the instructions and style guides of
the prestigious journals or the associations in the author’s specialization.
GLOSSARY. It is sometimes impossible to avoid the use of technical
jargon or terminology when you are writing a report. But, remember, if
your reader isn’t an expert in the subject, the terms can be unintelligible
219
and frustrating. List all the terms in alphabetical order in a glossary, with an
explanation of each. If there is only a small number of words which need
explanation, you can use footnotes in the report instead of a glossary.
INDEXES. Indexes may be provided for long, detailed reports.
Arranged in alphabetical order, not like a table of contents, which is
arranged in page order, an index contains more details than a table of
contents. But they both refer readers only to the contents of a report.
Many reports don’t need appendices, bibliographies, glossaries and
indices. These are mainly used for lengthy reports on major topics.

Presentation
The presentation of your report — what it looks like — is almost
as important as what it says. Don’t let poor presentation reduce the
impact of an otherwise good report.
Your aim in presenting a report should be to make it look inviting
to the reader. Here are a few tips to help you achieve an attractive and
therefore inviting appearance.

Typing
Most typing is produced single-spaced. However, it is not the best
way to type a report. If it is typed in single space type without head-
ings, it will appear to the reader as a great mass of type and reading
will be a daunting task.
Have your report typed in one and a half space type and use head-
ings to break up the mass and act as «signposts» to help your reader
find his/her way about your report.

Headings
You should need more than four levels of headings in your report:
— Chapter;
— Section;
— Major Topic;
— Minor Topic.
You can use the following to show the relative importance of sec-
tions of the text:
Numbering
Indenting
Using upper and lower case
Underlining or bold face
In larger reports you can use all four at once.
220
 Paragraphs
There are some basic «rules» to remember about paragraphs:
— use one paragraph for each point. Start the paragraph with the
main point and follow on with any qualifications or examples;
— try to keep paragraphs to a maximum of 10 lines. Solid blocks
of text will put your reader off;
— avoid using a series of one line paragraphs. Instead use bullet points.

Exercises
Exercise I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are the preliminary sections of a formal report?
2. What is the difference between:
a) a cover page and a title page?
b) a letter of authorization and a cover letter?
3. Describe the main parts of the report.
4. What should the tone of your recommendations be?
5. Describe the supplementary material.
6. What is the difference between a bibliography and a glossary?
7. What are the main rules of a report presentation?
Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Обкладинка; форзац; передмова; пролог; подяка; зміст; особа,
яка доручила зробити звіт; основна частина звіту; постановка
проблеми; інформація, яка викликає інтерес; додатковий матері-
ал; виноска; зовнішній вигляд звіту; завдання, що лякає; робити
абзац (відступати); маленькі (великі) літери; жирний шрифт.
Exercise III. Selection of material will be easier if the information
you have assembled is well organised. Read the following, badly or-
ganised, text and then complete the task.
PROMOTION PROCEDURES
All managers should have a promotion review every two years. This does not
mean that promotion cannot take place in the interim. However, promotion is
normally gained after the promotion review session.
The procedure for conducting a promotion review is that the promotion review
panel meets after having received SOPs (Standards of Performance) from all de-
partments. Before asking the employee in for an informal interview, the review
panel meet and discuss each employee. The panel should analyse not only the
employee’s past record but also his or her potential in the future. This will mean

221
 that the panel must have previously obtained up-to-date information on promotion
possibilities. When they have done all this, they can invite the employee to an in-
formal interview.
The informal interview should aim to assess the employee’s own expectations and
ambitions. Having completed this session, the panel should meet privately to de-
cide on recommendations which are finally submitted to the Board.

These six stages are in the wrong order. Put the identifying letter
for each stage in one of the boxes so that they are in the correct order:
a) review panel second meeting d) recommendations to Board
b) information interview e) receive promotion possibility update
c) review panel first meeting f) receive SOPs

1 2 3 4 5 6

Exercise IV. Selection and organisation will also be simpler if

paragraphs have suitable headings. Look at the paragraphs from this
report and decide which of the headings after the report they best
come under.

REPORT ON PROJECT 551B IN ZIMBABWE

a) Contracts were binding under both British and local law. In particular, terms
for breach of contract were given in both currencies.
b) All personnel going to work overseas had a full medical check up. Inocula-
tions, where necessary, were given well in advance of departure.
c) All accounts were submitted at the end of each month. They were processed in
the normal way.
d) Travel back to the UK was paid for by the company once a year. In addition,
50% of fares were paid in special cases in which there was ill health or a death
in the family.
e) All disputes concerning personnel were settled in the country of operation.

1 Expenditure 2 Legal aspects 3 Health

Exercise V. It will also be easier to select material if the assembled

information is well classified. Read this text and complete the organi-
gram that follows.
222
 REORGANISATION OF PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

The Personnel Department was reorganised at the beginning of the year. Lines
of communication and responsibilities were clarified under the new structure.
The Personnel Director kept overall responsibility for the department. How-
ever, instead of two large sections under him, Administration and Planning, there
were, in the new structure, four sections: Recruitment, Training, Payments and
Career Development. Each of these sections contains both administrative and
planning functions.
The first section, Recruitment, has a staff of 10, headed by the Recruitment
Manager. Besides internal and external recruitment, their responsibilities include
the writing of job descriptions and a share of the manpower planning.
This latter responsibility is also the concern of the Training section. It has a
staff of five, including the Training Manager. They are responsible for both in-
house and external training at all levels within the company, from management
training for senior staff down to technical courses for the Works Department.
The Payments section has a largely administrative role but is also involved in
planning and implementing new salary structures and bonus schemes. The work
of its staff of seven consists mainly, however, of administering the payment of
wages, salaries and pensions to present and former employees.
Lastly, Career Development deals with employees’ career development from
recruitment to retirement. They have two staff members who are responsible for
updating computerised personnel records and other two who work closely with
the Training section on manpower planning. They are headed by the Manpower
Planning Manager.

___________________

Recruitment ________( ) ________( ) _______( )

(10)

Internal
and - ________ - Administration - Updating
- external records
recruitment

- - ________ - ________ -__________

_________
External
- - training
_________
223
 Exercise VI. Language practice. Active and passive
Compare these two sentences:

Active: The Promotion Review meets and discusses each candi-

date.
Passive: Each candidate is met and discussed (by the Promotion
Review Panel)
Notice how the passive is used to emphasise the candidate instead
of the Promotion Review Panel.

FORMATION Active: .... meets and discusses ...

Passive: ... is met and (is) discussed ...

Now put the verbs in the following description in the active or the
passive.

The Information Services Department ... (divide) into two sections.

The first, Statistical Data, ... (provide) information from a data bank
for all other departments. The second, Support Services, ... (deal) with
requests for specific information. When a request ... (receive), one
member of the team ... (allocate) to the task and then ... (carry out) all
the necessary research.
The department ... (staff) by five information officers who ...
(work) as a team. A team leader ... (appoint) for a six month period.
He or she is responsible for allocating tasks within the group. The po-
sition of team leader ... (rotate) so that each member of the group ...
(act) as leader at some stage.

Exercise VII. Noun Phrases

Reports are often formalised by using noun phrases.
Example: We propose to advertise externally.
External advertising is proposed.
Make noun phrases for the following sentences in a similar way:
1. We recommend that employees retire at the age of 65.
A .......... of 65 is recommended.
2. We need a manager responsible for developing careers.
A .......... is needed.
3. We suggest that posts are advertised by job agencies.
.......... is suggested.
4. We would prefer to train staff internally.
.......... would be preferred.
224
 5. We should allocate advertising in national newspapers.
.......... should be allocated.
6. We must request senior management to make recommendations.
.......... must be requested.
7. We recommend that material is collected carefully.
.......... is recommended.
8. We advise you to select the material well.
.......... is advised.

Exercise VIII. Writing notes

Read this paragraph and complete the outline:

If the working week is shortened, there will be some immediate and some long-
term effects. One of the immediate effects will be an increase in overtime worked.
This will mean a rise in labour costs per production unit. One of the long-term ef-
fects will be a decrease in the flexibility of the work-force because employees
will be more confined to their own work-places. Consequently, there will be a de-
crease in work experience and exchange.

Heading: __________________________________________
1 _____________ effects
_________________________________________
2 _____________ effects
______________________________________________

______________

UNIT IV
ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustrations are often an important way of conveying information.

However good your description in words may be, it is sometimes dif-
ficult for the reader to visualise what you described. An illustration
can save you a lot of time and effort trying to explain or interpret
something. It can also make your report look more interesting.
225
 TABLES
One of the most commonly used forms of illustration is a table of
figures like Table 1 below. This table shows the readership of UK
daily newspapers in 20__ classified by sex and age group.
READING OF NATIONAL NEWSPAPERS: BY SEX AND AGE, 20__
GREAT BRITAIN

Percentage of adults Percentage of each age Readership

reading each paper in group reading each paper in millions
20__ 20__

65
Males Femal All 15— 25— 45—
and 20__
es adults 24 44 64
over
Daily Newspapers
The Sun 26 22 24 31 25 22 17 10.8
Daily Mirror 22 17 20 21 18 23 19 8.8
Daily Mail 10 9 10 8 9 11 10 4.3
Daily Express 9 8 9 7 7 11 10 3.9
Daily Star 7 4 6 8 7 5 3 2.7

The Daily 6 5 6 3 4 8 7 2.5

Telegraph
The Guardian 4 2 3 3 4 3 1 1.3
Today 5 3 4 5 5 3 2 1.8
The Times 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 1.1
The Independent 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 1.2
Financial Times 2 1 2 1 2 2 - 0.7

Source: Social Trends 21, 20__

Table 1

DEVISING TABLES

Here are some tips to help you devise tables that are easy to read
and understand:
— If possible, keep the table the same way up as the text.
— Avoid spreading tables across two pages.
— Avoid too many rules — they make reading tables harder, not
easier. Usually the only rules needed are those marking off the head-
ings from the data, and the table from the text.
226
 — Align text on the left.
— Align figures on the right, or on the decimal point.
— Number tables serially — Table 1, Table 2, etc. — and collate
them with the text.
— Add a caption where necessary.
— State units of measurement being used, e.g. millions.
— Give the source of the table, if relevant, e.g. Social Trends 21.
Charts
Reading tables can be tedious, because you cannot see at a glance
the difference or similiarities between them.
However you can often make «figures» clearer and simpler for the
reader to grasp if you use a chart. Commonly used charts include
graphs, pie charts and bar charts.
Graphs
A graph shows, with a curve or straight line, the relationship be-
tween two variables.
The most common use of graphs is to show the relationships be-
tween two quantities, e.g.
— the number of employees and time
— the percentage numbers of males and females in each employ-
ment group
— the distribution of male and female readers of each national
newspaper.
The first step in producing a graph is to draw two lines at right
angles to each other — the axes. Next, select a scale for each axis, so
that the graph fits your paper, includes all the observations and will
avoid too sharp or too flat a curve. When you have done this you can
plot the observations. We have illustrated this with the example be-
low; you can see that the graph has been plotted from the data in ta-
ble 2.
Number of employees: Upshire Building Society
20__ 1,600
20__ 2,200
20__ 2,700
20__ 3,500
20__ 5,600
Table 2
227
 Number of employees: Upshire Building Society
6
Number of
employees 5
(000's)
4
3 Chart 1

2
1
0
20__ 20__ 20__ 20__ 20__
Here are some tips to help you make good graphs:
Independent variable
Decide which variable is the independent variable. In the case of a
time series, time is the independent variable. This is the x variable. In
the case of time series, the x-axis will, therefore, be scaled in years,
months, etc.
Zero line
When the graph is concerned with absolute changes in quantities,
you must show the zero line otherwise the graph will give a false im-
pression.
Lettering
Show lettering horizontally, not vertically.
Scales
Place scales at the left and at the bottom of the graph; sometimes
you may find it helps the reader if you repeat the vertical scale on the
right-hand side.
Units
Units should always be indicated at the top of the y-axis.
Curves
When more than one curve occurs on the same graph, these must
be clearly distinguished.
228
 You can do this by:
a) different lines e.g.

b) using different colours

(Both these methods require a key)
c) using captions.
Avoid too many curves in one graph.
Title
Give your graph a title; this must be clear and concise.
Frame
Frame the graph to give a finished appearance.
Pie charts
A pie chart is a circular diagram divided into segments (like pieces
of a pie) of different sizes to show the proportion of the whole which
is taken up by different elements.
Pie charts are very easy to read. Chart 2 shows some of the infor-
mation given in Table 1, but more clearly. You can see at a glance the
percentage of male and female readers each major national UK news-
paper attracted during 20__. The pie charts notably indicate the higher
number of females who do not read a newspaper.

Chart 2 — Reading of national newspapers: by sex, 20__

Great Britain

Source: National Trends 21.

229
 The advantage of this presentation is that your reader can see at a
glance how readership is distributed amongst national newspapers.
Pie charts show proportions very clearly, unless some slices are
small. If so be careful about using them.
Bar charts
Bar charts let you compare magnitudes visually. To construct a bar
chart draw bars of equal width whose length is proportional to the
magnitude to be represented.
Type of employment: by sex, 20__
OCCUPATION MALE FEMALE
CLERICAL 5 30
NON MANUAL MANAGERIAL 35 28
OTHER 6 10
CRAFT 25 4
MANUAL GENERAL LABOURERS 1 0
OTHER 27 28
All values are a percentage of the total male and female work force.
Source: Social Trends 21.

Table 3
For example, if you want to present the data from Table 3 in a bar
chart, you could, perhaps, choose a scale in which 10mm represented 20
% of the male or female working population. So you would draw the bar
representing the number of female clerical workers, which is 30 % of the
female work force, 15mm long, as we have done in this example.
% 100
Type of emplyment: by sex, 20
80
60
40
20
0
5%
%

%
%

6%
%

%
4%

1%
0%

%
%
30

35
28

10

25

27
28

Clerical Mana- Other Craft General Other

gerial Labourers
KEY MALE FEMALE
Chart 3
230
 Tips:
— Always indicate the scale you are using — usually at the side of
the diagram.
— When the data is to be charted with reference to a series of
dates, you should always draw the bars vertically, so that the dates ap-
pear horizontally.
— Your chart will look better if you draw the bars separated.
— Always give your chart a title.

Bar charts or Pie charts?

Both show the relationship of parts to the whole. However, there is
an important difference:
Bar chats — compare the length of bars.
Pie charts — compare the areas of segments.
It is difficult to compare areas visually. For this reason bar charts
are a superior form of presentation for most purposes. Even so pie
charts are very popular.

Photographs
Photographs are an obvious way of showing what something looks
like. You can even include a series of shots to show the object viewed
from different angles. However, photographs do have drawbacks:
— Shadows may blur details.
— Large size is often needed to show all details clearly.
— They are more difficult to reproduce in a photocopied report
than are line drawings.

Line drawings

Line drawings can sometimes be more suitable than photographs

for the reasons we give above. However, they do need to be drawn by
a competent artist. Drawings can be shaded or highlighted to empha-
sise the points needed, and they copy well without using professional
printing techniques.

Diagrams can range from free hand sketches to scale plans. From
the simple scale plan of the ground floor of a house, Figure 1, we can
see the exact layout of the rooms, where the doors and windows are
placed, and the size of the rooms.
231
 However, the drawing does not
show us what the rooms look like;
DINING ROOM KITCHEN photographs would show us this.
17’ × 10’ 13’ × 12’ We can conclude that photographs
and diagrams perform different
functions. So, sometimes, you
may need to use both diagrams
and photographs.
LIVING ROOM
22’ × 13’ Figure 1
Ground Floor Plan of a New
HALL Detached House

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. Why are illustrations an important way of conveying information?
2. What forms of illustration do you know?
3. What are the main rules of devising tables?
4. In what way can we make figures clearer and simpler for the
reader to grasp?
5. What do commonly used charts include?
6. What does a graph show?
7. What are the tips to make good graphs?
8. What is the pie chart?
9. What are the advantages of pie charts?
10. Describe bar charts and line drawings.
11. What are the tips to make good bar charts?
Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Передавати інформацію; уявляти; таблиця; створювати табли-
цю; відділяти; вирівнюваи по лівому краю; співвідносити таблиці
з текстом; назва (таблиці); визначати одиниці вимірювання; пря-
мий кут; вісь координат; масштаб; незалежна змінна; крива, пря-
ма лінія; недолік; робити деталі нечіткими.
Exercise III. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or
phrases. Mind your grammar.
To make off; a caption; to visualise; a unit of measurement; a chart; to devise ta-
bles; a graph; a zero line; a pie chart; to blur; relationship between two variables;
an axis; a bar chart; a drawback

232
 1. However good your description in words may be, it is difficult
for the reader ________ what you described.
2. It is very important to remember the rules to help you _______
that are easy to read and understand.
3. Usually the only rules needed are those ________ the headings
from the data, and the table from the text.
4. While devising a table add ________ where neccessary and
state ________ being used.
5. You can make «figures» clearer and simple for the reader to
grasp if you use ________.
6. A graph shows, with its curve or straight line, _________.
7. The first step in producing ________ is to draw two lines at
right angles to each other ______.
8. When the graph is concerned with absolute changes in quanti-
ties, you must show _______.
9. _______ is a circular diagram divided into segments.
10. _______ let you compare magnitudes visually.
11. Photographs have _________: shadows may ________ details.

Exercise IV. How would you illustrate each of the following —

with a line graph, bar chart, pie chart, or what?

YOUR ANSWER

A. You want to show the relationship between

predicted hours on a project, and the actual
time it took, month by month for a year _________________

B. The proportions of time spent on different

functions of your job _________________

C. Target sales figures against actual, each week

for four months _________________

D. The monthly amount spent by a department

against the budget _________________

E. Actual sales figures against break-even point _________________

F. How your department’s budget was allocated

between each expenditure head _________________

233
 Exercise V. Look again at Table 1 and check to see if we have ap-
plied the principles, mentioned above.

Is the table the same way up as the text?

Has the table continued over more than one page?

Have the rules been confined to those marking off the headings from the
data, and table from the text?

Is the text aligned on the left?

Are the figures aligned on the right?

Has the table been numbered?

Has a title/caption been given?

Have the units of measurement been stated?

Has the source of the table been given?

UNIT V
EFFECTIVE WRITING

Your style is how you express yourself is writing. Each of us has

our own style and it depends on:
a) the words we use;
b) how we arrange words into sentences and paragraphs;
c) how we use punctuation.
We have said earlier that the main aim of a report is to communi-
cate information to your reader. Therefore, it is essential you present
the facts in a simple, straightforward manner. Use words and terms
which your reader will understand.
When you write you may be tempted to use long, complicated
words and phrases that you would never use when you speak. This is
234
not unusual — everyone does it to some extent. Bad style is charac-
terised by sentences that are too long, ambiguous or incomprehensi-
ble. Many people believe, mistakenly, that such verbosity adds
authority to their writing. However, if you write in this way you will
have failed to use your S-A-B-R-E1.
If you are writing long awkward sentences and misusing words,
this could be a sign that you are not yet ready to write the report. You
may still have information to gather and ideas to sort out.
Research into the «readability» of long sentences showed that only
5% of readers understood a sentence of 30 or more words on their first
reading.
However, sometimes, to express your thoughts properly, you will need
to write longer sentences. Furthermore, if your writing is composed en-
tirely of short simple sentences, it will appear clumsy and childish.
Nowadays there is a move towards using short, familiar words in-
fluenced by advertising, popular literature and tabloid newspapers. An
extreme view states that long words are bad, short ones good. It’s not
that easy in practice. Short words are simple and direct. However,
longer words allow you to be more precise or subtle. Words are never
wholly synonymous.
For example, are these pairs of words synonymous?
Sweet or Fragrant
Precinct or Area
Recommend or Praise
Spread or Extend
Words which are said to mean the same are often applied differ-
ently:
— She has a sweet tooth
— The rose has a fragrant smell
You could say, «The rose has a sweet smell», but would you say,
«She has a fragrant tooth»? So, always have a good dictionary and use
it frequently.
Reports also can be spoiled by unnecessarily long phrases and
clauses that make the writing sound pompous and long-winded. Such
phrases could easily be reduced to one or two words. Unfortunately,
many of them are in common usage and we may use them out of habit
without thinking.

1
S — Structure
A — Appropriate words
B — Brevity
R — Relevance
E — English and Grammar

235
 Here are some examples of what to avoid:
a) Field, realm, nature
In the realms of economic planning — in economic planning.
In the field of insurance — in insurance.
Of an improper nature — improper.
b) Verb plus noun
Take into consideration — consider.
Make an application — apply.
Give a report — report.
c) Tautology (use words that merely repeat the same meaning)
Adequate enough — adequate.
Attach together — attach.
Revert back — revert.
d) Euphemism (a supposedly inoffensive phrase substituted for a
more accurate one)
Terminated their employment — sacked them.
Industrial action — strike.
Passed away — died.
e) Fact
Because of the fact that — because.
In view of the fact that — as.
Aware of the fact that — aware.
f) It is ... that
It is obvious that — obviously.
It is presumed that — presumably.
It is clear that — clearly.
g) Miscellaneous
At this moment of time — now.
In the near future — soon.
In the direction of — towards.
In the event that — should.

Apply KIS — Keep it Simple

— use short, simple words where you can, however, take care not
to restrict your vocabulary to a point where it sounds childish;
— make sure the words you use will be familiar to the reader;
— avoid clichés;
— keep sentences short (as a rule);
236
 — use active, rather than passive verbs, e.g. I wrote this report
rather than This report was written by me;
— don’t use ten words when one will do, e.g. at the moment of
time — now;
If you follow these rules, your report should be:
— quick to read;
— easier to understand;
— less ambiguous.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. What does one’s style depend on?
2. How should a person present the facts in a report?
3. What can reports be spoiled by?
4. What is «bad style» in report writing?
5. What did research into the «readability» of long sentences
show?
6. Is it necessary to compose your report entirely of short sen-
tences?
7. Describe the principle that should be applied when writing a report.
8. Why is it important to use a dictionary?
9. What is KIS?

Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-

lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Представляти факти просто і прямо; спокушатися; багато-
слів’я; підвищувати авторитет; неправильно вживати слова;
бульварна газета; повний синонім; прилегла до будівлі територія;
ласуня; сумний; скорочувати фразу; загальний вжиток; за звич-
кою; уникати кліше.
Exercise III. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or
prases. Mind your grammar.
To add authority; pompous and long-winded; to sound childish; to be more pre-
cise; to communicate information; to reduce; to be familiar; complicated words
and phrases.

1. The main aim of a report is _______.

2. When writing a report you may be tempted to use _______.
237
 3. Some people think that such verbosity _______ to their writing.
4. Longer words allow you _______.
5. Unnecessarily long phrases and clauses make the writing sound
_______.
6. Long phrases could _______ to one or two words.
7. Take care not to restrict your vocabulary to a point where it
_______.
8. Make sure the words you use _______ to the reader.
Exercise IV. Here are some examples of longer words that we are
tempted to use when writing. Give shorter alternatives. (If you need
help, use a Thesaurus).
Abundance Finalise
Alteration Forward (verb)
Appreciable Fundamental
Authentic Initiate
Beneficial Locality
Commencement Merchandise
Deficiencies Optimum
Encounter Problematical
Endeavour Sufficient
Envisage Termination
Felicitous Utilise
Exercise V. Using phrases that are pompous and long-winded is a
common fault of report writers. Replace the following phrases with
ones saying the same thing in a simple way.
1. in the not distant future
2. in the event that ...
3. prior to ...
4. taking into consideration
5. not without considerable trouble
6. in view of the fact that
7. in such a fashion as to ensure
8. manpower resources
9. for reasons of a practical nature
10. adjacent to
11. in the work situation
12. in the interim period
13. the expensive nature of the product
14. the position in regard to the availability of ...
238
 15. will find it advisable to ...
16. the least possible degree of...
17. an increase in pressure became apparent
18. not by any means unknown
19. adopted measures to ...
Exercise VI. The Gobbledygook Test.
There is a simple measure, called the Gobbledygook Test, which
you can apply to your writing to show its readability.
The Gobbledygook Test is just a rough guide because it deals only
with word length and sentence length. Other variables like sentence
structure and size of print also help to make reading easy or difficult;
remember to take account of these.
The following exercise has been designed to let you measure the
readability of a sample of your writing.
Collect three examples of your previous written work and follow the instructions
below to work out the level of difficulty.
Rules for the Gobbledygook Test:
— numbers and symbols count as short words;
— hyphenated words count as two words
— for the purpose of the text, a syllable is a vowel sound
«Advised» is two syllables — ad vised
1 2
«Applying» is three — app ly ing
1 2 3
Compare your scores for your three samples against the scale given below.
Instructions
Sample Sample Sample
1. Count a 100-word sample.
A B C
2. Count the number of complete sentences in the sam-
ple and put your answer in the box opposite in the 2
Sample A column.
3. Count the total number of words in all the com- 3
plete sentences and write your answer in the box.
4. Find the average sentence length by dividing the answer
4
for instruction 3 by the answer for instruction 2.
5. Count the number of words of three or more sylla-
bles in the full 100 words. This gives the percentage 5
of long words in the sample.
6. Add the answers for instructions 4 and 5. This gives
the test score for the sample. Repeat with two or 6
more samples, B and C and find your average score.

239
 Evaluation scale
Above 40 Almost unreadable for most readers.
35-40 Very heavy reading. Just about exceptable if it is tech-
nical staff for the technical person — but there are
probably a lot of unnecessary abstractions and com-
plex sentences.
30-35 Moderately heavy reading. Acceptable for many Re-
search and Development reports and for an occasional
report to senior management on a highly complex
subject. But this is too high for normal paperwork.
25-30 Fairly easy reading. About right for most paperwork
passing between managers and staff. But still too high a
score for sales writing or messages on the notice board.
20-25 Very easy reading. This is the range for personal
writing, for hard-hitting selling copy or for notices to
be read by all levels in the company.
Below 20 It’s getting childish now! Many readers will probably
feel you are writing down to them and you may be
oversimplifying your ideas.
The best way to develop an effective style is practice. But if you
aim for simplicity, you won’t go wrong.
Exercise VII. Style
Match the following extracts from reports with the styles listed on
the right.
1. I think we should go ahead and invest in this project. a) impersonal, formal and
If we don’t, we’ll be missing a golden opportunity. very sure
2. Investment in this project is imperative. Failure b) personal and undue
to invest would mean a missed opportunity.
3. No time should be wasted in advertising the post. c) impersonal and very sure.
Any delay will certainly result in less efficiency.
4. We should consider advertising the post. If we d) personal and informal
don’t, it could lead to a reduction in efficiency.
Now consider which of the following features are present in the
above extracts:
1 2 3 4
Personal pronouns
Passives
Idiomatic phrases
Expressions of certainty
Expressions of possibility

240
 Exercise VIII. Write a formal report based on the materials of your
academic researches or practical work. Remember the characteristics
of effective report writing given in the previous units.

UNIT VI
ANALYTICAL AND INFORMATIONAL REPORTS
A complex and detailed report may be written to explain the results
of a lengthy study. Reports that require a long period of research and
investigation to analyse a major topic in depth are called analytical re-
ports. The format and the language used for such a report are usually
formal. Many companies adopt their own standard pattern for reports.
If no such standard patterns exist, writers usually follow the structure
discussed in Unit 4. These reports generally adopt a formal (but not a
stiff) tone. Contractions and personal pronoun «I» are usually
avoided, although they may be used correctly in other kinds of report.
Avoiding «I» gives the analytical report a certain objectivity. For ex-
ample, «I gathered the following evidence as I conducted a survey
of...» sounds too much as if the report is based on the writer’s per-
sonal feelings. Instead, «The evidence gathered during the survey
proved that...» makes the report objective — based on facts, not on
personal opinions.
But most of the reports written in business are simpler and more
straightforward than analythical reports. They are called informational
reports because their purpose is to communicate facts, ideas, statistics,
or trends in a direct manner. Informational reports are less formal than
analythical reports, in fact, some of them are typed on standard memo
paper or on printed forms.
Such reports are usually periodic — they are submitted at regular
intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, and so on). Periodic reports are
common in business. Sales representatives may submit their sales re-
ports on a daily basis. Production managers may submit their reports
on a weekly basis. Executives usually submit their expense reports on
a monthly basis. For an example of a common periodic report, see the
completed expense report below.
In addition to periodic reports, other informational reports are fre-
quently submitted. If you were asked, for example, to estimate the
cost of printing the company’s new procedures manual, you might
submit an informational report such as the one below.
241
 Expense Report Summary

Name Andrea McCardle_______________________________

Branch_______Marketing___________________________________
T & E Account No____ 58____Period Ending Jan. 31 20____

LAST MONTH’S Due Co. Due Me

CLOSING BALANCE 46 95
ERRORCORRECTIONS USE THIS LINE
ONLY WHEN NOTIFIED
CASH ADVANCES DATE 50 00
ІІ
ІІ
ІІ
MONTH’S EXPENSES 88 40
TOTAL EACH COLUMN 50 00 135 35
INSERT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TOTALS
Due Co. Due Me
ABOVE INTO PROPER BOX
CLOSING BALANCE 85
AUDIT CORRECTION (ACCOUNTING USE ONLY)

CHECK THIS BOX IF REMITTANCE IS ENCLOSED

I Certify This Report
To Be Correct: Andrea McCardle .
Dept. Head Approval: _______ Herold Diffendorf_______
Additional Approval: ______________________________

Entertainment & Miscellaneous Expense Record

Date Place Misc.-Explain expense Total ex-

Entertainment-List guests & Business purpose pended
1—4 Alfredo’s Lunch with Fhoebe Spitzerof Spitzer
and Wilson. March advertising sched. 16 45
1—8 The Cabin Dinner with P. C. Wong and Jean Heves
of the Marketing Association.

242
 Annual conference plans. 51 85
1—15 Mama Mia’s Lunch with Hal Greene. Discussed sales 20 10
in his territory

Total for period 88 40

Metropolitan Savings Bank

interoffice memorandum
To Miss Jane Price From Jack Mogan
Subject Estimates for Procedures Manual Date May 27, 20_
As you requested, Miss Price, I have asked three suppliers to
submit estimates for printing and binding 10,000 copies of our
new procedures manual. The costs include collating the printed
pages and inserting them into the three-ring binders. The cost of
printing the company name on the binders is also included.
As you will see, Rand Printing submitted the lowest estimate:
Unit Cost Unit Cost Total
Supplier for Printing for Binding Unit Cost
Barton Press $0.74 $0.62 $1.36
Finley Printers 0.78 0.66 1.44
Rand Printing 0.72 0.61 1.33
In addition, Rand is willing to store the completed manuals
for us at no extra charge. Please note that all three suppliers
have requested at least four weeks’ notice for printing, col-
lating, and binding.
I have enclosed a sample of the paper stock and of the binder.
I have also enclosed copies of the three estimates.
JM
eh
Enc.

243
 Like any other business message an informational report must be
clear, complete, correct, and concise. The wording for an informa-
tional report follows the style used for any other memorandum — that
is , it is direct and to the point. The following paragraph, for example,
might be used in a business letter informing a customer that the paper
stock she has requested is no longer available.
We were delighted to receive your May 4 order to re-
print 1.000 of your business cards. Since the Regal Paper
Company no longer manufactures Antique Gold stock,
however, we should like to suggest using Regal’s new
Golden Hue, a sample of which is enclosed. As you will
see, Golden Hue is slightly brighter than Antique Gold,
but it too will look attractive and distinctive when printed
in deep blue ink.
In a report the same information would be worded in a more
straightforward style, as follows:
Regal paper Company recently discontinued three of its card
stocks. Here is a list of the discontinued items and the stocks that we
suggest replacing them:

Discontinued Stock Suggested Replacement

Antique Gold Golden Hue
Lemon Yellow Yellow Haze
Blue Frost Blue Mood

In addition, Regal has introduced two new stocks that

our customers are sure to like Blue Mist and Sunset Or-
ange. I have enclosed a sample of each.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions.

1. What is an analytical report?
2. In what situations it may be used?
3. What is the format used for analytical reports?
4. Do many companies adopt their own standard pattern for reports?
5. What is the language of analytical reports?
6. What do you know about the informational reports?
7. Are informational reports as formal as analytical ones?
244
 Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Стандартна форма звіту; негнучкий; скорочення; простий
(відвертий); періодичні звіти; звіт про витрати; аванс готівкою;
сальдо; оцінювати (складати кошторис); палітурка; палітурно-
брошуровальні роботи; перевіряти надруковані сторінки.

Exercise III. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or
phrases. Mind your grammar.
Contractions; straightforward; formal; expense reports; to submit; a lengthy study
personal pronoun «I»; an informational report; to estimate the cost; a business
message

1. Detailed reports may be written to explain the results of _______.

2. The format and the language used for analytical reports are
_______.
3. _______ and _______ are usually avoided in analytical reports.
4. Most of the reports written in business are ______ than analyti-
cal reports.
5. Sales representatives may ________ their reports on a daily basis.
6. Executives usually submit their _______ on a monthly basis.
7. If you were asked _______ of printing the company’s new pro-
cedures manual, you might submit _______.
8. Like any other _______ an informational report must be clear,
complete, correct and concise.

Exercise IV. Summarise the ground rules for writing reports in no

more than 100 words using the key words and phrases, technique ex-
plained in previous units.

Exercise V. Reading and understanding

As you read the following report, decide how much the findings
meet the objectives of the introduction. Also decide whether the report
is organised chronologically (according to time) or logically (accord-
ing to a sequence of ideas).

CONFIDENTIAL REPORT OF FINANCE DIRECTOR S.HART

Introduction
This report aims to assess the performance of S.Hart, Finance Director, during
the year 20__. In particular, it aims to review his actions and decisions in the fol-
lowing areas:

245
 a) General financial control
b) Budgetary control
c) Staff relations

Findings
S.Hart was appointed Financial Director in January 20__. He had previously
been Chief Account in the company.
For the first three months in his new position Mr.Hart worked alongside
Mr.Gwent, his predecessor. At his first General Management Meeting, he was
asked how he saw his role in the company. He replied that he thought his pri-
mary responsibility was to exert tight financial control particularly on «running
costs».
In April 20__, he submitted a first quarter financial report which already
showed a slight decrease in current costs. At this meeting, the Marketing Director
commented that the Spring advertising campaign had been delayed by the Finance
Department’s slowness in approving the expenditure.
In June 20__, two junior members of the Finance Department resigned and
went to work for one of our competitors.
The second quarter financial report showed costs running considerably below
forecast. The Marketing Director complained at the Meeting that his advertising
budget had again been restricted. The problem was in getting funds from the Fi-
nance Department.
In the following month, F.Flynn, the Finance Director’s assistant, asked to be
moved to another department. He said he could not work any longer with
Mr.Hart.
In October, Mr.Hart presented his 20__ budget. This was based on pessimistic
forecasts for sales, and a planned 18% reduction in running costs. The third quar-
ter financial report had shown a marked drop in income matched by an even
sharper drop in costs.
In November 20__, the Marketing Director resigned saying: «If he stays, I
will go». It was understood that he was speaking about the Finance Director.
Final figures for the year showed a good level of profitability (slightly higher
than expected) but an alarming downward trend in sales is obvious.

1. What experience did Mr.Hart have for this job?

2. For how long did Mr.Hart work alone in 20__?
3. What did he consider his main duty?
4. In which area did he have most success?
5. How many staff left the department during the year?
6. Why did the Marketing Director leave?
7. In what other way could these findings be presented?
8. What style is the report written in:
a) formal or informal? b) personal or impersonal?
Exercise VI. Read this tapescript of a finance meeting. Complete
the two versions of the report that follow the tapescript.
246
 Mr.Field: Interest rates are likely to fall. There’s no way those
(Finance Director) guys in the States are going to keep them so high.

Mrs.Powers: You may be right, but I doubt if they’ll come down

(Accounts Manager) very soon. After all, American banks are never in a
hurry about these things.

Mr.Field: Oh, I don’t know. I reckon we could see a drop of 1

or even 1,5% early next week.

Mrs.Powers: Surely not. The most we can expect is 0,5% and not
for at least a month. I think . . .

Mr.Keen: We don’t seem to be getting anywhere. Let’s move

(Chairman) on to the next point.

EXTRACT FROM REPORT ON FINANCE MEETING: 19.12.20__

INTEREST RATES
a) The short term future of ..... was discussed. Opinions varied as to
both ..... and by ..... interest rates would fall. It was suggested that they
would fall by between ..... and ..... % ..... week to ..... month’s time.
b) We discussed the probable drop in interest rates. ..... believed
that there would be a 1 to 11/2 % fall within the next week whereas .....
thought there would be a maximum fall of 1/2 % and not for at least
one month.
What difference do you notice between two versions? Which of
them do you prefer and why?

Exercise V. Impersonal reporting

Here are some useful expressions for reporting meetings or discus-
sions impersonally.
Topic/subject X was discussed.
X was considered.
Opinion It was felt that ...
Opinions varied about ...
Different opinions were expressed about ...
Agreement/disagreement It was agreed that ...
There was no agreement about ...
Recommendation It was suggested that ...
It was recommended that ...
It was proposed that ...
Conclusion It was concluded that ...
No conclusions were reached about ...
It was decided that ...
247
 Now report the following statements:
1. We’ve been talking for several hours about levels of investment.
2. Most of us think that we should increase our investment in the
manufacturing sector.
3. We have heard a wide range of opinions on the subject of trade
with China.
4. So we all agree that the advertising budget should be increased
by 5%.
5. Mr Stevens has suggested that we double our spending on TV
advertising.
6. I personally recommend that we leave it at the same level.
7. We don’t seem to be able to reach agreement on the question of
advertising.
8. I propose we postpone this matter until next week.
9. We all feel that we have spent enough time on this question.
10. We agreed with Peter when he said that we should allow more
time for this question at the next meeting.

UNIT VII
MEMOS, MESSAGES, ROUTING SLIPS
In business, a letter is used to communicate with someone outside
the company. When you wish to write to someone within your own
company, you will send a memorandum. Memos are used to commu-
nicate with other employees, regardless of where the employees may
be located — whether in the same office, in the same building, or in a
branch office hundreds of miles away.
In most companies and organizations, memorandums (memoranda)
are written in the first person. The tone of the memo is influenced by
the position held by the writer in relation to that held by the receiver.
Also, the topic under consideration plays an important part in deter-
mining the tone. Obviously a person writing to a company official to
report the results of a financial audit will be more formal than a per-
son writing a co-worker about the company bowling league.
An important factor is the personality of the individual receiving
the memorandum. The president for example, may insist on informal-
ity, whereas a peer might like a formal impersonal tone. Therefore, the
248
effective business writer must evaluate the position of the reader, the
topic under consideration, and the personality of the reader when set-
ting the tone of the memorandum.
There are usually three main parts to a memorandum:
1. The heading.
2. The subject and date.
3. The message.
Occasionally, when official approval or authority is required, the
memorandum may be concluded with a line for the signature of the
person originating the correspondence.
The heading of a memorandum is usually printed.

Date: 27.2.20 Ref: AC/CF/521

To: Assistant Accountant From: Chief Accountant
Subject: Annual Accounts

The Board have fixed the date of the A6M for 30.4.20__. Your draft of the ac-
counts should be ready for submission by 14.3.20__.

In the To and From sections, the business title of each person is

often included. In the To section, a courtesy title — Miss, Mrs., Ms.,
Mr., Dr. — is often included. However, in the From section, the writer
does not use a courtesy title.
To: Mr. Terrence Campbell, Office Manager
From: Gloria Tassex, Treasurer
The memo forms used in large companies may also include De-
partment and Location sections to facilitate communication among co-
workers in various branches of the firm. These sections need not be
filled in if reader and writer work in the same location or department.
The Subject, a brief statement telling what the memo is about,
helps the reader to prepare for the contents and aids in filing the corre-
spondence for future reference. The subject line is not a complete
sentence but rather a concise phrase that includes some specific in-
formation. For example, the subject may read:
Subject: Changes in the Personnel Evaluation Form.
The message. The presentation of the message closely follows the
patterns presented for writing business letters. Most memos follow a
direct organization plan. These messages present the main idea in the
first paragraph and then with the necessary details support the opening
249
statements. Finally, the everyday memo concludes with suggestion for
future action or requests guidance on future action.
Occasionally, you may find it necessary to write a persuasive or
bad-news memorandum. In this case, you are likely to be more suc-
cessful if you present your details first and lead the reader on a step-
by-step method to your request or bad news. In this way, the receiver
is more likely to complete reading the memo and come to the conclu-
sion of bad news along with the writer. By allowing the reader to see
the reasoning that supports or leads to the idea you are conveying, you
are better able to maintain goodwill.

When are Memorandums written? Many business firms tell their

employees to put in writing all important information that crosses
their desks. Written records help to (1) determine responsibility, (2)
clear up inconsistencies, and (3) record needed information. If you are
sending important papers or documents to another person, for exam-
ple, it is best to transmit them by memorandums so that if they be-
come lost, there will be a record — your file copy — proving when
they were actually sent, and recording exactly what they were.
To: Andrew WolfsonFrom: Jean Betz
Subject: Rahd Meat Comparison TestDate: March 11, 20__
The Rahd Meat Comparison report that you asked to see it en-
closed. Would you please return the report to me when you have fin-
ished with it. Incidentally, Mr.Walston has asked that this report not
be circulated outside company.
JB
The following is an example of a request correctly written in the
form of a memorandum.
To: Ms. Alic LewisFrom: Diane Gertsch
Subject: Request for Extended VacationDate: November 21, 20__
As you know, I plan to attend my sister’s wedding in Memphis is June
and I am taking my two weeks’ vacation allowance for the occasion.
After the wedding, I plan to drive my mother to Biloxi, Mississippi, to
visit her sister. May I extend my vacation two extra days for the purpose
of making this trip? My vacation, therefore, would begin on Monday,
June 8, and I would return on Wednesday, June 24, instead of Monday,
the 22d. Naturally, I do not expect salary for these two extra days.
May I have your decision on this request sometime this week so
that I may let my family know my plans?
250
 When the memorandum contains statistical matter, the writer
should display this material in tabulated form for easier reading, as in
the memorandum below. When there is a full page or more of detailed
material, it may be displayed on separate pages and accompanied by a
brief covering memo explaining the material.

Metropolitan Savings Bank

interoffice memorandum
To Miss Janice Shotke From R.J. Keene
Subject Monthly Advertising Report Date April 3, 20__
Following is the monthly summary of the advertising expenditures for March:

MAGAZINE ADVERTISING:
Space Cost
1
Modern Business........................... /2 page $ 375
Office Supervision......................... 1 page 200
1
Today’s Manager.......................... /4 page 90
1
Equipment Dealer ........................ /4 page 35
Total Magazine Advertising $ 700

CIRCULAR ADVERTISING
Quantity Unit Cost

Circular B (Mfg. List).................. 3,000 .113 $ 340

Circular X (Office Mgr. List)...... 2,800 .099 278
NBI Letter (General List)............ 6,000 .079 472
Total Circular Advertising $ 1,090
Total Spent During March $ 1,790
(February: $ 1,782)
Of special interest is the new printing rate on the NBI Letter. Although the rates
for Circular X have increased slightly over last month, we were able to lower the
unit rate on the NBI Letter from .098 to .079 because of the new size and format.
Mr. John Kingston of Premier Printing is now getting new cost estimates on Cir-
culars B and X, based on our revised design of these pieces. We are hopeful that we
can bring our total costs down to $ 1,600 and still have more effective circulars.
RJK

Message Forms
Message Forms allow people to take complete, accurate messages
for others quickly. Thus they help us and our co-workers to build
goodwill with customers and to work more efficiently with one another.
251
 Since the forms usually include printed words (To, Phone No.,
Date, and so on) and easy-to-check boxes, the person who takes the
message writes very few words.

To: ________________________________________________________

Here is a message for you

_______________________________________________________

of______________________________________________________

Phone No._____________________Ext._______________________
Telephoned Will Call Again
Returned Your Call Came To See You
Please Phone Wants To See You

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________
Taken by Date Time

Routing Slips
Routing Slips are sheets of paper that are used to send materials to
several people. They may be small sheets that list the names of the
people who are to get certain articles or magazines. The routing slip is
stapled to the first page, and after each person reads the material and
crosses out his or her name, the magazine or article is passed on to the
next person on the list. See the example illustrated below.

From: Ferguson Library

Please read this publication promptly, cross through your name and send to next
person on list.
If you cannot read immediately, place your name at end of list. Thank you.

252
 Name Floor Department
J. Gonzales 10 Adv.
F. Weiner 9 Sales
B. Narsh 9 Prod.
P. Loo 7 Legal
E. Oliver 7 Legal
W. Amato 4 Purch.

Last person on the list please return to

Ferguson Library — 18th floor

A routing slips may also travel along with an important document

— a contract for example — that must be approved by several people.
As each person approves the contract, he or she initials and dates the
routing slip. The complete routing slip is filed as a one-page record
showing that everyone did approve the documents.

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. What will you send if you wish to write to someone within your
own company?
2. What should the tone of a memorandum be?
3. Why is it important to evaluate the position of the individual re-
ceiving a memorandum?
4. Describe the main parts of a memo and its forms.
5. What is often included into the To and From section of memos?
6. What is used in large companies to facilitate communication
among co-workers?
7. What is the pattern of a message?
8. Why do many business firms tell their employees to put in
writing all important information?
9. What do you know about routing slips?
253
 Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Службова записка; повідомлення; картка (бланк); оцінювати
службову посаду читача; ухвалення; дозвіл; проект; сприяти спіл-
куванню; співробітник; реєструвати і зберігати кореспонденцію;
стисла фраза; протиріччя; викладати матеріал у формі таблиці;
проставляти ініціали (парафувати).

Exercise III. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or
prases. Mind your grammar.
Personality; to communicate with other employees; subject; authority; a direct or-
ganization plan; a memorandum; a tone; approval; tabulated form; on a step-by-
step method

1. When you wish to write to someone within your company, you

will send ________.
2. Memos are used ________, regardless of where the employees
may be located.
3. _________ is influenced by the position held by the writer.
4. An important factor is _________ of the individual receiving the
memo.
5. When official ________ or ________ is required, the memo
may be concluded with a line for the signature of the person originat-
ing the correspondence.
6. _______ helps the reader to prepare for the contents.
7. Most memos follow ________.
8. Present your details first and lead the reader ________ to your
request.
9. When the memo contains statistical matter, the writer should
display this matherial in _________.

Exercise IV. Peter Robinson, the Personnel Manager at Alfa Engi-

neering Co.Ltd. has called for a meeting of his staff next Friday after-
noon at 3 p.m. You are a member of his team but have arranged to
visit a couple of local shops on Friday, hoping to recruit some new
staff. You are not sure how long this will take and might not be able to
get to the meeting until later. Draft the memorandum to the Personnel
Manager explaining the situation.

Exercise V. You have heard the following dialogue at a meeting

and wish to report the main points to your line manager.
254
 Write an appropriately short memo to him containing the essential
points.

MR WILSON: I am the geologist who did the initial survey of this area. Per-
haps I could help at this point.
CHAIRMAN: Ah, thank you. I am glad there is someone at this meeting who
has actually been to the place. Most of the discussion so far
has been very much based on second or third-hand reports.
Well, do you think there is oil there in commercial quantities?
MR WILSON: It is difficult to say.
CHAIRMAN: Well, if you can’t say it, who else can? I’m sure you can give
some facts on which we can make a decision.
MR WILSON: The scientific evidence was not conclusive but I’m working on
a hunch. The geological samples indicate it is the sort of area
where good grade oil might be found.
CHAIRMAN: But in commercial quantities?
MR WILSON: We are not even certain about oil yet. That will need further
sampling. As for commercial quantities, we cannot possibly
say that. And it’s not a purely scientific question anyway. A
lot depends on the price at the time we strike, and other factors
like the political stability of the area. The security of delivery
routes will then be a point to consider.
CHAIRMAN: How much more time will you need?
MR WILSON: About two months if the good weather holds. If we get an
early winter, however, we won’t be able to work for six
months.

UNIT VIII
MINUTES
In business, you will probably have opportunities to attend meet-
ings. Whether a meeting is formal or informal, a written record of the
meeting will usually be prepared and distributed to everyone who at-
tended the meeting and, perhaps, to other interested people as well.
This written record of the proceedings of a meeting is called the min-
utes of the meeting. Since most meetings in business are informal
(that is, do not follow the rules of parliamentary procedure), the min-
utes are also informal. The minutes usually include the date, time, and
place of the meeting; the name of the presiding officer; a list of those
present (and frequently those absent); the items of business and the
255
decisions reached (in the same order as the meeting agenda). They
should be a faithful record of the meeting but brief and to the point.
Usually the minutes are signed by the person who took them and
sometimes by the presiding officer as well. Minutes are usually dupli-
cated, and copies are sent to each person present at the meeting and to
other designated officials. Below are some sample minutes of a rec-
reation committee.

MINUTES OF THE MEETING

of the
EMPLOYEE RECREATION COMMITTEE
Lovejoy Corporation
2 p.m.
April 14, 20__
Chaired by: Vincent L. Hamm
Present: John David Patty Lidstrom
Anne Eulan Ray Meredith
Oscar Fields Helen Prescott
Absent: Phil Andrews
Mary Hallock
The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and approved. Matters arising
from the Minutes: None.
The primary question discussed was whether or not Lovejoy Corporation
should encourage company — sponsored recreational activities for employees
during the summer.
Mr.Field stated that he believes most people are too busy during the summer
months to participate in company recreational activities. Many belong to local
softball leagues, sailing groups, and so on. Others would rather be with their
families. He believes we should abandon the recreation program for the summer.
Mr. David said that the Travel Club will probably prefer to remain active
through the summer. They have several activities already planned — sightseeing
tours, beach parties, and boat trips.
Mrs. Lindstrom recommended that a questionnaire be prepared and issued to
each employee to find out whether an organized program of recreation is desir-
able this summer.
Mr. Hamm endorsed Mrs. Lindstrom’s idea and appointed Andrews, Lind-
strom, Meredith, and Hallock as a committee to draw up the questionnaire. After
the questionnaire is approved, it will be turned over to the Personnel Department
for duplicating and distribution.
Next meeting to take place; 14.05.20__
John David, Secretary.

Minutes of meetings that follow parliamentary procedure are

some-what different in form from the informal minutes. Formal min-
utes do not include discussions. Only motions, resolutions, committee
assignments and reports, and other specific accomplishments are in-
256
cluded. Note in the example below how topical headings are used for
easy reference and how the recorder has briefly summarized a
speaker’s remarks. Note, too, that motions should be worded specifi-
cally as shown and should be followed by the name of the person who
made the motion and the name of the seconder.

THE SOONER STATE CLUB OF CHICAGO

MINUTES OF MEETING, JULY 27, 20__
TIME AND The regular monthly meeting of the Sooner State Club of Chicago
PLACE was called to order by the President, Jordon Thomas, on Friday, July
27, 20__, at 2 p.m., in the Pioneer Room of the Bismarck Hotel.
MINUTES The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.
TREASURER’S The following report was given by Cliff Downs, the Treasurer.
REPORT Balance on hand, July 1, 20__ $ 1,676.40
Collected during the year
(July 1, 20__ to June 30, 20__) 3,042.12
Total $ 4,718.52
Paid out during the year 3,004.19
Balance on hand, July 1, 20__ $ 1,714.33
The Treasurer’s report was accepted.
COMMITTEE The report of the Nominating Committee was given by the Pre-
REPORT siding Officer, Paul Rykers. A state of nominees for next year
is to be presented at the next meeting.
The report of the Half-a-Century Celebration was given by the
Presiding Officer, Verna Millstone. Three area banquets are
being held on August 21-- Gary, Winnetka, and Aurora.
OLD BUSI- It was moved, seconded, and passed, THAT DUES FOR THE
NESS CURRENT YEAR BE INCREASED TO $ 10 A YEAR AND
A SPECIAL ASSESSMENT BE PERMITTED IF ADDI-
TIONAL FUNDS ARE NEEDED.
(Brenda Simpson/Duane Joiner)
NEW BUSI- After a discussion about designing a gold «Sooner» pin for the
NESS members, a committee consisting of Paula Myers, Presiding
Officer; Mary Weir; Ed Maestro; and Jenny Morris was ap-
pointed to report at the next meeting.
PROGRAM Meredith Cave introduced Mr. Alexander Hayhurst, whose topic
was «What’s new in the Sooner State». Mr. Hayhurst’s remarks
are summarized briefly here. «The Sooner State is experiencing
rapid economic growth. Many new industries have moved there —
including chemical, manufacturing, and government enterprises.
New sources of water supply — hundreds of lakes have been built
— make it an attractive place from both a recreational and an in-
dustrial standpoint. There is still a large supply of labour too.
Transportation is improving rapidly each year — several new
highways are now under construction».
The meeting adjourned at 4:45 p.m.
C.A.Miller, Secretary

257
Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions:

1. What do we call a written record of a meeting?
2. What are the minutes written for?
3. Who are the minutes signed by?
4. What information should the minutes contain?
5. Who receives copies of the minutes?
6. Is there any difference between the formal and informal minutes?
7. What do formal minutes include?
8. How should motions be worded?

Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-

lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Протокол засідання; парламентська процедура; правдивий за-
пис; доречний; визначні особи; ухвалювати; робити копію; про-
позиція (на зборах); людина, яка виступає в підтримку пропози-
ції; головуючий; закривати (засідання).

Exercise III. Fill in the blanks with one of the following words or
phrases. Mind your grammar.
A faithfull record; informal; designated officials; discussions; commitee assigne-
ments; to distribute; seconder; to follow parliamentary procedure; presiding offi-
cer; motions

1. A written record of the meeting is usually prepared and _______

to everyone who attended the meeting
2. Since most meetings in business are informal, the minutes are
also _______.
3. Minutes should be________ of the meeting.
4. Usually the minutes are signed by the person who took them and
sometimes by ________.
5. Copies of the minutes are sent to each person present at the
meeting and to other ________.
6. Minutes of meetings that ________ are different in form from
the informal minutes.
7. Formal minutes do not include ________.
8. Only ________, resolutions, ________ are included in formal
minutes.
9. Motions should be followed by the name of the person who
made the motion and the name of the ________.
258
 Exercise IV. Write the minutes for a class session or a meeting,
using the informal form discussed in this unit.

Exercise V. Prepare a formal set of minutes for an actual meeting

you have attended. If you have not attended such a meeting, you may
make up the necessary information.

Exercise VI. Write up the Minutes of the following meeting from this
transcript (the Minutes of the previous meeting have just been read):

Site Manager: OK, we’ve all seen the final costing and building schedule
for site A. Are there any comments?
Chief Engineer: No, not really. Only I think that the building schedule is a
bit optimistic.
Factory Manager: Yes, I thought so too. I’d also like to bring up the problem
of car-parking facilities.
Site Manager: I wondered when someone would mention that. I’m afraid
there are just going to be fewer parking spaces. The reserve
parking for managers will continue but, as for the rest , it
will be on a first come, first served basis.
Factory Manager: That’s all very well, but the nearest parking round here is a
20 minutes walk. I recon we’re letting ourselves in for a
late starts.
Site Manager: I don’t see why. They can’t have everything. They’re get-
ting their new rest facilities. They’ll just have to get up a
little earlier in the morning.
Chief Engineer: Why don’t we investigate the possibility of using some of
the spare space on the other side of the road?
Site Manager: You mean the land belonging to Cussins and Sons?
Chief Engineer: Yes, perhaps we could rent it on a short-term basis until
they get round to building on it.
Site Manager: That’s not a bad idea. George, could you get on to that?
You know, approach them and see whether they’re inter-
ested. You can tell us what their reaction is at the next
meeting.
Factory Manager: Sure. Talking of the next meeting, I’m away next month.
It’ll have to be by the end of this month or six weeks from
now.
Site Manager: We’d better make it the end of the month. So, we’ll put the
site A proposals up for final approval from the Board. As
soon as we’ve got that, we can get started on the rest room.
Hopefully, next week.

259
UNIT IX
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Although you make some use of all the means of communication,
you spend most of your time communicating with your voice.
Speech is an important part of a person’s personality — it is indi-
vidually and particularly his or hers. To many people, the speech is
the person. The words one uses, the way he or she puts them together,
the sound of the voice (tone, pitch, volume, and rate), and the enun-
ciation and pronunciation all add up to the personality that others
hear. A person can’t separate your voice from the personality.
Effective speech, whether in a formal or an informal situation, de-
pends upon factors other than the words spoken. The setting, or at-
mosphere, in which words are used often, determines how they are re-
ceived by the listener. Just as a successful play or motion picture must
have the proper setting, musical background, and costumes, so must
successful speaking have the appropriate atmosphere. Therefore, be-
fore learning the elements of effective speaking, you need to learn
how to create a favorable impression that will set the stage for the best
reception of what you say.
The length and nature of talks vary. You may be asked for some
brief remarks to introduce another speaker, or you may be asked to be
a member of a panel discussion group. On the other hand, you may be
invited to give a five-or ten-minute talk or even to present a longer
speech at a meeting. Your success in any one of these roles will de-
pend upon how carefully you plan your presentation. Only with care-
ful planning will you be able to develop the feeling of confidence that
will enable you to communicate your ideas to others, for an effective
talk is the result of more than just knowing your subject. Not only do
good speakers know what they are talking about, but also they know
how to prepare and deliver the speech.

I. PLANNING YOUR ORAL PRESENTATION

Every good talk requires careful preparation. The speaker-to-be
must be ready to cover the subject thoroughly and must carefully or-
ganize the presentation. Use the following guidelines to help you pre-
pare your talk.
1. Determine Your Purpose and Topic. First of all, you must
know the purpose of your talk.
260
 The General Purpose
Most authorities recognize three possible general purposes:
(1) to inform, (2) to persuade, and (3) to entertain.

To Inform
When you try to teach listeners or to explain something to them,
your general purpose is to inform. The classroom lecture is an exam-
ple of an informative speech. Some informative speeches are intended
to acquaint the listeners with something completely new to them.
Some informative speakers try to update listeners who are already
somewhat knowledgeable about the subject. For example, when offi-
cers of credit unions attend the annual meeting of their trade associa-
tion, they hear many informative speeches of this type.

To Persuade
The second general purpose of public speaking is to persuade the
listener. Persuasive speeches range from those that seek to change
listeners’ beliefs or attitudes to those that attempt to get them to act in
a certain way. Your purpose for giving a persuasive speech can be put
into two very general but distinct categories: (1) to elicit a covert re-
sponse, and (2) to elicit an overt response.
A covert response is, as the word implies, not readily apparent to
the speaker or to an observer. When a union leader seeks to convince
the members that the union has their interests at heart, the speaker is
seeking a covert response, acceptance of an idea. It is usually difficult
to evaluate a speaker’s effectiveness when the response being sought
is covert.
Evaluating a speaker’s effectiveness is easier when the speaker is
seeking an overt response, one that is observable and measurable. The
manager who tries to get the billing clerks to reduce their errors can
check future error counts for evidence of effectiveness. The produc-
tion manager who urges increased output from workers can also
measure results easily.

To Entertain
The third general purpose of speaking is to entertain — the re-
sponse sought from the listeners is enjoyment. Many persons consider
entertainment and humor to be synonyms, but they are not. Humor is
certainly a common ingredient of entertainment, but it is not the only
one. Perhaps you have had a teacher who thoroughly entertained the
261
class with little or no humor. Some speakers who are enthusiastic
about their subject entertain their listeners. Others are able to entertain
through their flair for drama or through their picturesque language.

The Specific Purpose

While there are only three general purposes for making a presenta-
tion, the number of specific purposes is infinite. The specific purpose of
a speech is constructed with both the subject and the audience in mind.
The following examples suggest the relationship among subject,
audience, general purpose, and specific purpose.

Subject The collection of delinquent accounts

Audience A class of undergraduate business students
General purpose To inform
Specific purpose To explain techniques commonly used by
business organizations to collect past-due
bills from customers.
Subject The collection of delinquent accounts
Audience Professional association of collection offi-
cers
General purpose To inform
Specific purpose To explain the latest approaches to the col-
lection of delinquent accounts.
Subject Use of nuclear energy for generating electri-
cal power
Audience Approximately 100 members of a neighbor-
hood home-owners association
General purpose To persuade
Specific purpose To persuade listeners to write their member of
the provincial legislature expressing opposi-
tion to increased reliance on nuclear energy.
These examples indicate that while the general purpose may re-
main the same, the specific purpose varies according to the audience.
Although the three general purposes are usually thought of as separate
and distinct, they are not.
Very few speeches are entirely informative, persuasive, or enter-
taining. Most are, in fact, a combination of two or three of these gen-
eral purposes.
2. Adapt Your Talk to the Audience. Who is your audience?
What is their age range, sex, educational and social background, eco-
262
nomic status, experience? What are their interests? A talk presented
before one group may have little appeal for another group.
Many speakers miss their target because they make no advance
attempt to analyze the audience. A common shortcoming is to assume
that what is interesting to the speaker will also interest the listener.
To be a good speaker, you must adopt a listener orientation. When
preparing a speech, ask yourself how you would feel if you were in
the listener’s place. Before being able to answer that question, you
must learn as much about the listeners as possible, and this necessi-
tates analyzing the audience.
The best way to analyze an audience is to talk personally with all
those people who will be in it. Ideally, you would do this far enough
in advance to give you ample time to tailor the material to the listen-
ers. Unfortunately, this is an unrealistic approach to audience analysis
— in most cases it would be time-consuming and impractical, if not
impossible.
A satisfactory alternative is to talk to several persons likely to be in
the audience. Assuming that they are similar to the rest of the mem-
bers of the audience, you will be able to get accurate insights into the
nature of your listeners.
When you can’t talk with a likely member of the audience or even
with anyone familiar with the audience, you face more of a challenge.
You have to infer what it will be like from the information that is
available.
The more similar your listeners in such factors as educational
level, occupation, age, and group memberships, the easier it is to pre-
dict their attitudes toward you and your message. The more heteroge-
neous or diversified the audience, the fewer inferences you can make.
The more you know in advance about an audience, the more effective
a speaker you should be. Time spent in analyzing the audience is time
well spent.
3. Limit Your Subject. Don’t select a four-hour subject for a ten-
minute speech! It is better to make two or three specific points in a
talk — and do the job well — than to ramble on about too broad a
topic. The secretary who talked about «Office Automation» would
have presented a more interesting talk on a more-limited topic, such as
«How the Electronic Computer Affects My Job.» Limit your subject
so that you can emphasize two or three important points in the time
allotted to you.
4. Collect and Organize Your Materials. Collect much more in-
formation about your subject than you will use. Use 3 by 5 cards to jot
down ideas. Use your own personal experiences; talk with people who
263
can help you; read newspapers, magazines, books. Take good notes
from as many sources as you can. As you organize the material you
have collected, you will be able to select the most important ideas to
include in your outline.
If the use of visual materials or handouts will make your presenta-
tion more effective, carefully prepare these materials and determine at
what point they may best be used.
5. Arouse and Hold Interest. The success of your talk will depend
on how well you are able to arouse and hold the interest of your audi-
ence. Insert an amusing story here and there. Emphasize new ideas. You
can hold interest by using personal experiences and examples. Your talk
should have a certain element of suspense as the plot unfolds. Compli-
cated ideas, such as figures or statistics, should be omitted, simplified, or
supplemented by charts and graphs. As you prepare your talk, consider
carefully how you will arouse and hold the interest of the group.
6. Talk. Don’t Read or Recite. How should you prepare your talk?
Should you write your speech word for word? Use only your outline?
Use notes? Plan to talk without notes? These methods are all used by
speakers to prepare their talks. Some people prefer not to speak from a
written manuscript because they feel that their talk will sound stilted.
Whatever method you select be sure that your talk will sound natural —
not like an oral reading or a class recitation.
A written talk will be of value as you practice your presentation. It
will enable you to fix each idea in your memory and to time your de-
livery. Having memorized the what and how of your talk, you can then
use brief notes when you deliver it.
7. Practice, Practice, Practice. As you practice, try to anticipate
the conditions of the actual talk. Imagine your audience in front of
you. Stand tall and look at the audience. Talk loud enough for the per-
son in the farthest corner of the auditorium to hear you. Make slow
and deliberate movements. Use hand gestures sparingly and then only
if they seem natural to you. If a mirror is available, practice your talk
in front of it. The person you see there should be the severest critic of
your facial expressions and your platform appearance. Perhaps you
can enlist the help of family and friends, too, to listen and offer sug-
gestions. Don’t be satisfied with your practice until the talk flows
along from idea to idea without the aid of a written speech.

II. ORGANIZING THE SPEECH

Speakers often make the mistake of believing that they are ready to
speak once they have completed their research. What results is usually
264
a speech that is unclear in purpose and inconsistent in direction. Such
speakers have overlooked the necessity of organizing their material.
When trying to organize the results of your research, you should
have an overabundance of materials and then select those that are
most appropriate. Inexperienced speakers often question the value of
doing more research than is absolutely necessary; however, after pre-
paring several speeches, you will know the reason. It is painful to a
speaker and obvious to the listeners when a speech is short on ideas,
for it is then that a speaker is likely to include digressions, redundan-
cies, and irrelevant statements.

The Body
A speech is made up of three main parts: introduction, body, and
conclusion. Although the body follows the introduction, most speak-
ers develop the body first. It is in the body of a speech that its actual
message is presented.
The body of a speech has three main components: central idea,
main ideas, and supporting materials.
The central idea is the major theme. It is what the speaker wants
the listeners to remember even if they forget all else. A campaigning
politician may present many ideas in a campaign speech. The central
idea, however, is usually «Vote for me.» Although central ideas are
generally longer than that, they should be limited to one sentence. A
training director recently gave an informative speech in which the
central idea was this: A person should not be made a supervisor until
having satisfactorily completed a course in interpersonal communica-
tion. A good central idea is brief and clear. Remember that the central
idea represents the minimum that you want the listeners to remember.
After determining the central idea, you seek ideas to support it;
these are the main ideas. Since the main ideas are secondary in im-
portance only to the central idea, you hope that the listeners will retain
them, too. For that reason you should not have many main ideas; four
or five are sufficient for most speeches.
Once you have selected the main ideas, you look for ways to sup-
port them. Since an argument that convinces some listeners will not
necessarily convince others, you should seek enough supporting ma-
terials to reach all of the listeners.
Among the methods of support most frequently used are quota-
tions, examples, analogies, and statistics. In deciding on the appropri-
ateness of a given form of support, these are the questions the speaker
should consider:
265
 Quotations (or Testimony)
1. Will the person being quoted be recognized by the listeners?
2. Will the listeners regard the quoted person as an authority?
3. Does the person being quoted have credibility with the listeners?
Examples
1. Can the example be understood by the listeners?
2. Is the example clearly related to the main point?
Analogies
(An analogy draws parallels between two different things. For ex-
ample, we use gasoline unnecessarily, it is as though we are reducing
the number of future trips we will be able to take.)
1. Is the analogy appropriate for the subject being considered?
2. Will the listeners be able to grasp the relevance of the analogy?
Statistics
1. Will the statistics be understandable to the listeners?
2. Will the listeners recognize the relationship between the statis-
tics and the main point they are intended to support?
3. Are the statistics recent and reliable enough to be acceptable to
the listeners?

Sequence of main points

Once the central idea, the main points, and the supports have been
selected, the speaker must decide in what order to present the main
points. Some of the most common organizational patterns are the
chronological, topical, spatial, and logical. The sequence that is most
appropriate depends on the topic, the purpose, and the interests of the
listeners. Effective speakers are equally adept in using any of these
sequential arrangements.
Chronological sequence. The chronological sequence can also be
used to describe the evolution of an idea or to explain how to do
something.
Topical Sequence. When a topic is divided into several different
parts, it is arranged according to the topical sequence. The more natu-
ral the divisions, the easier it is for the listeners to understand and re-
tain what the speaker is presenting.
The topical sequence seems to be the one used most frequently.
Some speakers tend always to use it, even though another sequence
would be more effective.
Spatial Sequence. As the name implies, this sequence uses space to
determine the arrangement of ideas. The speaker arranges the material
266
according to physical location. For example, something might be de-
scribed directionally, from east to west. Or a building might be de-
scribed from its first to its top floor. Speakers who use the spatial se-
quence describe the physical location of certain points and the
relationship between these points. Use of the spatial sequence should
enable the listeners to visualize what the speaker is telling them.
Logical Sequence. Several different patterns of arrangement are in-
cluded in the logical sequence. Among the most common are the
causal and the problem-and-solution sequences.
In using the causal approach, speakers have two options. One is to
point out certain forces and the results that follow from them; the other
is to describe events and then explain the forces that caused them.
The problem-and-solution approach is quite similar to the cause-
and-effect in that the speaker presents two main points. For example,
in discussing an increase in customer complaints about sales person-
nel (the problem), the personnel director urged that greater emphasis
be placed on employee training (the solution).

Introduction and Conclusion

Until you have decided what you will present in your speech,
knowing how best to get the listeners involved is difficult. For that
reason you should develop the body of the speech before the intro-
duction and the conclusion.
Your introduction has three purposes: to establish rapport with the
listeners; to gain their attention; and to introduce your topic.
You can introduce your topic to your listeners in several ways:
1. Make a startling statement
2. Refer to the audience
3. Refer to the occasion
4. Quote a recognized authority
5. Ask a rhetorical question
6. Use humor that is relevant
Regardless of the approach you use to introduce your speech, re-
member to gain the acceptance of your listeners and tell them what the
speech is about.
In concluding a speech you should, at a minimum, restate your central
idea. A good conclusion provides closure for the listeners—that is, it in-
dicates to the listeners that the topic has been thoroughly covered. Some
of the most common ways you may conclude a speech are to
1. Summarize the main points
2. Propose a solution
267
 3. Quote a recognized authority
4. Challenge the listeners to accomplish some specific goal
5. Describe the future if your proposal is or is not accepted
Prepare Your Outline
A good outline is a «must» in preparing a talk. Prepare notes on
cards first. Then arrange and rearrange them according to major ideas
and order of importance. In the following example, note that only im-
portant ideas are included in the outline.

HOW TO SUCCEED IN APPLYING FOR A JOB

I. Introduction
A. Expression of thanks to presiding officer for introduction
B. Brief comments to audience about the occasion
C. Importance of topic to each audience member
D. Preview of the major points to be discussed
1. Look for a job that best suits you
2. Use care in application letter and résumé
3. Conduct yourself well during interview
II. Look for a job that best suits you
A. Interest in work and company
B. Your education and training
C. Your experience related to job
III. Use care in application letter and résumé
A. Subpoint
B. Subpoint
IV. Conduct yourself well during the interview
A. Subpoint
B. Subpoint
V. Conclusion
A. Summary of main points
B. Express appreciation to audience

III. DELIVERING THE SPEECH

The preparation for delivering an oral report should seem very
simple. Yet many people would rather write a dozen reports than
268
deliver a single one in person. Fortunately, few jobs require people
who can address large groups with ease. Usually, oral presentations
are confined to small groups like committees, or to informal meet-
ings. If you have prepared your material with your listeners in mind
you will need only a few guidelines to help you make an effective
presentation.
Hide Your Nervousness. Face the fact that you will be nervous
as you wait for your introduction. But remain confident, knowing
that you have carefully prepared your talk. If you find that you have
stage fright, take a deep breath before opening your mouth. The deep
breath will help relax your vocal cords. Then cheer yourself up with
the thought that you must be a very bright person. Speakers who are
not at all anxious are either those who give talks often or those who
do not know enough to be nervous. Controlled nervous anticipation
is good for you. It will key you up and give your delivery some
sparkle.
Check Your Volume. You know how annoyed, disinterested, and
bored listeners become if they can’t hear the speaker. Don’t create this
problem for your audience. If possible before the meeting, check your
volume in the room where you are to speak. Have someone stand in
the back of the room to tell you if you can be heard perfectly. If you
cannot make this test or if you sense that the audience cannot hear
you, ask at the beginning of your talk if everyone can hear; then adjust
your volume accordingly.
If you have a choice, stand at a podium, table, or screen. Standing
while others are sitting automatically confers authority and commands
attention. It will also encourage you to project your voice out to your
listeners instead of into your notes. You will be able to make eye
contact with the whole group. A good presentation demands alertness
and a bit of an edge.
Use overheads rather than handouts to present data. You want
your audience heads up, facing you, not reading at their seats. The
worst thing to do is to hand out printed material and then «go through
it.» Eye-oriented people, often executives and managers, will read,
rather than listen to you.
Follow the suggestions under «Graphical Elements of Reports»
above, to produce effective overhead graphics. Make sure that the
lettering is clearly visible to your entire audience.
Ascertain how long your presentation is expected to take. Nor-
mally, a speech is delivered at about 1 50 words a minute. Make sure
your material is adequate for the time allotted. Of course, this does
not mean that a ten-minute oral report will be as dense as a 1500-
269
word essay. You will need to build in much more repetition to en-
sure that you are getting your point across. But planned repetition is
one thing; rehashing points you have already made in order to fill up
your time is a sure-fire way to annoy and frustrate your listeners.
Leave time for questions and feedback. If there are none, don’t fill
the gap by answering questions nobody asked. This suggests that
you are having second thoughts about the organization and planning
of your report.
Use a Conversational Tone. Remember that you are talking to an
audience, not giving an oration. Your voice should reflect the warm,
easy, conversational tone that you would use if you were talking to a
group of your very good friends. Also, remember that you will destroy
any warmth created by your tone if you allow a critical, scolding, or
sarcastic note to creep in.
Avoid Mannerisms. Mannerisms such as playing with objects,
clearing the throat or wetting the lips, repeating «uh» or «and» fre-
quently, and overusing slang expressions are objectionable to audi-
ences. If you do not know whether you have such mannerisms, ask
some of your friends, to watch and listen and report any they observe.
A speaker with even one annoying habit cannot give the best possible
talk, for mannerisms distract the audience and obstruct the thoughts
the speaker is trying to convey.
Observe Audience Reaction. You can and should train yourself to
watch the audience as you speak and to be sensitive to its changing
mood. If, as you talk, you see blankness or boredom on the faces be-
fore you, this signal tells you that your listeners need perking up.
You might then tell one of the amusing stories you keep in reserve.
Remember, however, that jokes are only effective if used intelli-
gently.
If your audience seems tired, if the hour is late, or if the previous
talks have been overlong, you have two choices: accept the situation
as a challenge and give such an interesting and sparkling performance
that everyone perks right up, or have pity on your audience and cut
your talk to the bare essentials. Sometimes it is better to omit part of a
speech rather than give it before a weary audience.
Carefully Select the Closing Words. Inexperienced talkers often
give themselves away by lowering their voices as they say the last few
words or by dashing off the ending in a hurried rattle. Of course, a be-
ginner is happy to see the end in sight and is eager to get the ordeal
over. What a pity though to spoil the effect of an otherwise fine talk
with a poor ending! Remember to keep your pitch up and to observe
good timing to the very end.
270
 IV. MODES OF DELIVERY
Public speakers use four main modes of delivery:
1. Impromptu
2. Extemporaneous
3. Memorized
4. Manuscript
The impromptu speech is delivered with little opportunity to pre-
pare. Its main virtue is that it is spontaneous; its main shortcoming is
that it is usually not well planned. When you are urged to «say a few
words» without any advance warning, what results is an impromptu
speech.
Extemporaneous speaking is somewhat more formal than im-
promptu speaking. You have an opportunity to plan, and the resulting
speech is better organized than an impromptu speech. You usually
rely somewhat on notes, but you do not read to the listeners. Most
public speeches are delivered extemporaneously.
A memorized speech allows for a well-planned expression of ideas.
When presenting a speech from memory, however, many speakers
tend to lose a certain amount of naturalness and sometimes sound and
look quite wooden. The possibility of forgetting the speech is another
negative aspect of the memorized speech.
Manuscript speaking is relied on for more formal occasions.
When you speak from a manuscript, you can be very precise and
carefully control the exact message you send the listeners. Of
course, it generally takes longer to develop a manuscript speech.
And the manuscript frequently becomes a barrier between speaker
and audience.
Although individual presentations are much more frequent, pres-
entations by teams of individuals are not unusual. Continuity is espe-
cially important here. The presentation should appear as a unified
whole, rather than as a series of individual presentations. Through
careful planning, team members should be able to avoid repetition and
to structure the presentation so that each speaker paves the way for the
succeeding speaker.
All of the principles of effective communication that we have dis-
cussed pertain to the team presentation also. The team presentation
format also requires some other principles.

V. TEAM PRESENTATION GUIDE

• Plan the team presentation as a group, and divide the topics into
logical and well-balanced divisions.
271
 • Anticipate those questions likely to be directed at you following
the team presentation and be prepared to respond to them.
• Unless you are the first speaker, begin your speech by referring
to the previous speaker and thereby increase the continuity of the team
presentation.
• Direct your speech primarily at the larger audience rather than at
the other speakers.
• Stay within your time limit. Do not encroach on the time of the
other speakers or on the patience of the listeners.
• While giving your speech, do not lose sight of the goal of the team.
• Listen to the speeches of the other participants and refer to them
where appropriate in your speech.
SUMMARY
The fear that many people express at the prospect of giving a
speech can be overcome through preparation:
• Determine your purpose
— the general purpose (to entertain, to inform, to persuade)
— the specific purpose what you want to accomplish
• Analyze your audience so you can appeal to your listeners’ inter-
ests
• Jot down your central theme, main idea and supporting details
• Decide how you’ll organize your speech
— by topics (topical)
— by time (chronological)
— by place (spatial)
— by logic (logical)
• Select techniques for illustrating main ideas
— quotations
— examples
— analogies
— statistics
• Draft your speech so that it includes
— an introduction (written last)
— a body (written first)
— a conclusion
• Choose one of the five modes of delivery
— impromptu (unlikely if you’ve got time to plan)
272
 — extemporaneous
— memorized
— manuscript
— team
• Practise, practise, practise

Exercises

Exercise I. Answer the following questions.

1. In your own words explain why speech is an important part of
your personality and why public speaking is a significant determinant
of your success?
2. Describe the steps suggested to organize your oral presentation
successfully.
3. What are the possible: a) general purposes of a presentation? b)
specific purposes of a presentation?
4. Compare a covert response to an overt response. Give three ex-
amples of each.
5. What is meant by audience analysis?
6. What are the basic questions to which you should seek answers
when analyzing the audience?
7. Describe the structure of an oral report.
8. Explain the relationships between central idea, main idea and
supporting materials.
9. What are four commonly used sequences of main points?
10. What are the guidelines to help a person to make an effective
presentation?
11. What main modes of delivery do public speakers use?
12. Compare team and individual presentations. What should you
bear in mind preparing team presentations?
13. How can the fear of giving a speech be overcome?
Exercise II. Find the English equivalents corresponding to the fol-
lowing Ukrainian phrases.
Висота звука; дикція; домогтися відповіді; прихований; не-
оплачений рахунок; прострочений рахунок; говорити безладно та
перестрибувати з однієї ідеї на іншу; коротко записувати; пиш-
номовний; помірковано; не звертати уваги на щось; просторовий;
встановлювати зв’язок; приголомшлива заява; страх сцени; голо-
сові зв’язки; зоровий контакт; переказувати щось старе по-
новому; експромт; імпровізований; забирати час.
273
 Exercise III. Prepare and present to your class a report of approxi-
mately 250 words on one of the following issues:
a) building or expanding residence accommodation at your university;
b) food service at your university;
c) freedom of information at the university;
d) library facilities at your university;
e) smoking policy at your university;
f) admission to your university.
Exercise IV. Do a written audience analysis of your business com-
munication class. Detail the ways in which the class members are
similar and the ways in which they are different.
Exercise V. Assuming your class as an audience, develop a five-
minute speech on the subject of your academic researches. Describe
the facts from your audience analysis (Exercise IV) that most influ-
enced your approach.
Exercise VI. Give a one-minute impromptu speech on a topic se-
lected by someone else in your class. During that minute try to present
one main idea and support it as well as you can.
Exercise VII. Tape-record one of your speeches and write a two-
page evaluation of it.
Exercise VIII. Select a product or service and develop a 5-minute
persuasive presentation to sell the product or service to your class.
Exercise IX. In groups of four or five, prepare a team presentation to be
given before the class. Select a subject and divide it among the team mem-
bers. Each team member should have a specific role. The class members
who are the audience should be told the kind of group they are to represent.
Following each team presentation the class will do an evaluation.
Exercise X. Name a public figure whom you have seen give a
speech (either in person or on television). Describe what you think he
or she should do to become a better public speaker.
Exercise XI. Obtain a copy of an annual report of a company or or-
ganization in your field. Prepare an oral report for your class on the
organization of the report, indicating its strengths and weaknesses.
Exercise XII. CASE
THE CITY COUNCIL MEETING1
Julie C. Burkhard
Charlottsville, Virginia
1
Adapted from «Business Communication. Strategies and Skills» by R.Huseman,
D.Stockmayer, J.Hatfiels, J.Lahiff, J.Penrose.

274
 Jeffrey Faught is the director of the chamber of commerce in
Eastman, a small town with a population of approximately 3000. Al-
though the town is relatively small, it is growing every year.
Faught has been working to bring industry to Eastman for about
two years. Presently the town has no industries at all. Most of the
people in Eastman are local businessmen or farmers. Faught believes
the town needs some industry, because it would not only strengthen
the economy, it would also create more jobs. With jobs come people,
and people need homes to live in; therefore, real estate would gain
from the industry as well.
Faught’s problem is with the city council and the townspeople.
The townspeople want a park and recreational area built where the
plant would be built. The city council must decide whether to grant a
zoning change for the new industry or the new park.

The second Tuesday night of every month, the city council meets.
The public is invited, so anyone may attend. This particular Tuesday,
both Faught from the chamber of commerce and the townspeople for
the park plan to attend.
Faught decides he must make his stand known to both the council
and the people. He has not given many speeches, but he knows this
presentation must be very persuasive.
The townspeople have wanted a park for their children for years.
They believe their town is doing just fine without industry. In the past,
the city council has shared this same belief.
Faught is faced with the job of convincing both the council and the
people to change their views.

Case Questions
1. What should Jeffrey Faught take into consideration when ana-
lyzing his audience?
2. How might he organize his presentation to accomplish his per-
suasive purpose?
3. Knowing that Faught has to overcome the objections of the council
and the people, what modes of proof should he attempt to employ?

275
Appendix A

Sample Report

INTRODUCING
FLEXIBLE HOURS
INTO
HEAD OFFICE

Distribute to: Ann Smith

All Department HeadsHead/Personnel Department
17th June 20__

1. SUMMARY
This report gives information on the flexible hours programme and
highlights the benefits which have been observed during the pilot
project in the Personnel Department. It attempts to alleviate concerns
about the introduction of flexible hours for all staff, particularly the is-
sue of low staff levels outside of core time.
2. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this report is to advise all Departmental Heads
about the results of the attendance monitoring programme for the Per-
sonnel Department flexible hours pilot; and to provide guidelines
should staffing levels fall to an unacceptable level.
3. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The Personnel department has been running a pilot flexible work-
ing programme since September 20__. The Organisational Manage-
ment Group has monitored the pilot programme and has made rec-
ommendations for the introduction of flexible working hours into all
departments.
276
 This has prompted some concern about sufficient cover, particu-
larly outside core times.

4. CONCERNS
4.1. Operation
The introduction of flexible working hours undoubtedly will
change the way in which each department operates. The following
points summarise the way in which the flexible hours will operate.
This is a précis of the Implementation Report which was circulated on
1st May 20__.

4.1.1. Each employee will work 490 hours in a typical three-month period, less
holiday and sickness.
4.1.2. Each employee may start work between 8.00 a.m. and 10.00 a.m. and
finish between 4.00 p.m. and 6.00 p.m.
4.1.3. Each employee must work between the hours of 10.00 a.m. and 12.00
noon, and between 2.00 p.m. and 4 p.m. Hereafter these hours are called
the «core hours».
4.1.4. Each employee will update hours worked on a daily basis on their per-
sonal time sheet, which must be submitted to their manager for verifica-
tion on the first working day of each month.
4.1.5. Each employee may take up to one full days leave each month, 3 days in
the three month accounting period, in addition to annual leave only if, by
the end of the three month accounting period hours worked fall within
20 hours of the standard quarter of 490 hours.

4.2. Work Patterns in Pilot Programme

4.2.1. The work patterns of the staff working in the Personnel Department
were monitored for the three months prior to commencement of the
flexible hours programme and the monitoring continued during the six
months operation of the pilot programme.
4.2.2. Time sheets were completed detailing timings of telephone calls and
visits, which were considered to be the activities demanding immediate
response from a member of staff. The collation of these time sheets and
the analysis of the attendance patterns have indicated minimum staffing
levels. Here the total number of staff is eight and the minimum number
of staff required outside of core time was determined to be two.
4.2.3. By week 5 of pilot programme a working pattern had matured and with
the exception of occasional variations this became the normal pattern of
attendance. The results displayed in the Table are taken from the average
of the last full week of the six month pilot.

277
 4.3. Benefits

4.3.1. Operating flexible hours benefits the organisation and also the staff. The
advantages were detailed in the implementation Report of May 20__.
The following points, which are observations of the pilot programme,
should alleviate most of the concerns.
4.3.2. With the exception of one occasion when three members of staff were off
sick, two for one week and another for one day, the staffing level did not
fall to under twice the minimum level.
4.3.3. Sickness and unofficial absence was halved during the operation of the
pilot. Performance indicators proved that the backlog of work had
reduced by 25%.
4.3.4. The review of the Personnel Department staff to measure how they felt
about flexible hours revealed that it was an overwhelming success, with
no negative responses.

5. CONCLUSIONS

5.1. The Personnel Department had no recourse to implement the Attendance

Rota detailed in the Implementation Report of 1st May 20__. Further in-
dications after the completion of the pilot phase confirm that this has
continued to be unnecessary.
There can be no assurance that minimum staffing levels outside of «core
time» will never be below the level which the Organisation and Man-
agement Group considers to be the minimum operating level for each
Department. However, in the pilot the number of staff was once less than
twice the minimum necessary.
5.2. The Organisation and Management Group currently are programming
their schedule for analysis of minimum staff levels necessary for each
department, and will advise all Departmental Heads by 26th June of the
timings and key tasks to be undertaken. Each department will have the
opportunity to demonstrate work patterns and to participate fully in es-
tablishing minimum staffing levels both during and outside «core time».
5.3. As demands upon staff time change, and as the business develops there
sill be changes in work patterns. As part of the analysis exercise all De-
partmental Heads will be advised how to use the monitoring programme
to maintain effectiveness.

278
 DEPARTMENTAL TIME SHEET
FWH Personal Reconciliation sheet for period commencing____________________
NAME______________RANK____________OFFICE/SECTION_______________
A B C D E F
Adjustments
Arrival Departure Hours in Lunch Hours worked Net hours CUM NET Standard
time Time Bank (A to B) break (C-D) ∗ Paid ∗ other (see Authorisa (E+F) hours Hours
Overtime (-) below) (+/-) tion∗
Brought forward
WK 1 M 7
T 14
W 21
T 28
F 35
Weekly Total
WK 2 M 42
T 49

279
W 56
T 63
F 70
Weekly Total
WK 3 M 77
T 84
W 91
T 98
F 105
Weekly Total
WK 4 M 112
T 119
W 126
T 133
F 140

279
 A B C D E F
Adjustments
Arrival Departure Hours in Lunch Hours worked Net hours CUM NET Standard
time Time Bank (A to B) break (C-D) ∗ Paid ∗ other (see Authorisa (E+F) hours Hours
Overtime (-) below) (+/-) tion∗
Weekly Total
WK 5 M 147
T 154
W 161
T 168
F 175
Weekly Total
WK 6 M 182
T 189
W 196
T 203
F 210

280
Weekly Total
WK 7 M 217
T 224
W 231
T 238
F 245
Weekly Total

Other Adjustments
+ OA — official Absences (GL, Sickness, Courses, not Flexi Days)
+ TD — Travel Delay ∗
+ MD — Medical/dental appointments ∗
+/- ao — Any other reason ∗ = supervisor’s initial required

Table
280
Appendix B
I. Punctuation
Punctuation is used to separate words into groups in order to make
their meaning absolutely clear.
Full stop — .
Used to mark the end of a sentence. It is also used to show a short-
ened word where the abbreviation does not include the last letter of
the original.
etc. (full stop) = etcetera
Mr (no full stop) = Mister
Dr (no full stop) = Doctor
& Co. (full stop) = and Company
In the UK and the USA (where it is called a period), the full stop is
also used to indicate a decimal point (e.g., 10.6). In some European
countries, the decimal point is indicated with a comma.
Comma —,
Used to separate one part of a sentence (a clause) from another.
We are in agreement on most points, but there are a number
of minor changes we would like to propose.
If the clause can be removed from the sentence without changing
its main meaning, use two commas in a similar way to brackets, one
before and one after the clause:
Mr Jackson, our new marketing manager, will als6 be at-
tending the meeting on Tuesday.
The clause separated by commas must relate to the subject of the
sentence, in this case, Mr Jackson. Otherwise, brackets should be used
(see below).
Commas are also used to separate the items in a list:
You will need to bring with you a notebook, a pen, the file
and a copy of the agenda.
In English there is no comma before the word «and» in a list.
However, US punctuation often adds one in this position (this is called
the «serial comma»).
Semi-colon — ;
Used to mark a pause that is not quite as long as a full stop. The
two parts of a sentence separated by a semi-colon are normally linked
in some way:
281
 The reception area is run by our receptionist during office
hours; the security guard takes over at 5.30pm.
It is also used to separate items in a list where a comma is not ade-
quate (for example, when the items are complex enough to include
commas of their own). When using a semi-colon for a list, it is normal
to add a colon at the start:
Letters can be laid out in a number of ways: fully blocked, in
which all the lines except the letterhead begin at the left-hand
margin; semi-blocked, in which the first lines of paragraphs are
indented; and indented, in which the recipient’s address, all the
paragraphs and the close are all indented.
Colon —:
Used in two ways: to mark the start of a list (as above, and in this
sentence); and to separate two parts of a sentence where the second
part is an illustration of the first part (as if you had written i.e.).
Apostrophe — ’
Used to indicate the possessive:
This is Jennifer’s desk. Note: This desk is hers (no apostrophe).
The same goes for «his», «theirs», «its», «ours» and «yours», al-
though one’s does take an apostrophe.
When making a possessive from a noun that already has an s at the
end (or sounds as if it does) you will need to decide whether to add an
apostrophe and an s, or whether simply to add an apostrophe. If the
noun has only one syllable, add apostrophe «s». If the noun has two or
more syllables, only add an apostrophe:
Mr Jones’s correspondence has been put in his in-tray.
The office is close to St James’s Park.
Mrs Harris’ correspondence has already been taken to the mail-
room.
There are some exceptions to this rule. They include biblical and
Greek names (Archimedes’ principle, for example), and phrases con-
taining the word «sake» («for heavens’ sake», «for conscience’ sake»,
etc.). If you are unsure what to do with the apostrophe, try turning the
sentence around to avoid the problem altogether:
Isis’ Temple = the Temple of Isis
for appearance’ sake = for the sake of appearance
The apostrophe is also used to show that one or more letters have
been omitted from a word:
isn’t = is not couldn’t = could not
aren’t = are not can’t = cannot
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 wouldn’t = would not shouldn’t = should not
mustn’t = must not it’s = it is
This use of the apostrophe is conversational, and it should be
avoided in formal writing.
Inverted commas — «...» ‘...’
Single inverted commas are used to show that a word or phrase is
being used to mean something slightly different to the usual meaning,
and to indicate new coinages or slang words. Use inverted commas
where you might otherwise use «so-called».
He erects his cardboard ‘tent’ every night on The Strand.
More and more advertisers are following the American lead
and including ‘knocking copy’ in their advertising.
Inverted commas are also used to show that the spoken or written
word is being quoted.
She said, ‘Working with such an efficient organization has
been a pleasure and an education’.
The quotation in the above example is only one part of the sentence,
and so the full stop should be placed oustide (not inside) the quotation
marks. In the example below, the quotation is the whole sentence, and
therefore the full stop is placed inside the quotation marks:
‘Working with such an efficient organization has been a
pleasure and an education.’
If you need to indicate a quote within a quote, use single inverted
commas followed by double inverted commas (quotation marks).
Make sure that each pair of marks is «closed» in the correct place:
She said, ‘I have always wondered who coined the phrase
«the little gnomes of Zurich».’
Note in this instance, the position of the full stop.
Exclamation mark — !
Used in place of a full point to mark a sharp command or an ex-
clamation (both known as interjections). Many people now use the
exclamation mark to add excitement to a simple statement, or to
punctuate a joke, but this should be avoided.
Question mark (also called a query) — ?
Used in place of a full point at the end of a question.
Brackets (also called parentheses) — (...) or [...]
Round brackets are used to add abbreviations, extra information,
definitions or illustrative material, for example:
283
 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
London Underground Limited (LUL)
The meeting at our office (which you will find located on the
first floor of the Speedwell Building) will be attended by the
managing director.
Use round brackets also to indicate numbers or letters used to
enumerate entries on a list:
We will need to (a) survey the market, (b) analyse our costs
and (c) set a price.
Square brackets are used to indicate a parenthesis within a paren-
thesis, in the same way as double inverted commas are used to show a
quote within a quote. There are specialized uses of square brackets in
some fields (e.g. law and mathematical sciences).
When using brackets, always check that they have been
closed in the right place.
Dash: — or -
An informal method of indicating part of a sentence in parenthesis,
in a similar way to a pair of commas or brackets. It is said to be
equivalent to a pause that is a little longer than a comma and a little
shorter than a semi-colon. Try to avoid this in formal English. A dash
should have a single space on either side of it. Some DTP systems
distinguish between dashes and hyphens (see below), the dash being
the same width as the letter «m» (called an em dash) or the letter «n»
(called an en dash). A hyphen is slightly smaller than an en dash.
Hyphen: -
Used to show that a word has been «broken» at the end of a line,
and to separate suffixes from proper nouns where the word would
otherwise be unclear:
recreation = leisure, play re-creation = to create again
recover = to get well re-cover = to cover again
reform = to improve re-form = to form anew
The Collins Gem Spelling and Word Division is a very useful
pocket reference for checking hyphenation and word breaks.
Capital letters
Capitals are used to identify the start of every sentence, and in sev-
eral other instances: at the start of proper nouns (names of people,
places, organizations, etc.); for the titles of things (books, plays,
magazines, newspapers, etc.); in some abbreviations (always in acro-
284
nyms); for the word I; for important words connected with religion —
God (when referring to the one God, but not when referring to another
god, the Church (meaning the movement, not the building which is a
church), the Bible, the Qur’an, Allah, etc.

II. List of common abbreviation

Abbreviations are words that have been shortened. They are usu-
ally indicated with a full stop at the end. Contractions are words that
have been shortened and that include the first and last letters of the
original. Contractions do not normally need a full stop. Initials are
sometimes used as abbreviations, especially for the names of organi-
zations and academic qualifications. Such initials sometimes have full
stops, and sometimes not. However, modern usage is leaning towards
leaving out full stops. Where the initials spell a word, it is called an
acronym, and the letters never take full stops.
AA = Automobile Association
a/c = account
ACAS — The Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service
ACT = Advance Corporation Tax
AD = anno Domini (after Christ)
ad lib = ad libitum (at leisure)
ADP = automatic data processing
ad val. = ad valorem (according to value)
AG = Aktiengesellschaft (German public company)
AGM = annual general meeting
AH = anno Hegirae (the Muslim era, similar to the Christian AD)
Al = artificial intelligence
a.k.a. or AKA = also known as
a.m. or am -ante meridiem («before noon»)
AOB — any other business
appx = appendix
APR = annual percentage rate
ASA -Advertising Standards Authority
assoc. = association/associate(d)
a. v. or A/V = ad valorem (according to value)
av. = average
Ave. = avenue
b. = born (birthdate)
BA= Bachelor of Arts
BAA — British Airports Authority
bal. = balance
285
BBC = British Broadcasting Corporation
BC = before Christ
bc = blind copies
BCL = Bachelor of Civil Law
b/d = brought down
BD = Bachelor of Divinity
b.e. or BE — bill of exchange
B/F or b/f = brought forward
bk = bank or book
bkcy = bankruptcy
bkpt = bankrupt
B/L, b/l or b.l. = bill of lading
BL = Bachelor of Law/Letters
BM = Bachelor of Medicine (Oxford)
BMA- British Medical Association
BMus = Bachelor of Music
b.o, = back order; branch office; buyer’s option
B/O = brought over
BOTB = British Overseas Trade Board
B/P or bp = bills payable
BPhil = Bachelor of Philosophy
B/R or br = bills receivable
BR = British Rail
b rec = bills receivable
BRS = British Road Services
bs = balance sheet, bill of sale (also B/S or b/s)
BSc = Bachelor of Science
BSI = British Standards Institution
BST = British Summer Time
BTG = British Technology Group
C = Celsius
c. = circa (roughly this date)
C/A —capital account; credit account; current account
CA = chartered accountant
CAB = Citizens’ Advice Bureau
CACM = Central American Common Market
CADCAM = computer-aided design, computer-aided manufacture
CADMAT — computer-aided design, manufacture and test
C & D = collection and delivery
C & F = cost and freight
cap = capital
CAP = Common Agricultural Policy
286
CARICOM = Caribbean Community and Common Market
CB = cash book
CBD = cash before delivery
CBI = Confederation of British Industry
cc = copies
CC = county council
CCT = Common Customs Tariff
CCTV = closed circuit television
C/D = certificate of deposit
cd = carried down
cd fwd = carried forward
CEO = chief executive officer
c/f = carried forward
cf = carried forward
cf. — confer (compare)
CGT — capital gains tax
chq = cheque
cif = cost, insurance and freight
cifi = cost, insurance, freight and interest
CIM = computer-integrated manufacture
Cllr = Councillor
cm = centimetre
C/N = cover note, consignment note, credit note
c/o = cash order, care of, carried over
Co. = company
COD = cash on delivery
COH = cash on hand
COI = Central Office of Information
COM = computer output on microfilm
COMECOM = Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
comm = commission
Comr = Commissioner
DTP = desktop publishing
E & OE = errors and omissions excepted
EC = European Community
ECGD = Export Credit Guarantee Department
ECOWAS = Economic Community of West African States
ECS = echantillons commerciaux («commercial samples»)
ECU — European Currency Unit
EDP = electronic data processing
EEC = European Economic Community
e.g. = exempli gratia («for example»)
287
 EFT = electronic funds transfer
EFTA = European Free Trade Association
EFTPOS = electronic funds transfer at point of sale
EGM = extraordinary general meeting
enc(s) = enclosure(s)
EPOS = electronic point of sale
ERDF = European Regional Development Fund
ERM = (European) Exchange Rate Mechanism
ESQPS = Employee Share Ownership Plans
et al = et alia («and others»)
etc. = et cetera («and so on»)
et seq = et sequens («and following»)
ex div = without dividend
ex off = ex officio («by virtue of office»)
F= fahrenheit
fac = facsimile
fas — free alongside ship
fax — facsimile
FCA = fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants
ff = following
ffy = faithfully
fig. == figure (reference to an illustration)
fl. = flourished (date when a person was working)
fob = free on board
foc = free of carriage
FOREX = foreign exchange
FPS = Fellow of the Pharmaceutical Society
FRCP = Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians
FRCS = Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons
FRIBA = Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects
FT = Financial Times
ft = feet (length)
GDP = gross domestic product
GIGO = garbage in, garbage out
gm = gramme (weight)
GmbH = Gesellschaft mit beschrankter Haftung (German limited
company)
GMT = Greenwich Mean Time
GNP — gross national product
GP = general practitioner
gsm = grammes per square metre
HC = House of Commons
288
HL = House of Lords
HMC = Her Majesty’s Customs
HMSO = Her Majesty’s Stationery Office
HO = Home Office
Ho. = house
HP = hire purchase
HRH = His/Her Royal Highness
hrs = hours
ibid. = ibidem («in the same place»)
IBM = International Business Machines
i.e.= id est («that is»)
IMF = International Monetary Fund
Inc = incorporated
incl = including
info = Information
inst = of this month
int = interest
int al = inter alia («among others»)
IT = information technology
ital = italic
JP = Justice of the Peace
Kb = kilobyte
kg = kilogramme (weight)
km = kilometres (length)
I = litre (volume)
LAFTA = Latin American Free Trade Association
Ib = pounds (weight)
L/C = letter of credit
l.c. = lower case letters
LGS = Loan Guarantee Scheme
Ltd = limited
m = metres (length)
MA = Master of Arts
MAFF = Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
max = maximum
MB = Bachelor of Medicine
Mb = megabyte
MBA = Master of Business Administration
MBChB = Bachelor of Medicine and Chirurgery
MBE = Member of the Order of the British Empire
MC = master of ceremonies
MCom = Master of Commerce
289
MD = managing director
MD = Doctor of Medicine (from Latin Medicinae Doctor)
memo = memorandum
MEP = Member of the European Parliament
mfg = manufacturing
mfr = manufacturer
mg = milligramme (weight)
Mgr = Monseigneur
mgr = manager
MICR = magnetic ink character recognition
min = minute
misc = miscellaneous
MLitt = Master of Letters
mm = millimetre (length)
MMC = Monopolies and Mergers Commission
MOD = Ministry of Defence
MORI = Market and Opinion Research International
MP = Member of Parliament
mpg = miles per gallon
mph = miles per hour
Mr = Mister
MRCP = Member of the Royal College of Physicians
MRCVS = Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons
Mrs = Mistress
Ms = woman whose status is not known/given
MS = manuscript
msc = moved, seconded and carried
MSC = Manpower Services Commission
MSc = Master of Science
mtg = meeting
N/A = not applicable, no advice
NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NB = note bene («take note»)
NCR = no carbon required
nd = not date
necy = necessary
NGO = non-governmental organization
NHS = National Health Service
Ni = National Insurance
NIC = Newly Industrialized Country
NIS = not in stock
NL = no liability (Australian limited company)
290
np = new paragraph
NPO = non-profit-making organization
NV = Naamloze Vehootschap (Dutch Plc equivalent)
o/a = on account
ob = obiit («deceased»)
O/D = overdraft, on demand
OFGAS = Office of Gas Supply
OFT = Office of Fair Trading
OFTEL = Office of Telecommunications
OGM = ordinary general meeting
OHP = overhead projector
o/o/o = out of order
oos = out of stock
OPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
OR = Official Receiver
o/s= outstanding
OTE = on-target earnings
oz = ounces (weight)
p. = page (pages — pp.)
p.a, = per annum («every year»)
PA = personal assistant
P&L = profit and loss
p&p = postage and packing
para = paragraph
PAYE = pay as you earn
PC = Privy Councillor
PC = personal computer
Pc = Police Constable
pcm = per calendar month
pd = paid
p/d = postdated
pft = profit
Phd = Doctor of Philosophy
PIN = personal identification number
Plc = public limited company
PPI = printed postage impression
PO = postal order
pqe = post qualification experience
p.m. or pm — post meridiem («after noon»)
pp. = pages
pp = per procurationem («for and on behalf of)
prelim = preliminary
291
 Prof. = professor
pro tem = pro tempore («for the time being»)
PS = postscript (plural is PPS)
Pta = peseta
PTO = please turn over
QANTAS = Queensland’and Northern Territory Aerial Services
Ltd (Australian airline)
QB = Queen’s Bench
QC = Queen’s Counsel
QED = quod erat demonstrandum («which was to be proved»)
QUANGO = quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization
qv = quod vide («which see\ «refer to»)
qy = query
RAM = random access memory
R&D = research and development
re = with reference to
rcd = received
R/D = refer to drawer
ref — refer to
reqn= requisition
Rev=Reverend
RIP = rest in peace
ROM = read only memory
RPI = Retail Price Index
RSVP = repondez s’il vous plait
Rt Hon = Right Honourable
SA = societe anonyme
sae —stamped addressed envelope
SAYE = save as you earn
sec = second (unit of time)
S/N = shipping note
SO = standing order
SPQR = small profits, quick returns
Sq. = square (unit of measurement)
SRL= société responibilite limite
St = saint, street
STD -subscriber trunk dialling
std = standard
stet = let stand (leave uncorrected)
tba = to be advised
tbc = to be confirmed
to = turn over
292
 TOPS = Training Opportunities
tsvp = tournez s’il vous plait («turn over»)
TUC = Trades Union Congress
TWI = training within industry
UAE = United Arab Emirates
UK = United Kingdom
u.c. = upper case letters (capitals)
ult = ultimo («last»)
UNO = United Nations Organization
USA = United States of America
v = versus («against»)
VAT = value added tax
VDU = visual display unit
viz = namely
vs = versus
waf = with all faults
WEDA = Women’s Enterprise Development Agency
WHO = World Health Organization
WP = word processing
wpm = words per minute
x-cp = ex (without) coupon
x-div = ex (without) dividend
x-i = ex (without) interest
x-r = ex (without) rights
yd = yard (length)
yf = yours faithfully
ys = yours sincerely

III. Foreign words and Phrases

The English language has for centuries been influenced by foreign
languages, such as Greek, Latin and French. Some of these words are
still used (or misused) in everyday writing and speaking, and many
have important technical meanings, especially in the fields of law and
finance. Unless you are using such words in such a technical context,
it is better to find English equivalents. This avoids confusion and re-
duces the possibility of your using the wrong phrase in error.

LIST OF FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

The following list gives some foreign words and phrases you may
come across, along with the language they come from, their meanings,
293
and common abbreviations. Unless foreign words and phrases have
been accepted as part of the English language (e.g. café), they are
usually indicated with italics. Check with the Collins English Diction-
ary, which should tell you whether or not to use italics.

Origins: L = Latin F = French Gk = Greek Sp = Spanish

ab extra (L) = from the outside

ab initio (L) = from the start
addendum (L) = something to be added
à deux (F) = for two
ad hoc (L) = for a special purpose
ad infinitum (L) = without end
ad inftium (L) (abbr. ad ink.) = at the start
ad interim (L) = for the meantime
ad libitum (L) (abbr. ad lib) = to the desired extent, improvised
ad nauseam (L) = to a disgusting extent
ad rem (L) = to the point
ad valorem (L) (abbr. ad val.) = in proportion to the value of the
goods
aficionado (Sp) — an enthusiast
a fortiori (L) = for similar but more convincing reasons
agent provocateur (F) = person who lures people to commit an of-
fence
aide-memoire (F) — reminder
à la (F) = in the style* of
à la mode (F) = in fashion
amour-propre (F) = self-respect
a posteriori (L) = reasoning inductively from effect to cause
a priori (L) — reasoning deductively from cause to effect
au fait (F) = conversant
au fond (F) = at bottom
avant-garde (F) = radical, daring
beau geste (F) = magnanimous display
beau monde (F) = the world of fashion
belles-lettres (F) = literary writing
bite noire (F) = personal pet hate
bis (L) (in references to other sources) = found in two places
bona fide (L) = genuine
bonhomie (F) = good natured, exuberant friendliness
bon mot (F) = witticism
bon vivant (F) = a person who enjoys luxuries, especially food
294
carte blanche (F) = free hand, power to decide
cause celebre (F) = a legal battle that excites popular interest
caveat (L) = beware
caveat emptor (L) = buyer beware
ceteris paribus (L) = all other things being equal
chef-d’oeuvre (F) = master work
circa (L) (abbr. c).) = approximately
comme il faut (F) = as it should be
contretemps (F) = embarrassing or unlucky incident
coup d’etat (F) = violent uprising or change of government
coup de grace (F) = the fatal blow
coup de main (F) = sudden attack
cui bono (L) = who profits by this?
curriculum vitae (L) = account of one’s career
debacle (F) = a disastrous defeat or downfall
de facto (L) = in fact
Dei gratia (L) = by the grace of God
de jure (L) = according to law, by right
de novo (L) = anew, once more
Deo vofente (L) = God willing
de rigeur (L) = required by etiquette
detente (F) = relaxing of previously strained diplomatic relations
de trap (F) = superfluous, unwanted
distingue (F) = distinguished
distrait (F) = inattentive
double entendre (F) = phrase capable of two interpretations
douceur (F) = bribe
dramatis personae (F) = characters in a play, the people involved
eclat (F) = brilliant or conspicuous success
elan (F) = style and vigour
elite (F) = the best
emigre (F) = emigrant, refugee
en bloc (F) = in one lump
enfant terrible (F) = someone who behaves unconventionally
en masse (F) = as a whole; all together
en rapport (F) = in sympathy with
en route (F) = on the way to
entente cordiale (F) = an understanding (esp. between two nations)
entourage (F) = a group of attendants or retainers
entrepreneur (F) = innovator or organizer
ergo (L) = therefore, hence
erratum (L) = error, mistake
295
 et alia (L) (abbr. et al.) = and others
ex gratia (L) = given as a favour or gratuitously
ex offtcio (L) = by virtue of one’s office or positon
ex parte (L) = on behalf of one side
ex post facto (L) = acting after the fact, retrospectively
fait accompli (F) = a thing already accomplished
faux pas (F) = false step, indiscretion
force majeur (F) = irresistible
force gratis (F) = free of charge
haute couture (F) = high fashion
hoi polloi (Gk) = the masses
ibidem (L) (abbr. ibid, or ib.) = in the same place (reference
source)
idem (L) = the same (in references, the same author, or the same
book,
etc.)
id est (L) (abbr. i.e.) = that is
imprimis (L) = in the first place
in absentia (L) = in his/her absence
in camera (L) (legal)= in private, not in open court
in extremis (L) = in extreme circumstances
in flagrante delicto (L) = in the act of committing an offence
infra (L) = further on (in the book)
in memoriam (L) = m memory of
in situ (L) = in the natural, appropriate place
inter alia (L) = among other things
in toto (L) = entirely
ipse dixit (L) = arbitrary, unsupported assertion
ipso facto (L) = by that very feet or act
laissez faire (F) = freedom from interference (esp. from regulation)
lapsus linguae (L) = slip of the tongue
loco citato (L) (abbr. loc. cit. or Ic) = in the place already cited above
métier (F) .= a profession or trade; a person’s speciality
modus operandi (L) = method of working
modus vivendi (L) = practical compromise
mot juste (F) = the right word for the context
mutatis mutandis (L) = the necessary changes having been made
née (F) — born, indicates a woman’s maiden name
nolens volens (L) = whether willing or not
nom de plume (F) = pen name
non compos mentis (L) = of unsound mind; incapable of managing
one’s affairs
296
 non sequitur (L) (abbr. non seq.) = an argument that does not fol-
low in a logical sequence
opere citato (L) (abbr. op. at) = in the work just quoted outre (F) =
outrageous
pace (L) = with due respect to
par excellence (F) = beyond comparison
pan passu (L) = with equal speed
passe (F) = outmoded
passim (L) = throughout
per annum (L) = every year
per capita (L) = for each person
per diem (L) =every day
per procurationem (L) (abbr. per pro. or pp) = for and on behalf of
per se (L).- of itself, intrinsically
persona grata (L) = acceptable person
persona non grata (L) = unacceptable person
pièce de résistance (F) — the most important part
post (L) = following
poste restante (F) = place in post office where letters are kept until
collected;
postmortem (t) = after death
prima facie (L) = at first sight
pro forma (L) = performed in a standard or set manner (usually de-
scribes a type of invoice)
pro rata (L) = in proportion
qua (L) = in the capacity of
quantum sufiidt (L) (abbr. qs) = as much as is sufficient
quid pro quo (L) = tit for tat
quod erat demonstrandum (t) (abbr. QED) = which was the thing
to be proved
quod vide (L) (abbr. qv) = which see (in reference works, refers to
an article on this subject)
raison d’etre (F) = reason for existing
rapprochement (F) = return to good relations, esp. between nations
scilicet (L) = that is to say
secundo (L) = secondly
sic (L) = spelled, written in this way
sine die (L) = indefinitely
sine mascuta prole (L) (abbr. smp) = without male children
sine prole (L) = without children (abbr. sp)
sine qua nan (L)= indispensable qualification
status quo (L) = unchanged state of affairs
297
 sub finem (L) (abbr. si.) = near the end
sub judice (L) = under consideration (by the courts)
subpoena (L) = demand that a person appear in court
sub rosa (L) = in secret
sub voce (t) (abbr. s.v.) = under the word
sui generis (L) = unique
supra (L) — above (especially referring to earlier parts of a book)
tempore (L) (abbr. temp.) = in the time of
ter in die (L) (abbr. tid.) = three times a day
terra incognito (L) = unknown territory
tour de force (L) .= show of great skill or strength
ultimo (L){abbr. ult.) = on the last
ultra vires (L) = beyond the legal power
vale (L) = goodbye
verbatim (L) = word for word
vide (L) (abbr. v.) = see, refer to
videlicet (L) = namely
vis-a-vis (F) = one thing in comparison with another
vox populi (L) (abbr. vox pop) = voice of the people

IV. Titles and forms of address

The following table lists the appropriate forms of address, with
salutations, subscriptions and forms of reference
The Queen
Address: The Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty
Salutation: Madam, or May it please Your Majesty
Refer to as: Your Majesty
Subscription: I have the honour to remain Your Majesty’s faithful
subject
Note: In most circumstances, it is more usual to write, not to the
Queen herself, but to her Private Secretary. In this case, the form is as
follows:
Address: The Private Secretary to Her Majesty the Queen
Salutation: Dear Sir, Madam
Subscription: Yours faithfully
Royal Prince
Address: His Royal Highness Prince (Christian name) or, if a
duke, His Royal Highness the Duke of (place)
Salutation: Your Royal Highness
298
Refer to as:Sir
Subscription: I have the honour to remain Your Royal High-
ness’s most dutiful subject
Note: As for the Queen, it is more usual to write to a Private
Secretary- In this case, follow the instructions above.
Royal Princess
Address: Her Royal Highness the Princess (Christian name
or place) or, if a duchess, Her Royal Highness the
Duchess of (place)
Salutation: Your Royal Highness
Refer to as: Madam
Subscription: I have the honour to remain Your Royal High-
ness’s dutiful and obedient subject
Royal Duke
Address: His Royal Highness, The Duke of (place)
Salutation: Your Royal Highness

Refer to as: Sir

Subscription: I have the honour to remain Your Royal High-
ness’s dutiful servant
Royal Duchess
Address: Her Royal Highness, The Duchess of (place)
Salutation: Your Royal Highness
Refer to as: Madam
Subscription: I have the honour to remain Your Royal High-
ness’s dutiful and obedient servant
Duke
Address: His Grace the Duke of (place)
Salutation: My Lord Duke
Refer to as: Your Grace
Subscription: I have the honour to be Your Grace’s most obedi-
ent servant
Duchess
Address: Her Grace the Duchess of (place)
Salutation: Madam
Refer to as: Your Grace
Subscription: I have the honour to be Your Grace’s most obedi-
ent servant
299
Earl
Address: The Earl of (place)
Salutation: Dear Lord (place)
Subscription: I am, Sir, your obedient servant
Countess
Address: The Countess of (place)
Salutation: Dear Lady (place)
Subscription: I am, Madam, your obedient servant
Baron
Address: The Lord (place)
Salutation: Dear Lord (place)
Subscription: I am, Sir, Your obedient servant
Baron’s wife
Address: The Lady (place)
Salutation: Dear Lady (place)
Subscription: I am, Madam, Your obedient servant
Knight
Address: Sir (Christian name + surname) KCB
Salutation: Dear Sir (Christian name)
Subscription: I am, Sir, Your obedient servant
Knight’s wife
Address: Lady (husband’s surname)
Salutation: Dear Lady (husband’s surname)
Subscription: I am, Madam, Your obedient servant
Prime Minister
Address: according to rank (i.e. if he or she is also a knight,
baron, dame, member of the clergy, etc. use the
address that is appropriate for that rank).
Privy Councillor
Address: The Rt. Hon. (name or title).Salutation and sub-
scription according to rank.
Member of Parliament
Address: according to rank, but add the initials MP after
the name.
300
Secretary of State
Address: HM Principal Secretary of State for
(Department)
Salutation: Sir/Madam
Subscription: I am, Sir (Madam), Your obedient servant
Ambassador (British)
Address: His Excellency HBM’s Ambassador and Pleni-
potentiary
Salutation: My Lord (+ other according to rank)
Refer to as: Your Excellency
Subscription: I am (+ other according to rank) Your obedient
servant
Consul-General
Address: (Name) Esq., HBM’s Consul-General, Consul,
Vice-Consul, etc
Salutation: Sir
Subscription: I am, Sir, Your Obedient Servant
High Court Judge
Address: The Hon. Mr (Mrs) Justice (surname)
Salutation: Dear Judge (surname)
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Circuit Judge
Address: His Honour Judge (surname)
Salutation: Dear Sir/Madam
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Archbishop
Address: The most Reverend and Rt. Hon. The Lord Arch-
bishop of (place)
Salutation: Dear Archbishop
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Bishop
Address: The Right Reverend the Bishop of (place)
Salutation: Dear Bishop
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Vicar
Address: The Reverend (Christian name + surname)
Salutation: Dear Mr. (Surname)
301
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Rabbi
Address: Rabbi (first name and surname)
Salutation: Dear Rabbi (surname)
Subscription: Yours sincerely Minister
Address: The Reverend (first name and surname)
Salutation: Dear Mr. (surname)
Subscription: Yours sincerely
The Pope
Address: His Holiness the Pope
Salutation: Your Holiness
Cardinal
Address: His Eminence the Cradinal (place)
Salutation: Your Eminence
Priest
Address: The Reverend (Christian name + surname)
Salutation: Dear Father (surname)
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Lord Mayor/Lady Mayor
Address: The Right Worshipful the Lord (Lady) Mayor
Salutation: My Lord (Lady) Mayor
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Lady Mayoress
Address: The Lady Mayoress of (place)
Salutation: My Lady Mayoress
Subscription: Yours sincerely
Councillor
Address: Councillor Mr. (Mrs) (surname)
Salutation: Dear Councillor
Subscription: Yours sincerely

A table showing order of precedence in honours and decorations

1. Bt (baronet) and Esq. (esquire)
2. Decorations and orders
3. The following appointments:
Privy Councillor (PC)
Aide de Camp to HM the Queen (ADC)
302
 Honorary Physician to HM the Queen (QHP)
Honorary Surgeon to HM the Queen (QHS)
Honorary Dental Surgeon to HM the Queen (QHDS)
Honorary Nursing Sister to HM the Queen (QHNS)
Honorary Chaplain to HM the Queen (QHC)
4. Educational degrees
5. Medical qualifications; religious orders
6. Memberships and Fellowships of learned societies and profes-
sional bodies
7. The following appointments:
Queen’s Council (QC)
Justice of the Peace (JP)
Deputy Lieutenant (DL)
Member of Parliament (MP)
8.Membership of HM armed forces

Appendix C
Incoterms
In international business transactions, you will use different meth-
ods of payment, and possibly different currencies, than you do in do-
mestic transactions. In addition, while the terms of sale in interna-
tional business often sound similar to those commonly used in
domestic contracts, they often have different meanings in global
transactions. Confusion over these terms can result in a lost sale or a
financial loss on a sale. Thus, it is essential that you understand what
terms you are agreeing to before you finalize the contract.
Incoterms 2000
Development of Incoterms
By the 1920s, commercial traders had developed a set of trade
terms to describe their rights and liabilities with regard to the transport
of goods. These trade terms consisted of short abbreviations for
lengthy contract provisions, and therefore they were commonly used
for convenience. Unfortunately, there was no uniform interpretation of
them in all countries, and therefore misunderstandings often arose in
cross-border transactions.
To improve this aspect of international trade, the International
Chamber of Commerce (ICC) developed rules for the interpretation of
303
international commercial terms. First published in 1936, these rules
have been periodically revised to account for changing modes of
transport and document delivery, and they have become popularly
known as Incoterms.
«Incoterms 2000» is a set of uniform rules codifying the interpre-
tation of trade terms defining the rights and obligations of buyers and
sellers in international transactions. Developed and issued by the In-
ternational ICC, the current version is publication No. 560 from 2000.

Use of Incoterms
Incoterms are not implied into contracts for the sale of goods. If
you desire to use Incoterms, you must specifically include them in
your contract. Further, your contract should expressly refer to the
rules of interpretation as defined in the latest revision of Incoterms,
for example, Incoterms 2000, and you should ensure the proper appli-
cation of the terms by additional contract provisions.
Incoterms Do...
Incoterms 2000 may be included in an international sales contract
if the parties desire the following:
1. To complete a sale of goods
2. To indicate each contracting party’s obligations with regard to
delivery of the goods as follows:
a. When is the delivery completed?
b. How does a party ensure that the other party has met that stan-
dard of conduct?
c. Which party must comply with requisite licenses and other gov-
ernment-imposed formalities?
d. What are the mode and terms of carriage?
e. What are the delivery terms and what is required as proof of de-
livery?
f. When is the risk of loss transferred from the seller to the buyer?
g. How will transport costs be divided between the parties?
h. What notices are the parties required to give to each other re-
garding the transport and transfer of the goods?
3. To establish basic terms of transport and delivery in a short format
Incoterms Do Not...
Incoterms 2000 are not sufficient on their own to express the full
intent of the parties. These terms will not:
1. Apply to contracts for services
2. Define contractual rights and obligations other than for delivery
3. Specify details of the transfer, transport, and delivery of the goods
4. Determine how title to the goods will be transferred
304
 5. Protect a party from his or her own risk of loss
6. Cover the goods before or after delivery is made
7. Define the remedies for breach of the contract
Incoterms can be quite useful, but their use has limitations. If you
use them incorrectly, your contract may be ambiguous, if not impossi-
ble to perform. It is therefore important to understand the scope and
purpose of Incoterms—when and why you might use them—before
you rely on them to define such important terms as mode of delivery,
customs clearance, passage of title, and transfer of risk.

Incoterms 2000
1. Ex Works (EXW)
2. Free Carrier (FCA)
3. Free Alongside Ship (FAS)
4. Free On Board (FOB)
5. Cost and Freight (CFR)
6. Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF)
7. Carriage Paid To (CPT)
8. Carriage and Insurance Paid To (CIP)
9. Delivered At Frontier (DAF)
10. Delivered Ex Ship (DES)
11. Delivered Ex Quay (DEQ)
12. Delivered Duty Unpaid (DDU)
13. Delivered Duty Paid (DDP)

1. Ex Works ... [Named Place] (ExW)

In Ex Works, the seller/exporter/manufacturer merely makes the
goods available to the buyer at the seller’s «named place» of business.
This trade term places the greatest responsibility on the buyer and
minimum obligations on the seller.
The seller does not clear the goods for export and does not load the
goods onto a truck or other transport vehicle at the named place of de-
parture. The parties to the transaction, however, may stipulate that the
seller be responsible for the costs and risks of loading the goods onto
a transport vehicle. Such a stipulation must be made within the con-
tract of sale.
If the buyer cannot handle export formalities the Ex Works term
should not be used. In such a case Free Carrier (FCA) is recom-
mended. The Ex Works term is often used when making an initial
quotation for the sale of goods. It represents the cost of the goods
without any other costs included. Normal payment terms for Ex
Works transactions are generally cash in advance and open account.
305
 2. Free Carrier ... [Named Place] (FCA)
In Free Carrier, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the goods
for export and then delivers them to the carrier specified by the buyer
at the named place.
If the named place is the seller’s place of business, the seller is re-
sponsible for loading the goods onto the transport vehicle. If the
named place is any other location, such as the loading dock of the car-
rier, the seller is not responsible for loading the goods onto the trans-
port vehicle.
The Free Carrier term may be used for any mode of transport, in-
cluding multimodal. The «named place» in Free Carrier and all «F»
terms is domestic to the seller.
«Carrier» has a specific and somewhat expanded meaning. A car-
rier can be a shipping line, an airline, a trucking firm, or a railway.
The carrier can also be an individual or firm who undertakes to pro-
cure carriage by any of the above methods of transport including mul-
timodal. Therefore, a person, such as a freight forwarder, can act as a
«carrier» under this term. In such a case, the buyer names the carrier
or the individual who is to receive the goods.
The Free Carrier term is often used when making an initial quota-
tion for the sale of goods. Normal payment terms for Free Carrier
transactions are generally cash in advance and open account.

3. Free Alongside Ship ... [Named Port of Shipment] (FAS)

In Free Alongside Ship, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the
goods for export and then places them alongside the vessel at the
«named port of shipment.» [The seller’s clearing the goods for export
is new to Incoterms 2000.]
The parties to the transaction, however, may stipulate in their con-
tract of sale that the buyer will clear the goods for export.
The Free Alongside Ship term is used only for ocean or inland
waterway transport.
The «named place» in Free Alongside Ship and all «F» terms is
domestic to the seller. The Free Alongside Ship term is commonly
used in the sale of bulk commodity cargo such as oil, grains, and ore.
Normal payment terms for Free Carrier transactions are generally cash
in advance and open account, but letters of credit are also used.

4. Free on Board ... [Named Port of Shipment] (FOB)

In Free On Board, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the goods
for export and is responsible for the costs and risks of delivering the
goods past the ship’s rail at the named port of shipment. The Free On
306
Board term is used only for ocean or inland waterway transport. The
Free On Board term is used only for ocean or inland waterway trans-
port. The «named place» in Free On Board and all «F» terms is domes-
tic to the seller. Normal payment terms for Free On Board transactions
include cash in advance, open account, and letters of credit.
The Free On Board term is commonly used in the sale of bulk
commodity cargo such as oil, grains, and ore where passing the ship’s
rail is important. However, it is also commonly used in shipping con-
tainer loads of other goods. The key document in FOB transactions is
the «On Board Bill of Lading.» Sellers and buyers often confuse the
Free On Board term with Free Carrier. Free On Board (FOB) does not
mean loading the goods onto a truck at the seller’s place of business.
Free On Board is used only in reference to delivering the goods past a
ship’s rail in ocean or inland waterway transport. FreeCarrier, on the
other hand, is applicable to all modes of transport.

5. Cost and Freight ... [Named Port of Destination] (CFR)

In Cost and Freight, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the
goods for export and is responsible for delivering the goods past the
ship’s rail at the port of shipment (not destination).
The seller is also responsible for paying for the costs associated
with transport of the goods to the named port of destination. However,
once the goods pass the ship’s rail at the port of shipment, the buyer
assumes responsibility for risk of loss or damage as well as any addi-
tional transport costs.
The Cost and Freight term is used only for ocean or inland water-
way transport.
The «named port of destination» in Cost and Freight and all «C»
terms is domestic to the buyer. Normal payment terms for Cost and
Freight transactions include cash in advance, open account, and letters
of credit.
The Cost and Freight term is commonly used in the sale of over-
size and overweight cargo that will not fit into an ocean freight con-
tainer or exceeds weight limitations of such containers. The term is
also used for LCL (less than container load) cargo and for the ship-
ment of goods by rail in boxcars to the ocean carrier.

6. Cost, Insurance, Freight ... [Named Port of Destination]

(CIF)
In Cost, Insurance and Freight, the seller/exporter/manufacturer
clears the goods for export and is responsible for delivering the goods
past the ship’s rail at the port of shipment (not destination).
307
 The seller is responsible for paying for the costs associated with
transport of the goods to the named port of destination. However,
once the goods pass the ship’s rail at the port of shipment, the buyer
assumes responsibility for risk of loss or damage as well as any addi-
tional transport costs.
The seller is also responsible for procuring and paying for marine
insurance in the buyer’s name for the shipment. The Cost and Freight
term is used only for ocean or inland waterway transport.
The «named port of destination» in Cost and Freight and all «C»
terms is domestic to the buyer. Normal payment terms for Cost and
Freight transactions include cash in advance, open account, and letters
of credit.

7. Carriage Paid to ... [Named Place of Destination] (CPT)

In Carriage Paid To, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the
goods for export, delivers them to the carrier, and is responsible for
paying for carriage to the named place of destination. However, once
the seller delivers the goods to the carrier, the buyer becomes respon-
sible for all additional costs.
In Incoterms 2000 the seller is also responsible for the costs of
unloading, customs clearance, duties, and other costs if such costs are
included in the cost of carriage such as in small package courier delivery.
The seller is not responsible for procuring and paying for insurance
cover. The CPT term is valid for any form of transport including mul-
timodal The «named place of destination» in CPT and all «C» terms is
domestic to the buyer, but is not necessarily the final delivery point.
The Carriage Paid To term is often used in sales where the ship-
ment is by air freight, containerized ocean freight, courier shipments
of small parcels, and in «ro-ro» (roll-on, roll-off) shipments of motor
vehicles. A «carrier» can be a shipping line, airline, trucking firm,
railway or also an individual or firm who undertakes to procure car-
riage by any of the above methods of transport including multimodal.
Therefore, a person, such as a freight forwarder, can act as a «carrier»
under this term. If subsequent carriers are used for the carriage to the
agreed destination, the risk passes when the goods have been deliv-
ered to the first carrier.

8. Carriage and Insurance Paid to ... [Named Place of

Destination] (CIP)
In Carriage and Insurance Paid To, the seller/exporter clears the
goods for export, delivers them to the carrier, and is responsible for
paying for carriage and insurance to the named place of destination.
308
However, once the goods are delivered to the carrier, the buyer is re-
sponsible for all additional costs.
In Incoterms 2000 the seller is also responsible for the costs of
unloading, customs clearance, duties, and other costs if such costs are
included in the cost of carriage such as in small package courier deliv-
ery. The seller is responsible for procuring and paying for insurance
cover. The CIP term is valid for any form of transport including mul-
timodal The «named place of destination» in CIP and all «C» terms is
domestic to the buyer, but is not necessarily the final delivery point.
The Carriage and Insurance Paid To term is often used in sales
where the shipment is by air freight, containerized ocean freight, cou-
rier shipments of small parcels, and in «ro-ro» (roll-on, roll-off) ship-
ments of motor vehicles.
A «carrier» can be a shipping line, airline, trucking firm, railway
or also an individual or firm who undertakes to procure carriage by
any of the above methods of transport including multimodal.
Therefore, a person, such as a freight forwarder, can act as a «car-
rier» under this term. If subsequent carriers are used for the carriage to
the agreed destination, the risk passes when the goods have been de-
livered to the first carrier.

9. Delivered at Frontier ... [Named Place] (DAF)

In Delivered At Frontier, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears
the goods for export and is responsible for making them available to
the buyer at the named point and place at the frontier, not unloaded,
and not cleared for import.
In the DAF term, naming the precise point, place, and time of
availability at the frontier is very important as the buyer must make
arrangements to unload and secure the goods in a timely manner.
Frontier can mean any frontier including the frontier of export. The
DAF term is valid for any mode of shipment, so long as the final
shipment to the named place at the frontier is by land. The seller is not
responsible for procuring and paying for insurance cover.

10. Delivered Ex Ship ... [Named Port of Destination] (DES)

In Delivered Ex Ship, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the goods
for export and is responsible for making them available to the buyer on
board the ship at the named port of destination, not cleared for import.
The seller is thus responsible for all costs of getting the goods to
the named port of destination prior to unloading.
The DES term is used only for shipments of goods by ocean or in-
land waterway or by multimodal transport where the final delivery is
309
made on a vessel at the named port of destination. All forms of pay-
ment are used in DES transactions.

11. Delivered Ex Quay ... [Named Port of Destination] (DEQ)

In Delivered Ex Quay, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the
goods for export and is responsible for making them available to the
buyer on the quay (wharf) at the named port of destination, not
cleared for import.
The buyer, therefore, assumes all responsibilities for import clearance,
duties, and other costs upon import as well as transport to the final desti-
nation. This is new for Incoterms 2000. The DES term is used only for
shipments of goods arriving at the port of destination by ocean or by in-
land waterway. All forms of payment are used in DEQ transactions.

12. Delivered Duty Unpaid ... [Named Place of Destination]

(DDU)
In Delivered Duty Unpaid, the seller/exporter/manufacturer
clears the goods for export and is responsible for making them
available to the buyer at the named place of destination, not cleared
for import.
The seller, therefore, assumes all responsibilities for delivering the
goods to the named place of destination, but the buyer assumes all re-
sponsibility for import clearance, duties, administrative costs, and any
other costs upon import as well as transport to the final destination.
The DDU term can be used for any mode of transport. However, if
the seller and buyer desire that delivery should take place on board a
sea vessel or on a quay (wharf), the DES or DEQ terms are recom-
mended. All forms of payment are used in DDU transactions. The
DDU term is used when the named place of destination (point of de-
livery) is other than the seaport or airport.

13. Delivered Duty Paid ... [Named Place of Destination]

(DDP)
In Delivered Duty Paid, the seller/exporter/manufacturer clears the
goods for export and is responsible for making them available to the
buyer at the named place of destination, cleared for import, but not
unloaded from the transport vehicle. The seller, therefore, assumes all
responsibilities for delivering the goods to the named place of desti-
nation, including all responsibility for import clearance, duties, and
other costs payable upon import.
The DDP term can be used for any mode of transport. All forms of
payment are used in DDP transactions. The DDP term is used when
310
the named place of destination (point of delivery) is other than the
seaport or airport.
Other Trade Terms
Incoterms are not the only trade terms in use in the world. In the
US, for example, some firms still use the outdated Revised American
Foreign Trade Definitions. Also, some industries have developed spe-
cialized trade terms to deal with issues specific to their commodity
and industry (e.g., steel, grain). In other cases antiquated trade terms
have survived for hundreds of years in regional trade.
Finally, some firms use supplimental terms in combination with
Incoterms. This is an incorrect use of Incoterms and can present many
problems for both the buyer and seller. For example, a contract may
stipulate that Incoterms are to be used. However, there is no provision
in Incoterms for use of supplimental terms. Also, many firms use sup-
plimental terms that are in direct conflict with the formal definition of
the Incoterm used.
One example of an incorrect use of a supplimental term added to
an Incoterm is «FOB our warehouse.» The contradiction is that FOB
can only be used for ocean or inland waterway shipments of goods.
We strongly suggest conformity with the formal definitions and use of
Incoterms 2000.
Other trade terms that are in common use as abbreviated versions
of lengthier contract provisions include:
Additional Services
Commonly used with Incoterm FOB port of shipment or DAF place,
this term indicates that the seller will contract for carriage of the goods on
usual terms and at the buyer’s risk and expense. The seller might agree to
this term when «liner service» is available from the seller’s country or
when the mode of transport will result in physical delivery of the goods
after they cross the border of the buyer’s country.
Cleared for Export
This term requires that the seller clear the goods for export when
the goods are made available to the buyer before reaching the border.
It is often used with Incoterm EXW or FAS.
Cleared for Import
If the buyer takes delivery before the goods reach customs, this
term will nevertheless obligate the seller to clear the goods for import.
It is often used with Incoterm DDU.
311
 Duty Unpaid
Sometimes used with Incoterm DEQ, this term obligates the seller
to pay the costs of discharge exclusive of duties imposed.
Duty Unpaid Not Cleared for Import
This is the short-hand version for requiring the seller to pay the
costs of discharge exclusive of duties and the costs of import clear-
ance. It can be used with Incoterm DEQ.
Ex Dock or Ex Quay
Pursuant to this term, the buyer takes title to the goods only after
they are unloaded on the dock designated by the buyer.
Ex Factory
Similar to Ex Works, this term changes the passage of risk slightly
to require the buyer to take title to the goods after they leave the ven-
dor’s dock.
Fob Vessel
For transport by sea, this term makes the seller responsible for all
transportation costs to the vessel that the buyer designates and for
costs of loading the goods onto the vessel. Risk of loss transfers to the
buyer when the goods have been loaded. FCA is used for the same
purpose and is not limited to a particular mode of transport.
FOR (Free on Rail)
If transport is by rail, the parties may make the seller responsible
for all transportation costs to the train that the buyer designates and
for costs of loading the goods onto the train. Risk of loss transfers to
the buyer when the goods are aboard. Many sellers use Incoterm FCA,
which is used for the same purpose and which is not limited to a par-
ticular mode of transport.
FOT (Free on Truck)
A similar term to FOR, but FOT is used for truck transports. Many
sellers use Incoterm FCA, which is used for the same purpose and
which is not limited to a particular mode of transport.
Freight Collect
By this term, the buyer is responsible for the payment of freight
charges at the time the goods are delivered to the buyer, and risk of
loss remains with the seller until that time.
312
 Freight Prepaid
This term means that the sales price quoted includes the costs of
shipping to a named destination.
Freight Prepaid and Charged
Use of this term indicates that the sales price quoted includes the
costs of shipping to a named destination, and the costs are charged by
adding them to the invoice furnished to the buyer.
Reloaded on Carrying Vehicle
If goods must be reloaded onto the carrier providing transport after
the place of delivery, this term will require the seller to arrange and
pay for reloading. It is often used with Incoterm DDP.
Stowed and Trimmed
Frequently used with Incoterm FOB, this term obligates the seller
to load the goods on board the ship in the port of shipment. If you do
not know the custom of the port where the goods are delivered and
transferred to the buyer, you should specify which party will be re-
sponsible for payment of the loading costs and which will bear the
risk of loss or damage. Thus, your contract term could expressly re-
quire «FOB stowed, costs and risks in connection with loading on the
seller.»
Unloaded From Arriving Vehicle
Pursuant to this term, the seller is responsible for unloading the
goods at the place of delivery. It is most often added to Incoterm
DDP.
Vat Paid
This is a short-hand term requiring the seller to pay the value
added tax charged on importation of the goods. It is often used with
Incoterm DDW.
Vat Unpaid
Often used with Incoterm DEQ, this term shifts the obligation to
pay value added tax on importation of the goods from the seller to the
buyer.

313
UKRAINIAN-ENGLISH
DICTIONARY OF BUSINESS TERMS

Ä
аваль aval
аванс advance
авансовий звіт advanced report
авансовий податок withholding tax
авансом in advance
авантюра wildcat
авантюрний wildcat
аварійний запас emergency stock
авізо advice, aviso, note
авізо (письмове note
повідомлення банку)
авіста (напис на векселі) on presentation
автокореляція autocorrelation
автоматизація виробництва automation of production
автоматизація обліку automation of accounting
автоматична лінія automatic transfer line
авторське право copyright, right of authorship
авуари holdings
агент agent
агентська винагорода agency fee , broker’s fee
агентська угода agency agreement, business agreement
адаптаційне керівництво adaptation (al) management
адаптація adaptation
адаптивна модель adaptive model
адаптивна система adaptive system
адаптивне керівництво adaptive management
адвокат lawyer, jurist
адміністративна administrative responsibility,
відповідальність management responsibility
адміністративна юрисдикція administrative jurisdiction
адміністративне право administrative law
адміністративне регулювання administrative control,
administrative regulation
адміністративний штат management staff
адміністративні повноваження administrative authority
адміністративно- administrative economic expenses
господарські витрати
314
адміністрація management
ажіо agio, exchange premium
ажіотаж rush
ажур up to date
аквізитор acquirer
акламація acclamation
акордна плата piece payment
акредитив letter of credit
акредитивна форма розрахунків payment by L/C
акредитування opening a letter of credit
акт statement
активи assets
активна частина основних фондів active basic assets
активний платіжний баланс active balance of payment, positive
balance of payment
активний ринок active market
активний торговий баланс active balance of trade, positive
balance of trade
актуальність relevancy
акумуляція accumulation
акцепт accept, acceptance
акцептивний банк acceptance bank
акцептна форма розрахунків payment by acceptance
акцептувати to accept
акциз excise (duty)
акцизний збір excise duty (tax)
акцизний податок excise tax
акції комунального підприємства utility stock
акції першого випуску original shares
акції-двійники twin shares
акціонер shareholder, stockholder
акціонерне підприємство equity joint venture
акціонерне товариство joint stock company
акціонерний капітал capital stock (am.), joint share
capital, joint stock capital, share capital
акціонерні цінні папери equity securities
акція share, stock
акція адміністратора qualifying share
акція на пред’явника bearer stock
алгоритмічна мова algorithmic language
алонж allonge
альпарі at par
альтернат alternate
альтернатива alternative
амортизаційний період depreciation period
амортизаційний фонд depreciation fund
амортизаційні відрахування depreciation charges
315
амортизація amortisation, depreciation, wear and tear
амортизація основних фондів capital fund amortization
аналіз analysis
аналіз господарської діяльності operating business analysis
аналіз збуту sale analysis
аналіз коливання variance analysis
аналіз маркетингових витрат marketing costs analysis
аналіз плану маркетингу marketing plan analysis
аналіз попиту demand analysis
аналіз попиту і пропозиції supply and demand analysis
аналіз ринку market analysis
аналіз споживача consumer analysis
аналіз фінансових коефіцієнтів ratio analysis
аналітик систем system analyst
андерайтер underwriter
андерайтинг underwriting
анкета form, questionnaire
анкетування questioning
аномальна похибка anomalous error
аномальні (прибутки, збитки, по- abnormal (gains, losses, error)
милка)
антидемпінгове мито antidumping duty
антиінфляційні заходи anti inflationary measures
антиконкурентна практика anticompetitive practice
антиципація anticipation
анульований void
анулювання (закону, проекту, по- abolishment
станови)
анулювати to abolish, to cancel, to quash, x-out
апарат управління managerial staff
апеляція appeal
апріорі apriori ( a priori )
апріорність apriority
арбітр arbiter, arbitrator, judge
арбітраж arbitrage, arbitration
арбітражер arbitrageur
асигнувати (гроші) to earmark
асигнувати суму to vote a sum
асортимент assortment, range
асортимент продукції range of products
асортиментні зрушення assortment shifts
асоціативне опитування спожива- associative audit
ча
асоціативне програмування associative programming
асоціація підприємств association of businessmen, association
of employers, association of entrepre-
neurs

316
асоційована особа associated person
аудит audit
аудована фінансова звітність audited financial statement
аудитор auditor
аудиторська вибірка audit sampling
аудиторська фірма auditor’s firm
аудиторський і ревізійний комітет audit and exam committee
аукціон auction, public sale
аукціонний торг auction tenders
аукціонні товари auction goods
аутрайт outright

Å
багатогалузевий diversified
багатоканальна система збуту multichannel market system, mul-
tichannel sale system
бажана кількість quantity demanded
бажаний попит desired demand
бажання will
бажання (в економіці) wants
база basis
база даних data base
база контракту contract base, contract basis
база порівняння comparison base
базис і надбудова basis and superstructure
базисна величина base value
базова ціна base price
баланс банку bank statement
баланс використання balance of labour time usage
робочого часу
баланс доходів і видатків balance of income and expenditure
баланс капітальних вкладень balance of capital investment
баланс матеріальних ресурсів balance of material resources
баланс народного господарства intersectoral balance
баланс національної економіки national economy balance
баланс основних фондів fixed assets balance
баланс трудових ресурсів balance of labour resources
баланс часу balance of time
баланс; сальдо balance
балансова вартість book cost, carrying amount
балансова вартість (фірми) book value
балансова вартість не ліквідних book value of fixed assets
активів
балансова комісія balance commission
балансова оцінка імені фірми goodwill
балансовий метод balance method

317
балансовий рахунок balance account
балансові статті on- balance- sheet- items
банк bank
банк даних data bank
банк довгострокових вкладень long-time investment bank
банк комерційних даних commercial
банк моделей model bank
банк-емітент issuing bank
банківська асоціація bank association
банківська ліквідність bank liquidity
банківська статистика banking statistics
банківський вексель bank bill
банківський депозит bank deposit
банківський кліринг bank clearing
банківський кредит bank credit
банківський кредитний білет note
банківський переказ bank remittance, bank transfer
банківські операції bank operations
банківські резерви bank reserves
банкір banker
банкнота note
Банкноти, забезпечені золотом gold backed notes
банкнотний обіг banknote circulation
банкрут bankrupt, insolvent
банкрутство business failure, failure, insolvency
бартер barter
бартерна торгівля barter trade
бартерна угода barter agreement, barter contract
без гарантів xw
без гарантій without warrant
без дивіденду XD
без імені sine nominee, s.n.
без оплати without charge
без оплати різниці without margin
без прав xr
без прав і привілеїв ex-all
без привілеїв without privileges, xpr
безакцептні платежі non-acceptance payments
безвідсоткова позика з погашен- crown loan
ням на вимогу
безгосподарність mismanagement
безготівковий депозит non-cash deposit
безготівковий розрахунок by transfer, non-cash transaction
безгрошовий і безгрошевий non-cash
бездіяльний weak
безземельний landless
безкоштовний free (of charge), voluntary
318
безкоштовно; вільний; франко free
безлімітне постачання unlimited supply
безмитна торгівля duty-free trade
безмитний ввіз duty free import
безпека safety
безперервна випадкова величина continuous random value
безперевний виробничий процес continuous flow process
безпечний safe
безповоротний irrevocable
безпосередній direct
безпроцентний bearing no interest, interest-free,
yielding no interest
безробітний jobless
безробіття unemployment
безспірний undisputable
безстрокове зобов’язання sight liability, unequal exchange
безстроковий вклад demand deposit, deposit at call, sight
deposit
безумовний unconditional
безумовний вексель sight bill
безумовно-позитивна думка(ауд.) unqualified opinion
бейбі-бонд (терм.) baby bond
бик (терм.) bull
бірка label
бід bid
бізнес business
біржа праці employment exchange,
labour exchange
біржа цінних паперів securities exchange
біржова одиниця exchange unit
біржова операція exchange deal
біржова паніка exchange panic
біржова спекуляція exchange speculation
біржова торгівля exchange trade, open trade
біржова ціна exchange price
біржова яма exchange pit
біржове котирування exchange quotation, market quotation
біржове скуповування акцій при accumulation
зниженні курсу
біржовий брокер exchange broker
біржовий бум stock market boom
біржовий бюлетень exchange bulletin
біржовий день exchange day
біржовий контракт exchange contract
біржовий курс market rate, rate of exchange
біржовий листок quotation list
біржовий оборот exchange turnover, stock turnover

319
біржовий прибуток exchange profit
біржовий ринок акцій equity market
біржові заборони exchange ban, exchange prohibition
біржові операції exchange business
біржові товари exchange goods
благополуччя welfare, well-being
бланк замовлення order form
бланк на вклад у банк deposit slip
бланковий вексель blank bill
бланковий кредит blank credit
блок unit
блокована валюта blocked currency
бона bona
бонд bond
бонус bonus
бонусні знижки bonus discount
борг debt
борг з переглянутими умовами renegotiated debt
борги arrears
боргова розписка note
боргове зобов’язання debt obligation, liability
борговий інструмент debt instrument
боргові цінні папери debt securities
боржник debtor
боржник з оренди (квартирної rent-over
плати)
брак spoilage, waste, defect
брак (нестача) lack, shortage
брати to take
брати дешево to undercharge
брати під контроль активи при to seize assets
банкрутстві
брокер broker
будівництво building, construction, civil engineer-
ing
бухгалтер accountant
бухгалтерська оцінка accounting estimate
бухгалтерська проводка entry
бухгалтерський баланс accounting balance sheet
бухгалтерський облік accounting, book — keeping
бюджет budget
бюджетне планування budget planning
бюджетне фінансування budget financing
бюджетний дефіцит budget deficit
бюджетний ефект імпорту budget efficiency of import
бюджетний контроль budget control
320
бюджетний резерв budget reserve
бюрократизм red-tape

B
в активі on the credit side
в останній момент just-in-time
в’ялий weak
в’ялий ринок flat market
важливість materiality
вакансія vacancy
вакантний vacant
валова продукція gross production
валовий gross
валовий внутрішній продукт Gross Domestic Product, GDP
валовий дохід gross income
валовий національний борг Gross National Debt, GND
валовий національний продукт Gross National Product, GNP
валовий оборот промислового industrial enterprise gross turnover
підприємства
валовий прибуток gross profit
валові витрати gross expenses
вальвація valuation
валюта currency
валюта платежу currency of payment
валюта позики loan proceeds
валютна виручка currency receipts
валютна дисконтна політика monetary discount policy
валютна зона currency zone
валютна інтервенція currency intervention
валютна криза currency crisis
валютна монополія currency monopoly, foreign exchange
monopoly
валютна окупність currency payback, currency recoup-
ment, currency self-repayment
валютна операція currency transaction, exchange trans-
action
валютна позиція currency position
валютна політика currency policy, monetary foreign ex-
change policy
валютна система currency system
валютна спекуляція currency speculation
валютна угода monetary agreement
валютне застереження currency clause
валютне обмеження exchange restriction
валютне регулювання exchange regulation
валютний арбітраж arbitrage in exchange

321
валютний демпінг currency dumping
валютний кліринг currency clearing
валютний контроль currency control, exchange control
валютний кошик currency basket
валютний курс currency rate
валютний курс на звітну дату closing currency rate
валютний паритет parity of currency, parity of exchange
валютний рахунок exchange account
валютний резерв foreign exchange reserve, monetary re-
serves
валютний ризик currency risk, exchange risk
валютний ринок currency market, exchange market
валютний фонд currency fund, monetary fund
валютні операції bargain currency
валютні резерви exchange reserves, foreign currency re-
serves
вантажооборот freight turnover
вантажопідйомність load-carrying capacity
варант warrant
варіант variant
варіантний прогноз variant prediction
варіаційний ряд variational series
варіація variation
вартий чогось worthwhile
вартісний показник value indicator
вартість cost, value, worth
вартість експорту value of exports
вартість імпорту value of imports
вартість незакінченого виробництва value of work in progress
вартість позики loan value
вартість робочої сили cost of labour, cost of manpower, value
of manpower/labour
ваучер voucher
вважати to judge, to consider
ввід input
ввід вивід input-output
ввізне мито entrance duty, entrance tax, import
duty, import tax
ведення господарської діяльності operating activities
ведмідь (терм.) bear
векселедавець drawer of a bill, maker of a promissory
note, promisor
векселедержатель noteholder, holder of a bill, promise
вексель bill
вексель на пред’явника sight bill
вексельний бланк draft form, draft slip
вексельний кредит paper credit

322
вексельний портфель bill holdings, portfolio of bills
велика кількість bulk
великі розміри bulk
величина quantity, volume, bulk
венчурна операція venture transaction
венчурне підприємство venture enterprise
венчурне фінансування venture financing
вердикт verdict
вертикальна інтеграція vertical integration
вертикальна концентрація vertical concentration
верф yard
вести бухгалтерські книги to keep books, to keep accounts
вести господарство to keep house
вето veto
вживання application, usage, use, utilization
вживати to employ, to apply, to use
взаємні розрахунки mutual settlements
взаємовідносини relationship
взірцевий порядок apple-pie order
взяти на поруки to bail out
вибір маркетингових засобів choice of marketing tools
вибір цільових сегментів ринку choice of purposeful market segments
вибір часу timing
вибірка sample
вибіркова дипресія sample variance
вибірковий метод sample method
вибуття disposal
вивести з ладу put out of action
вивіз і доставка pickup and delivery, PD
вивіз капіталу export of capital
вивізне мито export duty
вивільнення оборотних коштів releasing of circulating assets
вивірка (бух.) reconciliation
вивірка акціонерного капіталу reconciliation of net worth
вивірка облікових даних reconcilement
вивчення мотивів попиту спожи- consumer motive study
вачів
вивчення попиту consumption forecast
вигідна ціна bargain price
вигідність utility
вигода gain
виготовлений done
вид kind
вид позики loan type
видавати (пайок) to ration
видатки виробництва manufacturing costs
видатки на інкасування recovery charges
323
видатки на продаж selling expenses
видатковий касовий ордер expenditure cash order, expenditure
cash voucher
видаток charge, disbursement, estimation
видимі торгові операції visible trade
визнання recognition
визначати to estimate
визначена заздалегідь ціна акцій exercise price
визначеність clarity, definiteness
визначення definition, determination, estimation
визначити to determine
визначити суму to assess
викликане споживання induced consumption
виключаючи (без) X
виконавець doer, executor
виконавча влада executive power
виконавчий орган executive agency, executive body
виконання роботи job performance
використати кредит to employ credit
викривати to disclose
викривлення misstatement
викриття detection, disclosure
викуп redemption
викуп акцій компанії leveraged buyout, LBO
викупити to buy out
викупна ціна sinking price
вилучати заощадження to withdraw savings
вилучення recession, withdrawal
вимагання грошей shakedown
вимір measurement
вимірювання measurement
вимога demand
вимушений forced
винагорода consideration, premium, reward, remu-
neration
винагорода аукціоністу lot money
винуватець party-in-fault, responsible party
виняткова реалізація exclusive marketing, exclusive realiza-
tion
випадковий chance, random
випадковість contingency, randomness
виписати (чек) to write
виписка abstract, extract
виписка з документа abstract of title
виписувати to write out
виплата pay-off
виплата (грошей) disbursement
324
виплата на акції yield on shares
виплачувати борг to pay off a debt, to redeem, to repay a
debt to discharge a debt
виправданий justifiable
виправдовувати to justify
виправлення adjustment, reclamation
випускати to emit, to issue
випущений капітал issued capital
вирахування calculation, estimation
вираховувати to compute, to estimate
виріб article, item, product, unit, workpiece
вирівнювання leveling
вирішальна година zero hour
вирішальний день Z-day
виробник producer
виробництво production, yielding
виробнича одиниця production unit
виробнича потужність production capacity
виробнича програма production programme
виробниче замовлення production order
виробниче об’єднання production amalgamation, production
association
виробниче споживання productive consumption
виробничий брак reject, spoilage
виробничий запас productive stock
виробничий персонал production personnel, production staff
виробничий потенціал production potential
виробничий процес production process
виробничий стаж length of service
виробничі витрати productive expenditure
виробничі затрати manufacturing expenses
виробничі резерви production reserves
вирок judgement
виручка receipts, take, yield
витікання outflow
виторг cash proceeds, proceeds
витрати expenditure, losses, outlays
витрати виробництва production costs
витрати зберігання expenses of storage, storage costs
витрати і доходи costs and revenues
витрати майбутніх періодів deferred expenses
витрати майбутнього періоду expenditures carried forward
витрати маркетингу marketing costs, marketing expenses
витрати на вибуття (звільнення cost of disposal
від чогось)
витрати на дослідження і розробки research and development costs
витрати на запозичення borrowing costs
325
витрати на збут selling costs
витрати на одиницю продукції unit cost
витрати на операцію transaction
витрати на придбання cost of acquisition, cost of purchase
витрати на продаж sales charges, sales expenses
витрати обігу costs of circulation, expenses of circu-
lation
витяг abstract
вихід зі становища way out
вихід продукції yield
вихідна допомога discharge allowance
вихідна сировина feedstock, primary raw materials
вихідний outgoing
вичікувальна політика wait-and-see policy
виявлення detection, disclosure
виявляти to disclose
відбір selection
відвантажена продукція shipped production
відвернені кошти diverted funds
віддача return
відкликати замовлення to withdraw an order
відклична премія call premium
відклична ціна call price
відкрита позиція open position
відкрита система open system
відкритий open-end (ed)
відкритий контракт open-end contract
відкритий митний склад open customs warehouse
відкритий рахунок open account
відкритий сектор ринку open market sector
відкриття disclosure
відкуп farming of revenues
відкуповуватися to buy off
відмивання незаконних коштів laundering of illegal funds
відмінити x-out
відмінна ознака earmark
відмова від акцепту refusal of acceptance
відмовити у платежі to deny payment
відмова waiver
відновлення renewal, renovation
відновлення основних фондів reproduction of capital assets, repro-
duction of capital funds
відновлювати перервану роботу to weight anchor
відновна вартість replacement cost
відновна вартість основних фондів reproduction cost of capital funds
відносини relations
відносна помилка relative error
326
відносний показник relative index
відносні величини relative values
відношення ціни акції до доходів price earnings
компанії
відомчість departmentalism
відплатний reimbursable
відплив outflow
відповідальність responsibility
відповідати умовам to quality
відповідність appropriateness, parity
відповідно pro rata
відпочинок leave
відправник (грошового переказу) remitter
відпрацьований час work time
відпустка leave, vacation
відрахування deduction
відрахувати to deduct
відробіток за землю rent-service
відрядна система оплати праці piece-rate pay (payment) system
відсоткова/процентна ставка call rate
відсотковий дохід за облігаціями yield of bonds
відсоток per cent (= interest)
відсоток безробітних rate of unemployment
відставати to lag
відстаючі показники lagging indicators
відстрочена оплата deferred payment
відстрочені податки deferred taxes
відсутній absentee
відсутність lack
відсутність попиту lack of demand
відсутність рівноваги imbalance
відтворення reproduction
відтік капіталів/капіталу capital outflow
відтягненні кошти diverted assets
відхилення deviation
відхилити пропозицію to vote down a proposal
відходи виробництва wastes
відчайдушні зусилля violent efforts
відшкодування reimbursement
відшкодування втрат indemnity
відшкодування збитків compensation for losses, reimburse-
ment of losses
війна цін price war
вікна (комп’ютерна програма) windows
вільна економічна зона free economic zone
вільна торгова зона free trade zone
вільне місце vacancy
327
вільний vacant, void
вільний час leisure time
вільноконвертована валюта hard currency
вірний safe
вірогідність інформації authenticity of information
вітчизняні акції national shares / stocks
віце- vice
вклад input
вклад до запитання call deposit
вклад підприємця employer contribution
вклад працівників employee contribution
вкладення investment
вкладник depositor, saver
власний капітал equity
власник owner, proprietor
власник грошового капіталу rentier
власник землі landowner
власник опції покупця call buyer
власність ownership, possession
властивий ризик inherent risk
внаслідок on account of
внесення paying-in
внесок готівкою cash deposit
внутрішнє середовище internal environment
внутрішній interior
внутрішній грошовий ринок discount market
внутрішній ринок domestic market
внутрішньовиробнича ціна internal production cost
внутрішньовиробничі резерви interproduction reserves
внутрішня вартість експортного internal cost of export commodity
товару
внутрішня торгівля domestic trade
воля will
ворент (варант) на акції share warrant
вотум vote
впровадження putting into practice
впровадження товару introduction of goods, introduction of
products, promotion of goods, promo-
tion of products
враховувати to take into account
врегулювання adjustment
врегулювання цін price adjustment
врожайність yield
врожайність на акр yield per acre
врятування майна salvage
всезнайко know-all
всеохопна основа comprehensive basis
328
всесвітній worldwide
встановлення цін price fixing, price setting
встановлення ціни (банк) volume pricing
вторинні джерела інформації secondary sources of information
вторинні ресурси secondary resources
втрата вартості wear and tear
втрати (збитки) від позик loan losses
втрати виробництва manufacturing losses
вхід-вихід input-output
вхідний incoming
вчасність timeliness

É
галопуюча інфляція galloping inflation
галузева економіка branch economy, sectoral economy
галузева структура народного sectoral structure of national
господарства economy
галузева тарифна угода sectoral tariff agreement
галузеві органи управління branch administration bodies,
sectoral administration bodies
галузеві резерви branch reserves
галузь branch, sector
гарант warrantor
гарантійний вексель guaranteed bill
гарантійний запас security stock
гарантійний капітал guarantee capital, security capital
гарантійний контракт guarantee contract, warranty contract
гарантійний кредит guarantee credit
гарантійний строк guarantee-(covered) period,
warranty period
гарантія guarantee, warranty
гарантія зайнятості job security
гарантована оплата праці guaranteed payment of labour,
guaranteed remuneration of labour
гармонічна середня harmonic (al) average, harmonic mean
гарячі гроші hot money
гектар hectare
генеральна дисперсія general variance
генеральна застава capital mortgage
генеральна ліцензія bloc licence
генеральна сукупність population
генеральна тарифна угода general tariff agreement
генеральний general
генеральний договір general contract
генеральний підрядник main contractor, general contractor,
prime contractor

329
генеральний поліс open policy, O.P
генеральний проектувальник general designer
гіперінфляція hyperinflation
гіпотеза hypothesis
гіпотеза раціональних сподівань rational expectations hypothesis
гірший inferior
глибина прогнозування depth of prediction
глибина товарної номенклатури depth of commodity classification,
depth of commodity nomenclature
глобальний контракт global contract
глобальний контроль global control
гнучкі системи flexible system
гнучкість elasticity, flexibility
година пік rush hours
голова principal, head
головна книга ledger
головна контора headquarters
головний general, chief, maine, principle
головний бухгалтер accountant-general, Accountant-
General, A.G.
головний офіс headquarters
голос vote
голосування vote
гонорар fee
горизонт прогнозування forecasting time-frame
горизонтальна диверсифікація horizontal diversification
горизонтальна концентрація horizontal concentration
горизонтальна система збуту horizontal system of sales
господар principal
господарська асоціація economic association
господарська кон’юнктура business conditions, economic con-
juncture
господарська самостійність economic independence
господарське товариство business partnership, economic part-
nership
господарський economical
господарський договір economic agreement
господарський механізм economic mechanism
господарський спосіб будівництва economic construction method
господарські перевезення economic transportation
господарсько-правовий механізм economic-legal mechanism
господарювання economic management
госпрозрахункова калькуляція self-accounting calculation
госпрозрахунковий cost-accounting, self-supporting
госпрозрахунковий дохід self-accounting income
госпрозрахунок self-support
готівка cash, effective money, ready money

330
готівка в касі cash on hand
готівкові гроші hard cash
готівкою in cash
готова продукція finished product, ready-made product
готовий щось робити willing
готувати to qualify, to prepare
гранична вартість marginal cost
граничний дохід marginal revenue
граничний рівень limiting level, limiting standard, mar-
ginal level, marginal standard
грати на підвищення to sell a bull
грати на пониження to sell a bear
гросбух ledger
гроші money
грошова маса money supply
грошова одиниця unit of currency
грошове нарахування money charge
грошовий акредитив cash letter of credit
грошовий знак currency note
грошовий обіг cash turnover, money circulation,
money turnover
грошовий потік cash flow
грошовий ринок money market
грошовий чек cheque
грошовий чек (ам.) check
грошові витрати cash outflow
грошові еквіваленти cash equivalents
грошові нагромадження money accumulation
грошові надходження cash inflow, receipts
грошові платежі cash payment
грошові прибутки cash proceeds
грошово-кредитне регулювання monetary-credit control, monetary-
credit regulation
група work team (group)
група людей knot
груповий індекс general index, group index
групові group totals
підсумки гудвіл goodwill
гуртовий банк wholesale bank
гуртовий вклад wholesale deposit
гучність volume

Ñ
Давати звіт (у чомусь) to give an account (of smth.)
давати роботу to employ
дані data

331
дар donation
дарувати to donate
дата закінчення expiration date
дата погашення боргу date of maturity
дата початку дії угоди effective date
дата проводки entry date
дата реєстрації recording date
дата розрахунку settlement date
дата укладення договору trade date
двадцять доларів XX
двовалютний рахунок «ностро" dual currency account
двостороння угода two-way deal
дебентура debenture
дебет debit
дебет-нота debit note
дебетове сальдо debtor balance
дебіторська заборгованість bad debts, debt receivable, receivables
дебіторська заборгованість sales outstanding
за продаж
дебіторське сальдо balance due
девальвація devaluation
девізна політика foreign exchange policy
дегресивні затрати degressive expenses
декларант declarant
декларація declaration
декларування товарів declaring of goods
декодування decoding
делегування повноважень delegation of authority, transfer of
authority, transfer of power
делегування прав delegation of rights, transfer of rights
демаркетинг demarketing
демографічна сегментація demographic segmentation
демографічна статистика demographic statistics
демографічний вибух population explosion
демографічний прогноз demographic forecast
демографія demography
демонетизація demonetarization
демпінг dumping
денаціоналізація denationalization
деномінація denomination
денонсування denunciation
день отримання платні payday
день повідомлення notice day
день розрахунків day of reckoning
департамент; підрозділ department
депозит cash deposit, deposit
депозитарій; довірена особа depositary
332
депозитарій; склад depository
депозитний банк deposit bank
депозитний сертифікат certificate of deposit
депозитні валютні операції deposit currency operations
депозитор depositor, deposit-taker
депонований вексель collateral bill
депонування deposition
депонування цінних паперів safe custody account
депорт deport
депреміювання deprivation of premium
депресія decline, depression
дерево цілей (терм.) aims tree
дерегламентація deregulation
держава power, state
державна інспекція public inspection
державна монополія government monopoly, state monopoly
державна позика government loan, state loan
державне замовлення state order
державне підприємство state enterprise, state-(owned) enterprise
державне регулювання цін state price adjustment
державний банк state bank
державний борг national debt, state debt
державний бюджет state budget
державний кредит government credit, public credit
держати to keep
десятидоларова банкнота X
деталізувати to work out in detail
дефініція definition
дефіцитний in short supply
дефіцитність ресурсів resources deficit, resources lack
дефлювання deflation
дефлятор deflator
децентралізована маркетингова decentralised marketing programme
програма
децентралізований облік decentralised accounting
децентралізований обмін decentralised exchange
де-юре de jure
джайбатсу Zaibatcu conglomerates
джерело source
джерело виплати source of payment
джерело фінансування source of finance
джобер jobber
диверсифікація виробництва diversification of production
дивіденд dividend
дизайн design
дилер dealer
дилерська знижка dealer discount
333
динамічна модель dynamic model
динамічні ряди dynamic series
директивно-розпізнавальна сис- directive-distribution system of man-
тема управління agement
директор школи warden, principal
дирекція management
дискаунтер discounter
дисконт discount
дисконтна політика discount policy
дисконтний дім discount house
дисконтування discounting
дисконтування витрат costs discounting
дискримінація discriminating
дискусійний open to question
диспач dispatch
депресійний аналіз variance analysis
депресія variance
диспетчеризація dispatching
диспонент disponent
диспропорція disproportion, lack of balance
дистриб’ютор distributor
дитяча облігація baby bond
диференціал differential
диференціальне мито differential duty, differential tariff, dis-
criminating duty, discriminating tariff
диференціальні витрати differential costs, differential expenses
диференціація доходів profit differentiation
диференціація заробітної плати wage differentiation
диференціація продукції product differentiation
диференційований маркетинг differentiated marketing
диференціювання differentiating
диференціювання цін price differentiation
діаграма порівняння comparison chart, comparison diagram
діапазон range
дієвість effectiveness
дійсний valid
дійсність угоди validity of an agreement
ділова активність business activity
ділова етика business ethics
ділова ініціатива business initiative
ділове питання matter of business
ділове співробітництво business co-operation
діловий цикл business cycle
діловодство office work
ділянка piece
діставати to obtain
діставати зі сховища to withdraw from vault
334
діючий valid
дія, яка виправдана, дозволена justifiable action
добре обізнаний knowledgeable
добробут prosperity, well-being
добровільне банкрутство voluntary bankruptcy
добровільний voluntary
добувати гроші to raise money
довговічність durability
довгострокова non-current, long-term
довгострокова дебіторська забор- long-term receivables
гованість
довгострокова програма long-term marketing programme
маркетингу
довгостроковий кредит long-term credit
довготермінова позика long borrowings, long-term loan
довготерміновий прогноз long-range forecast, long-term forecast
довгочасний durable, long-term
довідник handbook
довіра confidence
довіра споживача consumer confidence
довірена особа trustee
довіреність letter of attorney, power of attorney,
proxy, warrant
довірча ймовірність confidence probability
довірчий confidential
довірчі межі confidence bounds
довірчий інтервал confidence interval
догляд keeping
договір treaty
договір «витрати-плюс» cost-plus contract
договір на купівлю purchase agreement
договір про заснування товарист- memorandum of partnership (com-
ва (компанії) pany)
договір; контракт agreement
договірна ціна agreed price, contract price
додана вартість added value
додаткова вартість surplus value
додаткова праця surplus labour
додатковий extra
додаткові виплати contingency payments
додержання observance
додержувати пристойності to keep up appearances
додержуватися to keep
дозвіл allowance, permission
дозволений justifiable
докладно описувати to write up
335
документ, який надає право на land title
власність землі
документ про видачу з вкладу withdrawal slip
домашнє господарство household
домінуюче становище на ринку dominant market situation, prevailing
market situation
допоміжне виробництво auxiliary department
допоміжний матеріал auxiliary material
допустима межа коливання цін permissible margins of price fluctua-
tion
допустима похибка tolerable error
допустимі витрати allowable costs
доречний relevant
доречність relevancy
досвід experience
дослід investigation, research
дослідження попиту demand research
доставка delivery
доставлена кількість (товару) quantity supplied
достатній fair, sufficient
достатність sufficiency
достовірне й об’єктивне подання true and fair view / presentation
(інформації)
достовірне подання інформації fair presentation
достроковий ahead of schedule, ahead of time, pre-
schedule, prior
доступ до ринку access to market
доступність facility
досягнення achievement
дотація subsidy, subventition
дохід income, revenue, gain, profit, receipts,
return, yield
дохід з продажу (у звіті sales
про доходи)
дохід на інвестиції return on investments
дохід на капітал yield on capital
дохідний lucrative
дохідність earning power
дохідність облігації yield to call
доходи receipts
доходи з акції equity earnings
дочірнє підприємство subsidiary (enterprise0
дріб’язковий педантизм hair-splitting
дрібносерійне виробництво short-run production, short-scale pro-
duction
другорядний minor, secondary
думка аудитора auditor’s opinion
дутий вексель kite
336
 Ö
Еквівалент parity
еквівалентність equivalence
екологічне нормування ecological standardization
економетрія econometrics
економити to save, to scrape
економіка (господарство) economy
економіка (наука) economics
економіка Д. М. Кейнса Keynesian economics
економіко-математичні методи economic and mathematic methods
економіко-математичні моделі economic and mathematic models
економіко-статистична модель economic-statistical model
економічна діяльність economic activity
економічна інтеграція economic integration
економічна інформація economic information
економічна категорія economic category
економічна кібернетика economic cybernetics
економічна кон’юнктура economic conjuncture, economic
situation, economic trends
економічна криза economic crisis
економічна підготовка виробництва economic preproduction
економічна політика economic policy
економічна статистика economic statistics
економічне змагання economic competition
економічне мислення economic thinking
економічне районування economic division into regions
економічне регулювання economic regulation
економічне стимулювання economic encouragement, economic
stimulation
економічний волюнтаризм economic voluntarism
економічний генотип economic genotype
економічний експеримент economic experiment
економічний ефект economic effect
економічний застій economic stagnation
економічний оптимум economic optimum
економічний показник economic coefficient
економічний потенціал economic potential
економічний простір economic area
економічний стандарт economic standard
економічний тренінг economic training
економічний цикл economic cycle
економічні вигоди economic benefits
економічні закономірності economic regularities
економічні методи управління economic methods of control
економічні потреби economic needs
економічні ресурси economic resources

337
економічні санкції economic sanctions
економічні умови economic conditions
екс-дивіденд XD
експеримент experiment
експерт judge, expert
експертиза examination, examining operation, ex-
pertise
експертна оцінка expert estimate, expert estimation
експорт export
експортна вартість товару export cost of commodity
експортна квота export quota
експортна премія export bonus, export bounty
експортна скидка export rebate
експортна субсидія export subsidy
експортне замовлення export order
експортний контроль export control
експортний кредит export credit
експортний лізинг export leasing
експортні дотації export grants, export subsidies
екстенсивність праці labour extensiveness
еластичний попит elastic demand
еластичність elasticity
еластичність попиту elasticity of demand
еластичність цін попиту price elasticity
електроємність electrical capacity
електронна монетарна система electronic monetary system
електронна пошта electronic mail (E-mail)
елемент (стат.) unit
елемент вибірки sampling unit
елімінування elimination
ембарго embargo
еміграція emigration
емісійний дохід share premium
емісія (випуск банкнот, цінних emission, issue
паперів і паперових грошей)
емісія грошей emission of currency, emission of
money, issue of money
емісія цінних паперів issue of securities
емітент emitter
емітування emitting
емітувати (цінні папери) to emit
емфітевзис emphyteusis
енергетична криза power crisis
енергоємність power intensity
енергозабезпечення power supply
енергозберігаюча технологія power saving technology
енергоносії power carriers
338
енергооснащеність power availability
ентузіазм zeal
етика праці work ethics
етикетка label
ефект споживання consumption effect
ефективна ставка процента effective interest rate
ефективність efficiency
ефективність виробництва production efficiency
ефективність праці efficiency of labour
ефективність процесу process efficiency
ефективність хеджування hedge effectiveness

Є
євровалюти eurocurrencies
євродолари eurodollars
єврокредити eurocredits
єврооблігації eurobonds
Європейська валютна система European Currency System, European
Monetary system
Європейське Співтовариство European Community
Європейський фонд розвитку European Development Fund
євроринок euromarket
євроринок капіталів eurocapital market
єврочеки eurocheques
єдиний платіжний документ uniform payment document
єдиний показник конкурентосп- single index of competitiveness
роможності
єдиний рахунок (усіх операцій ба- running account
нку з клієнтом)
єдині оптові ціни uniform wholesale prices
Ü
жертвувати to donate
жива праця direct labour, living labour
живі оборотні активи living current assets
жирант endorser
жират endorsee
жирирувати to endorse
жиро endorsement
жирочек girocheque
жиробанк endorsement bank
жиророзрахунки endorsement accounts
жироцентралі endorsement centrals
жирочеки endorsement cheques
життєвий рівень населення living standard of population
життєвий цикл підприємства enterprise life cycle

339
життєвий цикл продукту product life cycle
життєдіяльність vital activity
журі judges
журнал book, register
жюрі jury

á
за бажанням on request, O/R
за взаємною згодою by mutual agreement
за готівку for cash- F.C.
за довіреністю by attorney
за і проти pro and con
за фактичну вартість at cost
забезпечені золотом gold backed
забезпечення боргу debt security
забезпечення житлом housing
забезпечення праці job security
заборгованість backlog, indebtedness
заборгованість (заробітної плати) arrears, wages payable
заборгованість клієнтів trade receivables
заборгованість по основному бор- fixed debt liability
гу
заборгованість по процентах interest debt
заборона veto
заборонний тариф prohibitive tariff
завантаження loading
завдаток caution money, down payment, earnest
money
завзятий zealous
завірити (нотаріально) to notarize
загадка X
загальна вага (брутто) total weight
загальна вартість майна total assets
загальна ефективність капіталь- total efficiency of investment
них вкладень
загальна рентабельність general profitability, total profitability
загальна скидка simple discount, simple reduction
загальна сума principal
загальне охоплення (страх.) universal coverage
загальний general, universal
загальний дохід total revenue
загальний рахунок joint account
загальні вимоги розкриття general disclosures
інформації
загальні витрати total expenses
загальні збори general meeting

340
заголовок title
заготівельна ціна procurement price, purchase price
заготовчий контингент expenditure contingent, expenditure
quotaprocurement contingent,
procurement quota
задавати темп to pace
задовільний fair
задоволений попит satisfied demand
задоволення satisfaction
задоволення зустрічних замовлень satisfaction of counter-orders
задоволення потреб satisfaction of needs
заздалегідь apriori (a priori), in anticipation
зазнати to know
зайнятість employment
закінчення (строку) expiration
заклад establishment, office
закон law
закон вартості law of value
закон великих чисел law of large numbers
закон грошового обігу law of money circulation
закон економії economy law
закон ефекту law of effect
закон попиту і пропозиції law supply and demand
закон поступового спадання law of gradual diminishing demand
попиту
закон спадаючої граничної law of diminishing marginal utility
корисності
закон спадаючої дохідності law of diminishing returns
закон управління management law
закони проти лихварства usury law
законний valid, legal
законодавство jurisprudence, legislation
закреслити x-out
закривати рахунки to close accounts
закрита корпорація closed corporation
закритий ринок closed market
закриті знижки closed discounts
закриті торги auction by tender, closed tenders, ne-
gotiated bidding
закритого типу close-ended
закриття бюджетних кредитів closing of budget credits
закриття підприємств (власника- lock-out
ми і звільнення робітників)
закриття рахунків у банках closing of bank accounts
закупівельна ціна purchasing price
закуповувати to buy in
залежний попит dependent demand
341
залежність dependence
залишений без відповіді (лист) unacknowledged
залишки arrears
залишкова вартість residual cost
залишкова вартість depleted costs of capital funds
основних фондів
залишковий прибуток balance profit
залишок матеріальних цінностей residue cost of material values
залишок процентів balance of interest
залік settle-net
залік (суми) set-off
залучені кошти borrowed finances
залучити кредит to raise credit, funds
заміна replacement
замінники substitutes
замітка note
заміщення replacement
замовлена норма ordered norm, ordered standard
замовлення bid, business on offer, order
замовлення на покупку purchase order
замовляти to order
замовник customer, principal
замороження заробітної плати wage freeze
заморожування цін price freezing
заохочення encouragement, incentive, reward
заощадження saving, savings
заощаджувати to save
запал zeal
запас reserve, stock
запаси inventories
запасні частини repair parts, spare parts
заперечний negative
запечатано і доставлено sealed and delivered
запис record, recording
записка note
записувати to record, to write down
запит inquiry
запитальник questionnaire
заплутане становище knot
заплутаний knotted
заповіт will
запровадження implementation, introduction
запропонувати вигідніші умови to outbid
зарахування entering (in), offset
зарахування зустрічної вимоги offset of counter claim, offset of coun-
ter demand
заробітна плата salary, wages

342
заробіток earnings, earnings gain
заробляти to earn
засіб мати вплив leverage
засмічена вибірка erroneous sample
засновник founder
засновницький прибуток founder profit
засоби assets, funds, means
засоби виробництва means of production
засоби до існування капіталу capital maintenance
засоби обслуговування facilities
застава pledge, pawn, mortgaging
застава (майно боржника) collateral
заставна mortgage
заставне зобов’язання mortgage liability, mortgage obligation
заставне право mortgage law, mortgage right
заставні операції mortgage operations
застарівання obsolescence
застаріле обладнання obsolescent equipment
застарілий obsolete
застарілість obsolescence
заступник vice
затвердження approval, confirmation
затверджувати to confirm
затоварювання overstocking
затрати costs, input
затрати праці input-output
затрати-випуск delay
затримка delay in delivery
затримка доставки defence reservation, protection clause
захисне застереження prevention, protection
захист share protection against forgery
захист акцій від підробки tax shelter
захист від податків security of investment
захист капіталовкладень property right protection
захист прав власності protection of consumer’s rights
захист прав споживача notice, statement
заява application for participation in tenders
заявка на участь у торгах preservation
збереження праці labour saving
зберігання keeping
зберігання цінностей (банком) safekeeping
зберігати to store, to keep
зберігати (гроші) to save
зберігати в безпечному місці safe keeping
зберігачі цінностей vault custodians
збивати ціну to undercut
збирання даних accumulation
343
збирач податків збитки tax collector
збитковість losses
збиток від знецінення unprofitability
збільшувати готівку impairment loss
збільшувати капітал to raise capital
збір take
збут sales
збутова мережа marketing network, sales» network
збутова політика marketing policy, sales» policy
зв’язані сторони related parties
зв’язок coherence
звичайна акція equity
звичайна діяльність ordinary activities
звільнений (від податку, мита) exempt
звільнений від орендної (квартир- rent-free
ної) плати
звільнений від податку tax exempt, TE
звільнення release
звільнення від зобов’язань waiver
звільнення від оподаткування tax exemption
звільнення від сплати боргів debt relief
звільнення від чогось disposal
звірка даних (облікових записів) reconcilement
зірка рахунків reconcilement
звіт report
звіт про неплатежі за позиками delinquency report
звіт про прибутки та збитки income statement
звіт про рух грошових коштів cash flow statement
звітна валюта reporting currency
звітна дата reporting date
звітна калькуляція accounting calculation
звітний період accounting period, reporting period
звітний сегмент reportable segment
звітність accountability
звітність на нетто-основі reporting on a net basis
зворотний зв’язок feedback, response
звукозапис recording
згідно (з) pursuant (to), according to
згоджуватися to agree
згоджуватися з ким-небудь to agree with
згоджуватися з чим-небудь to agree to
згоджуватися на що-небудь to agree on
здавати в найми to hire
здатність ability
здатність виконати зобов’язання ability to meet payments
за платежами
здатність сплатити борги ability to pay debts
344
здвоєний double
здешевлення reduction in price
здирство usury
здібність capacity
здійсненний ywrought
здійснення performance
здійснення продажу sales performance
здійснювати to realize, to carry out, to implement
здійснювати остаточний to close accounts
розрахунок
здобувати to obtain
земельна рента ground rent, land rent
земельний податок land tax
землевласник land holder
землеволодіння land tenure, landholding, landowner-
ship
землекористування land use
землероб tiller
злиття (поглинання підприємств, takeover
установ)
злиття (об’єднання фірм) merger
зловживання службовим стано- abuse of authority (power)
вищем
злодійство theft, stealing, pilferage
зменшення recession
зменшувати to abate
зміна shift, turn
зміна короткострокових XCL
зобов’язань
зміни фінансового стану changes in financial position
змінна величина variable quantity
змінна процентна ставка variable rate
змінна собівартість variable cost
змінна ціна sliding price
змінний variable
змінні активи variable assets
змінні затрати, витрати variable expenses, costs
змінюватися обернено про- to vary inversely
порційно
змінюватися прямо пропорційно to vary directly
змова між учасниками аукціону не knock-out
накидати цін
знаки обслуговування service marks
знати to know
значення meaning
значна кількість fair quantities, a great amount
знецінення depreciation

345
знецінення основних фондів capital fund depreciation
зниження ax (e)
зниження заробітної плати wage cut
зниження податків tax reduction
зниження цін price cutting
знижка allowance
знижка на недовагу weight draft
знижувати to abate
знижувати (ціни) to knock down
знизити ціну to undercharge
знімати to take down
зношені готівкові гроші worn currency
зношеність degree of wear
зношення depreciation
зношування wear
зняти гроші з вкладу to withdraw deposit
зобов’язання obligation, pledge, undertaking
зобов’язання перед постачальни- trade liabilities
ком та підрядником
зображувальна діаграма representation diagram
зовнішнє підтвердження external confirmation
зовнішній аудит external audit
зовнішній аудитор external auditor
зовнішній борг external debt
зовнішньоторгова ціна external (trade) price
зовнішньоторговельна реклама foreign trade advertising
зовнішньоторговельний товаро- foreign trade turnover
оборот
зовнішня заборгованість foreign debt
зовнішня позика foreign loan
зовнішня торгівля external trade
золоте забезпечення gold security
золотий запас gold holdings, gold reserve, gold stock
золотий стандарт gold standard
зона zone
зона вільного підприємства free business zone, free enterprise
zone
зона підприємських ризиків zone of business risk
зона переваги zone of preference
зона спільного підприємства joint venture zone
зональний тариф zone tariff
зрада (партнера) XX
зразковий exemplary
зроблений done
зрозумілий coherent
зрошення землі land irrigation
зустрічна закупівля counter purchase
346
зустрічна торгівля balance trade, bilateral trade, counter-
trade
зустрічне планування маркетингу counter (marketing) planning
зустрічний позов counter action, counter-claim

ß
ігнорувати to ignore
ігрек Y
ідеальний товар ideal goods
ідентифікатор користувача user ID
ідентифікація identification
ідентифікація активів identification of assets and liabilities
і зобов’язань
ідентифіковані активи identifiable assets
ідентичний identical
ідентичність identity
ікс X
іменна акція inscribed stock/share, registered
іменна облігація registered bond, registered debenture
іменний чек cheque payable to a named person
імідж image
імітаційна модель imitation model
імітація imitation
іммобілізація коштів у запасах immobilization of facilities in stock,
immobilization of funds in stock
іммобілізація обігових коштів immobilization of circulating assets,
immobilization of current assets
імовірність contingencies
імпорт import
імпортна вартість товару import cost of commodity
імпортна квота import quota
імпортний лізинг import leasing
імпортована інфляція imported inflation
інваріантність invariance
інвентаризація stock-taking
інвестиції, які утримують held-to-maturity investments
до погашення
інвестиційна політика investment policy
інвестиційна стратегія investment strategy
інвестиційне майно investment property
інвестиційний фонд unit trust
інвестиційні банки bond houses, investment banks
інвестиційні ресурси investment resources
інвестиція з великим одноразовим lumpsum investment
платежем
інвестор investor

347
індекс
індекс біржової кон’юнктури
індекс Доу Джонс
індекс постійного складу
індекс цін на споживчі товари
індексація
індексація заробітної плати
індексне застереження
індексний метод
індивідуальне виробництво
індивідуальне майно
індивідуальний індекс
індивідуальний капітал
індикативний список
інжиніринг
інжинірингова послуга
інкасація
інкасація (боргів)
інкасоване доручення
інноваційний банк
інноваційний бізнес
інноваційний процес
інновація
іноземна валюта
іноземна торгівля
іноземна юридична особа
іноземний контрагент
інспекція
інструкція
інструмент хеджування
інтеграція
інтелектуальна власність
інтелектуальні інвестиції
інтенсивна реалізація
інтенсифікація виробництва
інтенсифікація праці
інтервенційна операція
інфляційна тенденція
інфляційний курс
інфляція
інформаційна безпека
інформаційна інфраструктура
інформаційна продукція
інформаційна реклама
348
index
exchange condition index, exchange
situation index
Dow Jones index
fixed composition index
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
indexation
wages indexation
index reservation
index method
single-piece production
individual assets, individual property
individual index
individual capital
indicative list
engineering
engineering service
encashment
collection
collection order
innovation bank
innovation business
innovation process
innovation
foreign currency
foreign trade
foreign legal entity
foreign partner (counterpart)
inspection
instruction
hedging instrument
integration
intellectual property
intellectual investments
intensive marketing, intensive realiza-
tion
intensification of production
intensification of labour, intensity of
labour
intervention operation
inflation tendency
inflation course
inflation
information security
information infrastructure
information output, information products
information advertising
інформаційна система information system
інформаційна система управління management information system, MIS
інформаційна технологія information know-how, information
technology
інформаційне обмеження information restrictions
інформаційне обслуговування information service
інформаційний комплекс informational complex
інформаційний маркетинг information-(al) marketing
інформаційний потік information flow
інформаційний простір information area
інформаційний ринок information-(al) market
інформаційний центр information center
інформація, одержана приватно tip
(бірж.)
інфраструктура infrastructure
інші доходи gains
іпотечна позика hypothecary loan
іпотечний банк hypothecary bank
іпотечний кредит hypothecary credit
іпотечні облігації hypothecary bonds
істотні умови договору essential contract terms
істотність materiality

ä
каверинг (викуп проданих цінних covering
паперів)
кадровий потенціал staff potential
казначейська акція treasury stock, T-stock
казначейський білет legal tender note, treasurer note
казначейський вексель treasurer bill
калькулювати to calculate
камбізм cambism
камбіст cambist
канал нульового рівня zero level channel
канал розповсюдження channel of distribution, channel of
merchandising
канал розподілу channel of division
канали товаропросування sales» promotion channels
капітал capital, principal, worth
капітал (акціонерний, пайовий) shareholders» equity, shareholders»
interests
капітал з процентами principal and interest
капіталізувати to capitalize
капіталовіддача capital productivity
капіталовкладення capital investment
капіталомісткість capital intensity

349
капітальне майно capital property
капітальний дохід / збиток capital gain / loss
капітальний ремонт extensive repairs, heavy repairs
капітальні збитки capital loss
карна відповідальність criminal liability
карне право criminal law
картель cartel
картельна угода cartel agreement
картельна ціна cartel price
каса взаємодопомоги mutual aid fund
касаційна скарга cassation
касова книга cash book
категорична відмова flat refusal
квадратична функція видатків quadratic cost function, QCF
квазі- quasi
квазібанківський quasi-banking
квазігроші quasi-money
квазіматеріальне забезпечення quasi-tangible collateral
позики
кваліфікаційна іноземна інвестиція qualified foreign investment
кваліфікація qualification
кваліфікована більшість qualified majority
кваліфікований qualified
кваліфікувати to qualify
кварта quart
квартал quarter
квартальний фінансовий звіт quarterly financial statement
квартальні доходи quarterly earnings
квитанція на вантаж warehouse receipt, W/R
кворум quorum
квота quota
квотована ціна quoted price
керівний склад management staff
керівник head, leader, manager, chief
керуючий manager
кількісна визначеність quantitative definiteness
кількісна активізація активів quantitave classification of assets
кількісна скидка numerical discount
кількісна теорія грошей quantity theory of money
кількісне (мінове) відношення ratio of exchange
кількісне обмеження quantitative restriction
кількісний індекс quantitative index
кількість quantity
кількість випущених акцій amount of shares issued
кількість виробів yielding
кількість і якість quantity with quality
кінцева продукція final product
350
кінцевий дивіденд final dividend
кінцевий позичальник final borrower
кінцевий попит final demand
кінцевий результат final result, ultimate result
клавіатура (для комп’ютера) keyboard
клас kind, rating
класифікація витрат на виробни- classification of manufacturing ex-
цтво penses
класифікація капіталовкладень classification of capital investments
класифікація оборотного капіталу classification of current capital
класифікація основних фондів classification of fixed capital funds
класифікація систем оплати праці classification of wages systems
класифікувати to classify
клаузула (умова в договорі, законі, clause
статуті)
клаузула договору clause of a contract
клеймо earmark
клієнт client
клієнтура clients
кліринг (система безготівкових clearing
розрахунків)
клірингова угода clearing agreement
ключова особа key-man
коефіцієнт coefficient, ratio, rate
коефіцієнт «критичної оцінки» quick ratio
коефіцієнт валового прибутку gross profit margin
коефіцієнт вибуття основних фондів coefficient of capital funds retirement
коефіцієнт використання матеріалів coefficient of material usage
коефіцієнт екстенсивного розвитку extensive development rate
коефіцієнт еластичності elasticity ratio
коефіцієнт заборгованості debt ratio
коефіцієнт завантаження оборот- coefficient of working capital utiliza-
них коштів tion
коефіцієнт загальної ефективності general effectiveness ratio
коефіцієнт зносу основних фондів capital fund wear factor, coefficient of
capital fund wear
коефіцієнт інтенсивного розвитку intensive development rate
коефіцієнт ліквідності liquidity ratio
коефіцієнт наростання витрат cost increase ratio, expenditures in-
crease ratio
коефіцієнт окупності власного return of equity
капіталу
коефіцієнт оновлення основних coefficient of capital fund renewal
фондів
коефіцієнт пайової участі share participation ratio
коефіцієнт порівнювальної ефек- comparative effectiveness ratio
тивності
коефіцієнт поточного капіталу working capital ratio

351
коефіцієнт придатності основних coefficient of capital fund application
фондів
коефіцієнт приросту основних coefficient of capital fund gain
фондів
коефіцієнт рентабельності net profit ratio
колегіальний collegial, joint
коливання цін fluctuation of prices, price fluctuation
коливний обмінний курс variable exchange rate
колізійна норма conflict rule
колізійне право conflict law
колізія collision
комерсант businessman
комерційна послуга business service, commercial service
комерційне короткотермінове commercial paper
зобов’язання
комерційний акт commercial act
комерційний банк commercial bank
комерційний вексель commercial bill, trade bill
комерційний графік commercial schedule
комерційний кредит commercial credit
комерційний прибуток commercial profit
комерційний ризик commercial risk
комівояжер commercial traveller
комісійна винагорода agent’s commission, broker’s
commission, commission charge
комісійна операція commission operation
комісійна послуга commission service
комісійний вексель encashment bill
комісіонер commission agent
комітент committent, principal
комітет з міжнародних стандартів International Accounting Standards
бухгалтерського обліку Committee (IASC)
компенсаційна операція buyback, compensation transaction,
compensatory transaction
компенсаційна позика back to back loan, compensatory loan
компенсаційна угода buyback agreement, compensation
agreement, compensatory agreement
компенсаційне мито compensation duty
компенсаційний акредитив back to back letter of credit
компенсаційний кредит compensation credit
компенсаційний лізинг compensation leasing
компенсація compensation, consideration, indem-
nity, offsetting, pay-off
компенсація в процесі реалізації disposal consideration
компетентність competence, competency
комплекс маркетингу marketing complex
комплектна поставка complete delivery
кон’юктура conjuncture

352
кон’юктура світового world market conditions
кон’юктура товарного ринку commodity market conditions
конверсійна валютна операція conversion currency transaction
конверсійний маркетинг conversion marketing
конверсія conversion
конверсія валюти conversion of currency, switching of
currency
конверсія позики conversion of loan
конвертована валюта convertible currency
конвертований кліринг convertible clearing
конвертованість валюти currency convertibility
конвертування converting
конверційна ставка convention rate
конгломерат conglomerate
конгломерати японських підпри- Zaibatcu conglomerates
ємств однієї родини
конкретна праця concrete labour
конкретний продукт concrete product
конкурент competitor, rival
конкурентна позиція підприємства competitive position of an enterprise
конкурентне суперництво competitiveness
конкурентний лист competitive list
конкурентоспроможність competitive ability
конкуренція competition
коносамент bill of lading
консалтинг consulting
консалтингова послуга consulting service
консигнант consignor
консигнатор consignee
консигнація consignment
консолідація consolidation
консолідована позика permanent loan
консолідована фінансова звітність consolidated financial statements
консолідований борг permanent debt
консолідований дохід consolidated income
контокорент (єдиний рахунок) drawing account
контракт contract
контракт на будівництво construction contract
контрактант contractant
контрактація contraction
контрибуція contribution
контроль control, verification
контроль за активом control of an asset
контроль якості quality control
контрольна вибірка control sample
контрольний орган supervisory body
контрольний пакет акцій controlling block of shares, controlling
353
 interest of shares, major shareholding
контрольний рівень control level
контрольні цифри control figures
конфіденційний confidential
конфлікт щодо заробітної плати wage dispute
концентрація concentration
концентрична диверсифікація concentric diversification
концепція відповідності доходів та matching concept
витрат
концепція маркетингу concept of marketing
концесія concession
кооперативна власність co-operative property
кооперація праці co-operative of labour
кореспондентський банк corresponding bank
кореспондентський договір correspondent agreement, correspon-
dent contract
кореспондентський рахунок correspondent account
коригування adjustment
корисливий (той, хто здобуває) acquisitive
корисна дія (вплив, результат) useful effect
корисний of avail
корисний досвід worth-while experiment
корисність utility
користувач user
користь gain, avail
короткотермінова позика short-term loan
короткотерміновий кредит short-term credit
короткотерміновий прогноз short-range forecast, short-term fore-
cast
короткотермінові позики short borrowings
короткотривалий nondurable
корпоративна маркетингова corporate marketing system
система
корпоративна мережа corporate network
корпоративні активи corporate assets
корпорація corporation
котирувана акція quoted share
котирування quotation, quote
котирування акцій share quotation, stock quotation
котирування облігацій bond quotation
котирувати to quote
кошти клієнтів funds held for customers
кошторис estimate
кошторис витрат на виробництво estimate of manufacturing expenses
кошторисна вартість cost estimate, estimated cost
кошторисна норма estimate standard
кошторисна оцінка estimate assessment, estimate valuation

354
кошторисна ціна estimate price
кошторисно-фінансові рахунки estimate-financial calculations
крадене theft
крадіжка theft
крапка нульового прибутку break-even point
крах failure
кредит credit, tick
кредит на вимогу call money
кредитна експансія credit expansion, payment credit
кредитна картка credit card
кредитна лінія (провідна) guidance line of credit
кредитна політика credit policy
кредитна система credit system
кредитна угода credit agreement
кредитне регулювання credit control
кредитний білет credit note
кредитний план credit plan
кредитний ризик credit risk
кредитні вкладення provision of credits
кредитні гроші credit money
кредитні послуги loan facilities
кредитні ресурси credit resources
кредитор creditor
кредиторська заборгованість credit indebtedness, payables
кредитоспроможність creditability, solvency
кредитування crediting
кредитування під ім’я name lending
кредитувати to finance
крива доходів (дохідності) yield curve
крива збуту curve of sale
криза crisis
криза перевиробництво overproduction crisis
критерій criterion, yardstick
критерій визнання recognition criterion
критерій сегментації segmentation criterion
критичний шлях critical way
крос-курс cross-way
кругообіг circuit
ксенофобія xenophobia
ксерокопія xerocopy
культура (сільгосп.) yielder
кумулятивна акція cumulative share, cumulative stock
купівельна спроможність грошей purchase capacity of money
купон coupon
купувати to buy
купувати зі знижкою to buy at a discount
курс price, quotation, rate

355
курс акцій share price
курс у межах ... high and low prices
курс цінних паперів security price
курси продавців і покупців (бірж.) bid and asked
курсова втрата exchange loss
курсова різниця difference in rates
курсовий ризик price risk

ã
лаг (показник) освоєння lag in development
лаж premium
ланцюговий індекс chain index
леверидж (=ліверидж) leverage
легкість facility
легко продаватися to sell like hot cakes
легкодоступний easy of appoach
ледве витримати to scrape through
лист зобов’язання engagement letter
лідерство leadership
лідерство в цінах leadership in prices
лізингові послуги leasing services
лізинг leasing
лізингова компанія leasing company
лізингова угода leasing agreement
лізинговий контракт leasing contract
ліквідант liquidator
ліквідат liquidee
ліквідаторство receivership
ліквідаційна вартість liquidation cost, recovery value, resid-
ual value
ліквідаційна вартість активів salvage value of assets
ліквідація abolishment, abolition, liquidation
ліквідація збитків settlement of contract
ліквідація контракту liquidation of contract
ліквідні активи liquid assets
ліквідні кошти means of liquidity
ліквідні цінності liquid values
ліквідність cash position, liquidity
ліквідність підприємства enterprise liquidity
ліквідність ринку market liquidity
ліквідовувати to abolish, to quash
ліквідувати to liquidate
ліміт страхування insurance limit
ліміт фінансування financing limit
ліміт цін price ceiling, price limit
лімітна дисципліна limit discipline
356
лімітний наказ limit order
лімітована чекова книжка limit cheque book
лімітований чек limit cheque
лімітування limitation
лімітування кредитів credit limiting, credit restrictions
лінійні умови berth terms
лісовий склад yard
лісоматеріали timber
лістинг (допуск) admission to stock exchange, dealing,
listing
ЛІФО LIFO
ліцензіар licensor
ліцензіат licensee
ліцензійна винагорода license remuneration
ліцензійна система license system
ліцензійна торгівля license trade
ліцензійна угода license agreement
ліцензійний збір license fee, license payment, royalty
ліцензія license
ліцензування licensing
лічити to count
логістика logistics
локальний ринок local market
локаут lock-out
ломбард Lombard
ломбард pawnshop ()
ломбард hock-shop()
ломбардний квиток pawnshop receipt, pawnshop ticket
лот lot
лотерея lottery
людино-година man-hour
людино-день man-day
людський капітал human capital

å
майбутня продажна ціна net realizable value
майже quasi, near
майже гроші (ліквідне майно) near money
майно property, worth
майнова відповідальність property accountability
майнова забезпеченість property security
майнова самостійність property independence
майнова санкція property sanction
майновий сертифікат property certificate
майновий чек claim of ownership
макроекономіка macroeconomics
357
макроекономічна нестабільність macroeconomic instability
макроекономічна розбалансованість macroeconomic imbalance
макроекономічна стабільність macroeconomic stability
макроекономічний рівень macroeconomic level
макроекономічні фактори macroeconomic factors = macrofactors
макросегментація macrosegmentation
макросередовище macroenvironment
максимальна правдоподібність maximum likelihood
максимальний кредит maximum loan
максимум not exceeding
мале підприємство small entity
малий бізнес small business
малоприбутковість small proitability
малопридатний of little avail
малопродуктивність low productivity
малорентабельність little profitableness, little profitability
малоцінний of little value, of little worth, of low value
малоцінні та швидкозношувані low-unit cost assets
предмети
маржа equity, margin
марка товару brand
маркетинг marketing
маркетингова комунікація marketing communication
маркетингова послуга marketing service
маркетингова ревізія marketing audit
маркетингова система marketing system
маркетингова стратегія marketing strategy
маркетингова структура marketing structure
маркетингове дослідження marketing research
маркетингове середовище marketing mix
маркетинговий посередник marketing mediator
маркова назва brand name
марковий знак brand mark
маркування marking
марнотратство wastefulness
масове виробництво mass production, quantity production
масовий маркетинг mass marketing
масштаб цін measure of price, scale of prices
математична економіка mathematical economics
математична статистика mathematical statistics
математичне моделювання mathematical modeling
математичне програмування mathematical programmig
матеріал material, stuff
матеріалізований materialized
матеріаломісткість material input per unit of production
матеріаломісткість material-output ratio
матеріальна відповідальність material responsibility

358
матеріальна підготовка виробни- material preproduction
цтва
матеріальне виробництво material production
матеріальне заохочення material incentive
матеріальний (капітал, забезпе- tangible
чення, активи)
матеріальні ресурси material resources
матеріальність materiality
матеріально-технічне забезпечен- material and technical supplies
ня
мати на все готову відповідь to know all the answers
матрична модель matrix model
матрична організація matrix organization
машинне виробництво machine production
машинне обладнання machinery
машинний час machine time
межа (обмеження, ліміт) bound, boundary, range, limit
межа текучості yield-point
обмежувати (зумовлювати) to limit
меморандум memorandum
меморандум порозуміння memorandum of understanding
менеджер manager
менеджмент management
меркантилізм mercantilism
мертвий капітал unemployed capital, idle capital
мертвий сезон off (dead) season
мета objective, purpose, aim
метод method
метод «витрати-плюс» cost-plus method
метод «по мірі готовності» percentage-of-completion method
метод відстрочки deferral method
метод зобов’язань liability method
метод зобов’язань стосовно звіту income statement liability method
метод зобов’язань по балансу balance sheet liability method
метод моментних спостережень method of moment observation
метод нарахуваня accrual basis method
метод обліку собівартості cost method
метод планування method of planning, method of scheduling
метод прямого рахунку method of direct counting
метод стимулювання збуту method of services promotion
метод структурного аналізу structural analysis method
метод торгівлі method of trade
метод збуту distribution methods
методи управління management techniques
митна декларація customs declaration
митна політика customs policy
митна територія customs territory
359
митне законодавство customs law
митний контроль customs control
митний ліцензійний склад customs license stock
митний тариф customs tariff, duty rate
митниця customs-house
міжгалузеві виробничі зв’язки interindustry production ties
міжнародна валютна ліквідність international currency liquidity
міжнародна позика international loan
міжнародна торгівля international trade
міжнародне право international law
міжнародний комерційний арбіт- international commercial arbitration
ражний суд
міжнародний лізинг international leasing
міжнародний маркетинг international marketing
міжнародний поділ праці international division of labour
міжнародний стандарт бухгалтер- International Accounting Standard
ського обліку
міжнародні валютні відносини international currency relations
міжнародні платіжні кошти international means of payments
міжнародні резервні активи international reserve assets
міжнародні розрахунки international payments, international
settlements
мікроекономічна модель microeconomical model
мікромаркетинг micromarketing
мікропропорції microproportions
мікросегментація microportionsmicroseg
мінімальна неоподаткована сума zero-bracket amount, ZBA
мінімальна ціна price floor
мінливий variable
мінливість (курсу, інфляції, ринку) volatility
мінова баржа yard
мінова вартість exchange value
міра вартості measure of value
міра споживання measure of consumption
мірило yardstick
міркування consideration, verdict
місткість capacity
місткість ринку absorption of market, capacity of mar-
ket, market capacity
місткість системи класифікації classification system capacity

місце розташування business location

мішана конкуренція mixed competition
мішаний кредит mixed credit
модель model
модель господарського рахунку model of cost-accounting
модель Дюпона Du Pont model
360
модель економіки model of economy
модернізація modernization
модифікація modification
можлива продажна ціна realizable value
можливість contingencies, feasibility
молодший (віком, посадою) junior
монета coin
монетаризм monetarism
монетарна концепція monetary concept
монетна система monetary system
монетний паритет monetary parity
моніторинг monitoring
монополія monopoly
монополія іноземної валюти foreign currency monopoly
моральна відповідальність moral responsibility
моральне зношування moral wear
моральний стимул moral incentive
мотиваційна поведінка motivation behaviour
мотивація motivation
мотивувати to justify
мультивалютне застереження multicurrency clause
муніципальна власність municipal property
муніципальна позика municipal loan
мчатися to rush

ç
на вимогу on demand, on sight
на складі немає out of stock
набуває сили від with effect from
набувати to gain, to acquire
набутий gained
набуття ( активів) acquisition
навантажувально- loading and unloading operations
розвантажувальні роботи
навпаки versus, vice versa
нагадувальна реклама reminding advertising
наглядач warden
нагромадження accrual, accumulation
нагромаджувальний субрахунок accumulative subaccount
надавати to allow
надавати законної сили to validate
надавати кредит to grant credit
надбавка придбання acquisition premium
надбудова superstructure
надвартість supervalue
надзвичайне становище в країні national emergency
361
надзвичайний попит excessive demand
надзвичайні загальні збори (акці- extraordinary general meeting
онерів)
надзвичайно високий прибуток killing
на ринку
надійний safe
надійність reliability, security
надійність інформації reliability of information
надійність поставки delivery security
надійність прогнозу reliability of forecast
надійно оцінений measured reliably
надійшло у продаж on sale, O/S
надлишок excess, surplus
надмірне оподаткування overtaxation
надмірний excessive, redundant, surplus
надмірні запаси excess inventories
надмірність redundancy
надмірно високий (ціна) unreasonable
надмірно прострочена excessive arrears
заборгованість
наднормативний запас excess stock, overstock
наднормативні запаси excessive stores
надприбуток excess profit, superprofit
надпрограмний overscheduled
надсилання виписок mailing of statements
з банківського рахунку
надурочна робота overtime work, overwork
назви нема (без імені, без назви) sine nominee, s.n.
наймана праця hider labour, wage-work
найманий працівник hired worker
наймати to employ, to hire
наймач (бр.) renter
найменша ціна lowest price
найнижча ціна knock-down price
найнижчий курс цінних паперів lowest price (rate) of securities
найновітніші (сучасні, що стоять up-to-date economic methods
на рівні сучасних вимог) економі-
чні методи
наказ order
наказ (клієнта) на здійснення опе- securities order
рації з цінними паперами
наказ про припинення desist order
наказ продавця про оплату sales draft
наказувати to order
накладення арешту і закриття seizure and closure powers
підприємства-банкрута
накладна way-bill
накладні витрати overhead costs, overhead expenses
362
накладні затрати burden costs
накопичення accrual
накреслювати to outline
налагоджувати to organize
належний belonging
налічувати to number
напарник (по роботі) yoke-fellow (-mate)
напівфабрикати semiproducts
напрацювання accrual
напружена робота rush work
напруження tension
напрямна (провідна) лінія кредиту guidance line of credit
напутлива реклама persuasive advertising
нараховані до сплати податки provision for taxes payable
нараховані зобов’язання accrued liabilities
нарахувати to charge
нарахування на заробітну плату charge on wages
народногосподарський лаг national economic lag
наростаючий підсумок progressive total
наряд-замовлення order, warrant
насильство violence
насиченість попиту demand saturation
насичення saturation
насичення ринку saturation of market
наслідки aftermath
наслідок consequence, result
насправді in actual fact
настанова orientation
наступна калькуляція subsequent calculation, supplement
calculation
наступник heir, successor
наступність succession
натуральна грошова плата money wages
натуральне господарство natural economy
натуральний обмін swapping
натуральний податок tax in kind
натуральний показник physical index, physical indicator
наукова організація праці scientific organisation of labour
наукове відкриття scientific discovery
науково-дослідний research
націнка extra charge
націоналізація nationalization
національна валюта national currency
національна валютна система national currency system
національне багатство national wealth
національний банк national bank
національний дохід national income
363
національний режим national treatment
наявний товар spot goods
наявність availability
невисокої якості not upper class
не відставати to keep up with
не підписано not signed
не розгубитися to keep one’s head
не уповноважений unauthorized
не уточнено not specified
небажаний unacceptable
невалютний поліс open policy, O.P
невдача failure
невживаний obsolete
невидима торгівля invisible trade
невизначеність uncertainty
невиконані замовлення backlog
невиконання non-performance
невиконання зобов’язань default
невикористаний vacant, unused
невикуплений unredeemed
невиробнича сфера non-manufacturing sector, non-
manufacturing sphere
невиробниче споживання unproductive consumption
невиробничі витрати non-manufacturing expenses
невиробничі фонди nonproductive assets
невихід на роботу absenteeism
невідома величина X,Y
невідповідність (закону) noncompliance
невідчутні активи intangible assets
неврівноважений unbalanced
невтручання non-interference
негативна думка (ауд.) adverse opinion
негативна реальна відсоткова negative real interest rate
ставка
негативний negative
негативний податок negative income tax
негативний потік готівки negative cash flow
негласні торги secret tenders
недатований undated
недбалість negligence
недиференційований маркетинг nondifferentiated marketing
недійсний invalid, null, null and void, void
невиконання underfulfilment
недодержаний unredeemed
недоїмки arrears, scraps
недолік drawback
недооцінена валюта undervalued currency
364
недооцінювати to underestimate
недопущений до обігу unlisted
недоречний irrelevant
недороблена робота arrears of work
недорозвинений underdeveloped
недосвідчений raw
недоставлений undelivered
недостатня капіталізація undercapitalization
недостача (брак) lack
недосяжний unachievable
недотримання non-observance
неефективний контракт unenforceable contract (agreement)
незабезпечений uncovered
незавершене виробництво incomplete production
незадіяні гроші idle money
незайнятий vacant
незалежно від досвіду apriori ( a priori)
незаперечний undeniable
незбагачена руда raw ore
незбалансований unbalanced
незбалансований бюджет unbalanced budget (prooflio)
(портфель)
нездатний unable
незмінний irrevocable
незнайко Know-nothing
неіндосований unendorsed, unendorsed
неініціативний wanting in initiative
неістотний immaterial
некомерційне підприємство non-commercial enterprise
некомерційний маркетинг non-commercial marketing
неконвертована валюта weak (soft) currency
некотировані цінні папери unlisted securities
некумулятивна акція noncumulate share, noncumulate stock
нелевериджована фірма unleveraged firm
нелегальний контракт unenforceable contract (agreement)
неліквідний illiquid
ненависть до іноземців xenophobia
ненормовані оборотні кошти unfixed current capital
необґрунтований unreasonable
необмежена відповідальність unlimited liability
необмежений unlimited
необоротна валюта inconvertible currency, soft currency
необроблений raw
необроблені дані raw data
необхідний продукт necessary product
неоплачений outstanding, O/S, unpaid, unredeemed
неоплачений продаж sales outstanding

365
неоподатковуваний дохід tax-free income
неоподатковуваний мінімум non-taxable minimum
неофіційна біржа kerb, curb
непевний uncertain
непередбачені втрати unforeseen losses
неплатіж default
неплатоспроможний unable to pay
неплатоспроможний банк failed bank
неплатоспроможність nonsolvency
неповна зайнятість underemployment
неповний лот odd lot
неповноцінний товар substandard goods
неповноцінні гроші bad money
неповоротний (борг, кредит, позика) uncollectible
неповоротний (який не має бути irreversible
скасований)
непогашення у строк delinquency
непомітний капітал goodwill
непорівнювана продукція incomparable product
непорушне довір’я irrevocable trust
непостійний variable
непостійний ринок volatile market
неправдива фінансова інформація false financial information
непридатний unfit
непридатний виконувати роботу unfit for a job
неприйняті умови unacceptable conditions
непродуктивні затрати waste of capital
непряма реклама indirect advertising
непрямий збут indirect sale
непрямий імпорт indirect import
непрямий метод торгівлі indirect method of trade
непрямий міжнародний лізинг indirect international leasing
непрямий податок indirect tax
непрямі затрати indirect expenses
нереалізована продукція salvage
нерегульований попит uncontrolled demand
нерентабельний unprofitable
нерівні платежі uneven payments
нерішуча відмова weak refusal
нерозподілений прибуток retained earnings
нерозподілюваний прибуток non-distributed profit
нерозумний unreasonable
нерухоме майно real estate (assets), realty
несплата у строк delinquency
несплачено вчасно (стаття бух. bad debts
балансу)
несплачений дивіденд unpaid dividend
366
несподівані прибутки windfall profits
несправедливий unfair
несприятливий unfavo(u) rable
неспроможний unable
нестися to rush
нестійка ціна variable price
нестійкий валютний курс unstable currency rate, unstable ex-
change rate, variable exchange
нестійкість imbalance
нетарифне обмеження non-tariff restriction
нетарифний бар’єр non-tariff barrier
неточність misstatement
нетто net
неук know-nothing
неустойка forfeit
нецінова конкуренція nonprice competition
нечесна угода raw deal
нечесний unfair
неявний implicit
неявні витрати implicit costs
нижча якість inferior
низький рівень коефіцієнта low ratio
низьковідсоткові урядові облігації low-yielding government bonds
низькосортний low-grade
ні в якому разі on no account
нікчема zero
нікчемний worthless
нічого не вартий worthless
ніщо zero
нова техніка modern equipment
новація novation
новий товар new goods, novelty goods
ножиці цін gap in prices, price scissors
номенклатура продукції nomenclature of products
номенклатура-цінник nomenclature-price list
номінальна вартість face value, nominal cost, par value
номінальна заробітна плата nominal wages
номінальний капітал nominal capital
норма quota, rate
норма амортизації rate of depreciation
норма амортизаційних відраху- amortization quota, norm of depreca-
вань tion charges, standard of depreciation
charges
норма виробничого запасу reserve standard
норма витрат ресурсів reserves consumption rate
норма нагромадження rate of accumulation
норма прибутку profit rate, rate of return
367
норма споживання consumption rate, consumption standard
норма часу time rate, time standard
норма чисельності number of standard, size standard
нормалізувати to normalize
нормальний ринок normal market
нормальний убуток і знос fair wear and tear
норматив власних оборотних кошті norm of internal current capital, norm
of internal working capital
нормативна калькуляція normative calculation, standard calcu-
lation
нормативна чиста продукція normative net production
нормативний метод обліку norm-based accounting method
нормативний розподіл прибутку standard distribution of profit
нормативно чиста продукція standard net production
нормований час standardized time
нормовані оборотні кошти standardized working capital
нормування rationing
нормувати to ration
ностро nostro
нотаріус notary (public)
нотіс notice
ноу-хау know-how
нуліфікація nullification
нуль zero
нульова сума стратегії zero-sum game
нульова точка zero
нульове економічне зростання zero economic growth
нульовий рахунок numbered account
нумізматика numinismatics

é
об’єднання amalgamation, association, takeover,
union
об’єднання компаній business combination
об’єднувати (гроші, позики, інвес- to pool
тиції та ін.)
об’єкт оподаткування object of taxation
об’єкт управління object of control, object of management
об’єм bulk, capacity, volume
об’ємна діаграма volume chart, volume diagram
обачний prudential
обачність prudence
обґрунтування justification
обґрунтування grounds
обґрунтувати to justify
обдурювання (спільника) XX

368
обдурювати to take in
обережний safe
обернено пропорційно in inverse ratio
обертатися to circulate
обіг return, turn
обіг цінних паперів securities circulation
обіговий капітал current assets, current capital
обкладання податком tax assessment
обкладати збором to levy fee
обладнання equipment, facilities
облігаційна позичка funded loan
облігаціонер bondholder
облігація з нульовим купоном zero-coupon bond
обліго (банківські книги) obligor
облік векселя bill discount
облік витрат на виробництво determination of production cost
облік кредитних операцій credit operations discount
облік національного доходу national income accounts
облікова операція discount transaction
облікова політика accounting policies
облікова ставка discount rate
обліковий прибуток accounting income, accounting profit
обман fraud, racket
обманщик counterfeit
обманювати to defraud
обмежена господарська діяльність limited economic independence
обмежена господарська самостійність restricted economic independence
обмежений qualified
обмежений індосамент qualified endorsement
обмеження qualification, restraint, restriction
обмеження обсягу (ауд., стат.) limitation on scope
обмежувальна ділова практика restrictive business practice
обмежувати to restrict
обов’язків платіж obligatory payment
обов’язок duty, pledge
оборот circulation, return, turnover
оборотний капітал circulating capital
оборотні активи circulating assets
оборотні акції outstanding shares
оборотні документи negotiable documents
оборотні кошти working capital
оборотні фонди circulation funds
обробка processing
обробка даних data processing
обробляти землю to till
обробляти чеки to process cheques (am.checks)
обслідування домашніх господарств household survey
369
обслуговування maintenance, service
обслуговування у зворотному по- FILO, LCFS, LIFO
рядку
обслуговування у порядку надхо- FCFS, FIFO
дження
обслуговуючий персонал operating personnel, service staff
обсяг volume
обсяг виробництва volume of production
обсяг кредиту volume of credit
обсяг праці work load
обсяг продажу sales
обсяг управління management volume
обумовлена ціна negotiated price
обумовлювати to specify
обчислення calculation, computation
обчислювальна техніка computer facilities
обчислювальний центр computing center
обчислювати to calculate
овердрафт overdraft
одержана приватна інформація tip
(бірж.)
одержання receipt, take
одержати платіж to get paid
одержувати to obtain
одержувач receiver, recipient
одержувач(=receiver) payee
одержувач (грошового переказу) remittee
одиниця unit
одиниця вимірювання unit of measurement
одиниця вимірювання продукції unit of output
одиниця обліку unit of account
одинична розцінка per unit price
одиничне виробництво price production, single item production
однакова ціна flat price
одноголосне рішення unanimous decision
одноденні позики day-to-day loans
одноразова допомога lumpsum grant
одноразовий платіж великою су- lumpsum (pay)
мою
одноразові витрати lumpsum expenses
одностайний unanimous
односторонній ринок one-side market, one-way market
ознайомлення acquaintance
ознака feature, sign
окупність recoupment
окупність витрат expenditures payback, expenditures re-
coupment

370
окупність капітальних вкладень capital investment recoupment
олігархія oligarchy
олігополія oligopoly
олігопсонія oligopsony
онкольний кредит on-call credit
онкольний рахунок on-call account
оперативна звітність operative reporting
оперативний аналіз operative analysis
оперативний лізинг operative leasing
оперативний облік попиту operative demand records
оперативний час effective time, operative time
оперативні виробничі запаси just-in-time inventory, LTI
операційний дохід operating income
операційний прибуток operating profit
операційні втрати operating costs
операція bargain, deal
опис обов’язків на роботі job description
опитування inquiry
опитування споживачів consumer survey
опікун guardian, trustee
опікунство guardianship
оплата готівкою payment in cash, P.C.
оплачений paid
оплачений курс paid price
оплачено готівкою paid cash, P.C.
оплачувати to defray
оплачувати низько to underpay
оподаткований дохід taxable income
оподаткований оборот taxable turnover
оподаткований прибуток taxable profit
оподатковуваний дохід taxable income
оподатковуваність taxability
оподатковувати to assess
оподаткування taxation, levy
опрацювання тексту (комп’ют.) word processing
оптимальне планування optimal planning
оптимальне управління optimal management
оптова (гуртова) та роздрібна тор- wholesale and retail trade
гівля
оптова торгівля wholesale trade
оптова ціна wholesale price
оптовий (гуртовий) торговець wholesaler
оптовий магазин wholesale shop
оптовий товарооборот wholesale turnover
оптовий торговець wholesale dealer
оптовий центр wholesale center
оптовик-покупець wholesale merchant
371
опціон call, option
опція (вибір) покупця call option
орати to till
організаційна підготовка вироб- organization preproduction
ництва
організаційна структура organization structure
організаційна форма підприємни- organisational form of business activ-
цької діяльності ity, organisational form of enterprising
activity
організаційне лідерство organisational leadership
організаційне нормування organisational rate setting
організаційне проектування organisational designing
організаційне рекламування organisational regulation
організаційне рішення organisational decision
організаційні методи управління organisational methods of management
організація organisation
організація виробництва organisation of production
організація маркетингу market organisation
організація орендарів leaseholder organisation
організація покупців customer organisation
організація праці organisation of labour
органічна будова виробництва organic structure of production
органічна будова капіталу organic structure of capital
ордер order
ордер на купівлю (цінних паперів) buy order
ордерний чек order cheque
оренда lease, rent
орендар land holder, leaseholder, leaser, lessee,
renter (бр.)
орендна плата rental payment
орендна плата за квартал quarter
орендні відносини rental relations
орендодавець lessor, renter (ам.)
орендувати to hire
скарження protest
основна заробітна плата basic wages
основна ставка позикового prime-rate
процента
основна сума позики principal on loan
основна функція key function
основне виробництво basic production
основний general
основний боржник principal
основний капітал fixed capital
основний порядок обміну benchmark treatment
основний час basic time
основні (ґрунтові) помилки fundamental errors

372
основні засоби property, plant ad equipment
основні затрати basic costs
основні фонди capital goods
основоположний basic
особа, яка виставляє запит на ку- bidder
півлю
особа під опікою ward
особиста відповідальність personal responsibility
особлива знижка extra allowance
особливість peculiarity, special feature
особовий склад personnel
останнє читання final reading
останній внесок late fee, LF
остаточна сегментація final segmentation
отоварювання goods delivery
отоварювати to provide with goods, supply with
goods
ототожнення identification
оферент offerer
оферта offer, quotation
офіційне котирування official quotation
офіційний розрахунковий рахунок official settlement account
офсетна операція offset operation
офшорна зона off-shore zone
офшорний off-shore
охорона keeping, protection, safeguarding
охоронець guardian
оцінка measurement, rating, valuation
оцінка виконання роботи job evaluation
оцінка основних фондів estimation of capital funds
оцінний estimating
оцінювати to judge, to qualify
очікувана похибка expected error
ощадливий economical, thrifty
ощадний банк savings bank
ощадний рахунок savings account

è
падіння recession
падіння курсу fall in exchange
пайова участь share
пайове зобов’язання share commitment
пайок allowance, ratio
паливний баланс fuel balance
пам’ятна записка memo, mem (memorandum)
паперовий сертифікат paper certificate

373
паперові гроші paper money
паперотримач paperholder
парадокс вартості paradox of value
парадокс заощадження paradox of thrift
паралельне повноваження parallel authority
паралельний обіг грошей parallel money turnover
параметр parameter
параметрична калькуляція parametric calculation
парасолька цін (терм.) price umbrella
паритет parity
паритетність цін price parity
партія (цінних паперів) unit
партнер partner
партнерство partnership
пасивний платіжний баланс adverse balance of payment, unfavor-
able balance of payment
пасивний торговий баланс unfavorable trade balance
пасивні рахунки nominal accounts
патент patent
патентна ліцензія patent license
патентна чистота patent purity
патентний захист виробу patent protection of goods
патентно-ліцензійна кон’юнктура patent and licensing conditions
патентно-ліцензійна угода patent and licensing agreement
патентоспроможність patentability
паушальна сума lumpsum
паушальний платіж (зафіксована lumpsum payment
в угоді сума винагороди)
пенсійний план retirement benefit plan
пенсійний план для власного май- keogh plan
бутнього забезпечення
пенсійний фонд pension fund
пеня fine
первинна вартість (майна) historical cost
первинна система інформації primary system of information
первинне нагромадження капіталу primary capital accumulation
первинний дохід primary income
первинний контроль primary control
первинний облік primary accounting
первинні потреби primary needs, primary requirements
первісна вартість основних фондів initial cost of capital funds, original
cost of capital funds, original value of
capital funds
первісний initial, original
перебудова restructuring
перевага щодо розподілу власності preference as to assets
переваги споживача consumer preferences

374
переважне право на активи preference as to assets
перевиконання overfulfilment
перевиробництво overproduction
перевитрати overexpenditure
перевищення повноважень abuse of authority (power)
перевищення попиту buyer’s order
над пропозицією
перевищувати to exceed
перевірка verification
перевіряти to verify
перевтома overwork
переглянути умови torenegotiate terms
передача transfer (ence)
передача права на фірму goodwill
передбачення assumption, foreseeing
передбачувані угоди business on offer
передбачувати to suppose, to foresee
передплата prepayment
передпродажне обслуговування pre-sale service
передумова precondition
пережиток hold-over
переймати to take over
переказний вексель bill of exchange, exchange
переказувати поштою (гроші) to remit
перелічені відрахування itemized deductions
переміщення shift
переміщення службових осіб shake-up
перенесення невикористаних пода- carryforward of unused tax losses
ткових збитків на майбутній період
перенесення невикористаних carryforward of unused tax credit
кредитів на майбутній період
перенесення податкового збитку tax loss carryback
на минулий період
переоцінка основних фондів reestimation of capital funds
перепис (населення) census
перешкода obstruction, obstacle
перепродаж resale
перепустка permanent permit
перерахування allotment
пересилати (товари) to remit
перестановка shift
перетворення дебіторської securitization
заборгованості у цінні папери
перетворювати в капітал to capitalize
перехідний залишок коштів carry out funds
перехідний запас transit stock
перешкода obstruction, obstacle

375
період відстроченої оплати deferred payment terms
період чекання waiting period
перманентність інновацій permanence of innovations
персонал personnel, staff
персонал працівників working personnel
персонал промислових industrial enterprise staff
підприємств
перспективна оцінка projection
перспективне планування long-term planning
перспективні резерви long-range reserves, long-term reserves
першоджерело original source
першокласні цінні папери first-class paper
першочерговий of high priority, urgent
печатка punch, stamp
писати (виписати, надписувати) to write
питання часу question of time
піврічний semi-annual
півтора шилінга kye
півціни half-price
підведення підсумків summarizing, summing-up
підвищена вартість inflated value
підвищений inflated
підвищений попит excess demand, keen demand
підвищення increase, rise
підвищення ціни recovery of price
підвищити to raise
підвищити заробітну плату to raise wages
підвищити ціни to raise prices
підгалузь subindustry
підготовка інформації compilation
підготовка кадрів personnel training, staff training
підкуповувати to buy over
підлеглий subordinate
підозрілий questionable
підпис неуповноваженої особи unauthorized signature
підписка на акції subscription for shares
підписувати to sign
підписувати (ся) to undersign
підпорядкованість subordination
підприємець entrepreneur
підприємництво enterprising, entrepreneurship
підприємницька діяльність enterprising business activity
підприємницьке управління enterprising control
підприємницький entrepreneurial
підприємство enterprise, undertaking
підробка counterfeit
підрозділ division
376
підручник (довідник) manual
підрядник contractor
пісистема забезпечення subsystem of supplies
підсобне виробництво subsidiary production
підсобне господарство subsidiary production unit
підставна особа counterfeit
підсумок sum, total
підтвердження verification
підтвердження про одержання reconciliation statement
підтверджувати to verify
підтверджувати зустріч (час, місце) to confirm an appointment (time, place)
підтримання capital maintenance
підтримувана акція unchanged share (stock)
пізно щось робити to keep late hours
пільга, пільговий період privilege
післяоплата grace period
післяплата paid/pay on delivery
після продажне обслуговування post-sale service
плаваюча процентна ставка floating interest rate
плаваючий валютний курс floating exchange rate
план schedule, plan
планова калькуляція planned calculation
планові нагромадження planned accumulation
планомірний planned
планування planning, scheduling
планування продукції output planning, production planning
планування товаропросування planning of sales promotion
планувати to schedule, to plan
плата за адміністративну роботу management fee
плата за природні ресурси payment for natural resources
плата за трудові ресурси payment for labour resources
плата за фонди payment for funds
платити натурою to pay in kind
платіжна вимога request of payment
платіжна угода payment agreement
платіжне доручення payment order
платіжний баланс balance of payment
платіжний список payroll
платний paid
платник податку tax payer, taxpayer
платоспроможний попит effective demand, solvent demand
платоспроможність paying capacity, solvency
плоска структура flat structure
побічний продукт by-product
повернення частини заробітку (під kickback
тиском)
повертати (гроші) to pay back, to reimbursement
377
повзуча інфляція creeping inflation
повідомлення message, note, notice
повідомлення про відвантаження notice of dispatch, NOD
повідомлення про необхідність notice to pay
здійснити платіж
повідомлення про поставку notice of delivery, notification of delivery
повірений attorney, solicitor
повістка writ
повна відновна вартість основних full reproduction cost of capital funds
фондів
повна конвертованість валюти full currency convertibility
повна первісна вартість основних full acquisition cost of capital funds,
фондів full original cost of capital funds
повна собівартість total cost
повний індосамент endorsement in full
повністю оплачені акції paid-up shares
повноваження authority, power
повноважний представник plenipotentiary
повноцінний попит filled demand
поворотний матеріал returnable material
погано продаватися to sell hard
погашення боргу debt retirement, satisfaction of a debt,
redemption
погіршення aggravation, deterioration
поглинання (компанії) takeover, acquisition
погодження co-ordination, reconciliation
погрішність error
подавати до суду to sue
подавати на розгляд to submit
податкова база активу або зо- tax base of asset or liability
бов’язання
податкова вартість tax value
податкова влада tax authorities
податкова декларація tax declaration
податкова інспекція tax inspection
податкова межа tax frontier
податкова пільга tax privilege
податкова санкція tax sanction
податкова ставка tax rate
податкове застереження tax clause
податковий інспектор tax agent
податковий кодекс tax code
податковий кредит tax credit
податковий орган tax organ
податковий режим tax treatment
податковий стимул tax incentive
податковий тягар tax burden

378
податкові витрати tax expenses
податкові пільги tax benefits
податок tax
податок з обороту sales» tax, turnover tax
податок на додану вартість value-added tax
податок на доходи від приросту capital gains tax
капіталу
податок на предмети розкоші luxury tax
податок на прибуток profit tax, tax on income
податок на спадщину inheritance tax
подвійна банківська система dual banking system
подвійне оподаткування double taxation
подвійний double
поділ праці division of labour
подрібнення (спліт) акцій share split
поєднання combination, joining
пожертва donation
поза офіційним ринком off-board
позабіржовий over- the- counter, OTC
позабіржовий брокер kerb-stone broker, curb broker
позабіржовий прибуток non-exchange profit, curb profit
позабюджетні фонди санкцій extra-budget funds of sanctions
позавиробничі витрати extra production expenses
позаоборотні активи extra circulating assets
позареалізаційні витрати extra realization expenses
позареалізаційні доходи extra realization incomes
позареалізований прибуток non-sales profit
позика advance, loan
позика на складовані товари warehouse loan
позика під заставу loan on pawn
позика під заставу товарів loan on goods
позики та дебіторська заборгова- loans and receivables
ність
позиковий капітал borrowed capital
позиковий процент loan interest
позитивний акцепт positive acceptance
позиціювання товару commodity positioning
позначка рівня benchmark
позов action, claim, suit
позовна давність limitation of actions
позовна заява statement of claim
покарання penalty, punishment
покликання vocation
покриття (боргу) settle-net
покупець buyer
полегшувати to facilitate

379
поліполія (ситуація на ринку, за polopoly
якої кількість великих продавців
обмежена)
поліпшення в економіці upturn in economy
поліс policy
політика ринкових комунікацій policy of market communication
помилка mistake
помилка вимірювання measurement error
понадмірний overlimited
понаднормова робота overwork
понадурочні години overtime
пониження recession
поновлення recovery, restoration
поновлення статей reversal of items
поновлювати to recover, to renovate, to restore
пооб’єктивна уцінка write-down on an item by item basis
попередження tip off
попередні витрати initial expenditure
попередній баланс gross balance
попередня калькуляція preliminary calculation
попередня премія call premium
попередня сегментація preliminary segmentation
попередня умова pre-condition
попечитель trustee
попит demand
попит і пропозиція demand and supply
попит споживача consumer demand
поповнення replenishment
порівнювана продукція comparable product
порівнювати to compare
порівняльна вартість external value
порівняльна ціна comparable price
порівняльні дані comparatives
порівняння comparison
порівняно з versus
портфель (акцій, облігацій, цінних portfolio
паперів, реактивних активів)
портфель замовлень backlog of business, backlog of orders,
order book
портфельні інвестиції portfolio investments
порушення violation
порушення довір’я embezzlement
порушення умов (угоди) violation of covenants
порушувати (закон, домовленість, to violate
дисципліну)
порція ration
порядок обліку accounting treatment

380
посада post
посадова інструкція duty regulation
посадовий оклад post salary
посадові обов’язки job responsibilities
посвідчення verification
посередник go-between, mediator, middleman
посередницька операція mediatory operation
посередницька послуга mediatory service
посередницька фірма firm-mediator
посередньовідрядна система indirect piec-rate wage system
оплати праці
посилкова торгівля mail-order trade
посібник (довідник) manual
послідовний coherent
послідовність coherence, consistency
послуга service
послуга за послугу quid pro quo
поставка supply
постачальник purveyor, supplier
постачання provision, supplies
постійне місцезнаходження permanent location
постійне представництво permanent agency
постійний дозвіл permanent permit
постійний капітал constant capital
постійні витрати fixed charges
постійні затрати constant expenses, fixed expenses
потенційний попит potential demand
потенційний ринок potential market
потова система виробництва flow-(line) production system
поточна звітність current accountability, current ac-
counting
поточне планування current planning
поточний current
поточний запас inventory
поточний рахунок: контокорент current account
(єдиний рахунок)
поточні витрати current costs
поточні інвестиції current investments
поточні пасиви current liabilities
поточні резерви current reserves
потреба demand, need, requirement
потреби wants
потреби споживача consumer needs
потужність capacity, power
похідний дохід derivative income
похідний попит derived demand
похідні інвестиції derivatives

381
почасова оплата праці time wages
початкова ціна initial price
початковий курс opening price
поштовий вклад / депозит mail deposit
поштовий переказ mail payment
поштучна робота piece work
пояс zone
поясний час Zone Time, ZT
права й обов’язки rights and duties
правдиве подання faithful representation
правила і процедури діяльності bylaws
підприємства
правила конкуренції competition rules
правило regulation, rule
правління management
право law, right
право анулювання right of rescission
право вето veto
право власності ownership right, title
право власності на активи title to assets
право голосу voting right
право усувати ability to remove
правова відповідальність legal responsibility
правові зобов’язання legal obligations
правоздатність legal capacity
правознавство jurisprudence
правопорушення breach of a law, infringement
правопорядок law and order
правосуддя justice
працездатність work capacity
праця job, labour, work
пред’явлення sight
пред’явник bearer
пред’явницький чек bearer cheque
предмет object, article, item, thing, subject (те-
ма,дисц.)
предмет договору subject matter of the contract
предмет прогнозування subject of forecasting
предмет розкоші luxury
предмет споживання article of consumption, item of con-
sumption
представник representative
представництво representation
представництво підприємства enterprise agency, enterprise represen-
tation
представницька вибірка representative sample
представницькі витрати representation expenses

382
презентація presentation
преміальна система заробітної wage-plus-bonus system
плати
преміальний продаж bonus sale
преміювання payment of a premium
премія premium, prize, bonus, bounty
премія в кінці року year-end bonus
претензійний claimed
претензія bid, claim
претензія про відшкодування зби- claim for damages
тків
преференційна зона preferential zone
преференційний режим preferential treatment
преференція preference
прибутки gains, proceeds
прибуткова торгівля profitable trade
прибутковий lucrative, profitable
прибутковий касовий ордер paying-in cash order
прибутковий податок income tax
прибуток earnings, gain, income, profit, return,
yield, yielding interest
прибуток до строку погашення yield to maturity, YTM
облігації
прибуток майбутнього періоду deferred income, deferred revenue
приватизаційний папір privatization paper
приватизаційний сертифікат privatization certificate
приватизаційний чек voucher
приватизація privatization
приватизація майна privatization of property
приватна біржа private exchange
приватна власність private ownership, private property
приватне підприємство private business, private enterprise
приватновласницький privately-owned
приведені затрати actual expenses, discounted costs
привілеї privilege
привілейована акція preference share, preference stock, pre-
ferred share, preferred stock
привласнення appropriation
привласнення чужого майна embezzlement
привласнювати to embezzle
привласнювати (без дозволу) to take
придатна пропозиція fair offer
придатний fair, qualified
придатність availability, qualification
придбання acquirement, purchase
придбання (процес) acquisition
придушена інфляція repressed inflation

383
призначати ціну (ставку) to quote
призначена ціна quoted price
призначення appointment
приймальня waiting room
приймати від to take over
прийняття рішення arrival at a decision
прикладна економіка applied economics
приклеювати ярлик to label
прикраса вітрини window-dressing
прилюдні торги open auction, open tenders, public auc-
tion, public tenders
принада inducement
принцип безперервності going concern
принцип добровільності principle of free will
принципал principal
принципи principles
принциповий guided by principle
припинення cessation, stop, stoppage
припинити визнання (фінансового to derecognize (a financial instrument)
інструмента)
припиняти справу to discontinue operation
припущення hypothesis
приріст gains, growth, increment
приріст власних оборотних коштів increment of individual turnover capital
природне середовище environment
природний збиток natural loss
природні ресурси natural resources
природокористування nature utilization
природоохоронні витрати nature protection expenditures
прискорити дату погашення цін- to accelerate securities
них паперів
пристосування adjustment
пристрасть до іноземного xenomania
присудження премії adjudgement
присяжний juror
присяжні jury
притік капіталів/ капіталу capital inflow
прихована інфляція hidden inflation
приховане безробіття hidden unemployment
прихований implicit, latent, hidden
прихований податок hidden tax, implicit tax
прихований попит hidden demand, latent demand
приховані активи hidden assets
приховані пасиви hidden liabilities
причинно-наслідковий зв’язок cause and effect relations
пріоритет змісту над формою substance over form
пробний ринок test market
384
провал failure
провідний key
провідні показники leading indicators
прогноз forecast, prediction
прогноз збуту товару sales forecast
прогнозування forecasting
прогнозування маркетингу forecasting of marketing
програма programme
програма маркетингу marketing programme
програмне забезпечення software
програмне рішення programmed decision, programmed
solution
прогресивна інтеграція progressive integration
прогресивна скидка progressive discount
прогресивні затрати progressive expenditures
прогул absence from work, absenteeism
продавати to sell
продавати у кредит to sell on credit
продавати з виграшем to sell at a gain
продавати з витратами to sell at a loss
продавати із знижкою to sell off
продавець salesman, seller, vendor
продавці salespeople
продавщиця saleslady
продається on sale, O/S
продаж дочірньої компанії disposal of subsidiary
продаж за готівку без доставки cash and carry
продаж робіт (послуг) jobs (services) sale
продажі без покриття uncovered sales
продажна ціна net price, selling price
продовжувати to extend, to keep up
продовжуйте! keep it up!
продукт праці product of labour
продуктивні сили productive forces
продуктивність productivity
продуктивність живої праці productivity of direct labour
продуктивність праці productivity of labour
продуктообмін products» exchange
продукція output, production
проектно-кошторисна документація designing estimates
прокат hiring
пролонгація prolongation
промисел craft, trade
промисловий вузол industrial unit
промисловий цикл industrial cycle
промисловість industry
проміжна фінансова інформація interim financial information

385
проміжний interim
проміжний продукт intermediate product
пропозиція proposition, quotation
пропозиція ціни bid
пропонована ціна продавця seller’s bid
пропорційне оподаткування flat taxation
пропорційно pro rata
пропускна спроможність through put
прорахунок miscalculation
проста акція common share / stock, ordinary share,
ordinary stock
проста ліцензія ordinary license
проста праця simple labour
простий вексель note in hand, promissory note
простій idle time
прострокований overdue
проти versus
протокол protocol, record
протокол незгод protocol of disagreement
професійне вміння professional skill
професійне навчання vocational training
професійний досвід work experience
професія occupation, profession, vocation
профспілка labour union, trade union, union
процедура procedure
процент interest
процентна ставка interest rate, rate of interest
процес process
процес роботи work flow
пряма реклама direct advertising
прямий збут direct sale
прямий маркетинг direct marketing
прямий метод торгівлі direct method of trade
прямий міжнародний лізинг direct international leasing
прямий податок direct tax
прямі виробничі витрати direct manufacturing expenses
прямі зв’язки direct ties
прямі інвестиції direct investment
прямі контакти direct contacts
прямі тривалі зв’язки direct durable links, direct durable ties
прямо пропорційно in direct ratio
психологія поведінки покупця buying behaviour
пул pool
пул-іпотека pool of mortgages
пул-ставка pool-rate
пункт item, point

386
 ê
разова довіреність non-repeat warrant, single power of
attorney, single warrant
разовий once-only
район zone
районування zoning
раніше випущена і знову куплена treasury stock
банком-емітентом акція
раніше укладений контракт pre-contract
рантьє rentier
рахунки дебіторської заборгованості accounts receivable
рахунки кредиторської заборгова- accounts payable
ності
рахунок account, note, tick
рахунок «лоро» vostro (loro) account
рахунок каси cash account
рахунок на закупівлю акцій (бро- margin account
керський рахунок для клієнта)
раціоналізація виробництва rationalization of production
раціональний rational
раціональний споживацький rational consumer budget
бюджет
реалізована продукція realized production
реальна заробітна плата real wages
реальний дохід (купівельна спро- real income
можність номінального доходу)
реальний товар physical commodity
реальні умови real terms
ревальвація revaluation
ревізія товарного асортименту revision of commercial range of goods
регіональна тарифна угода regional tariff agreement
регіональний ринок regional market
регламент regulations, time limit
регламентація regulation
регресивна інтеграція regressive integration
регресивний regressive
регресивний винахід regressive invention
регресивний позов regressive action, regressive claim
регресія regression
регульовані товари regulated commodities
реекспорт reexport
реєстрація recording, registration
реєструвати to record
режим operating condition, regime
режим господарювання regime of economic management
режим найбільшого сприяння most favoured status, most favoured
treatment
387
резерв provision, reserve
резерви backlog, reserve
резерви виробництва reserve of production
резерви наступних платежів forthcoming payment reserves
резервна валюта reserve currency
резервний акредитив stand-by letter of credit
резервний капітал reserve capital
резервний фонд emergency fund
результати надзвичайних обставин extraordinary items
резюме (brief) summary, abstract; resume, CV
реімпорт reimport
реінвестиція reinvestment
рейтинг rating
рейтингова система rating system
рекет racket
реклама advertisement
реклама (тел., радіо) commercial
рекламне агентство advertising agency
рекламне повідомлення advertising notice
рекламодавець advertiser
рекламувати to sell, to advertise
рекомендаційне повноваження recommended authority
рекомендована роздрібна ціна recommended retail price
ректор коледжу warder
рекурсивна модель recourse model
ремаркетинг remarketing
ремісія remission
ремітент remitter
ремітування remittance
ремонт repair
ремонтний фонд repair fund
рента rent
рентабельність earning power, profitability, profitableness
рентабельність виробництва production profitability
рентабельність продукції products» profitability
рейтинг renting
реприватизація reprivatisation
репутація і зв’язки фірми goodwill
ресурси reserves, resources
ресурси виробництва manufacturing resources
ретрата redraft, re-exchange
рефакція (знижка з оптової ціни, з deferred (freight) rebate
тарифу)
референція reference
рецесія recession
рештки arrears, scraps
ризик втрати заощаджень savings loss risk

388
ризикована гра gamble
ризикований wild-cat
ризиковий капітал venture capital
ризиковість цінних паперів securities risk rate
ризикувати to risk, to gamble
ринкова вартість market value
ринкова економіка market economy
ринкова інвестиція market investment
ринкова інфраструктура market infrastructure
ринкова концепція управління market concept of control, market con-
cept of management
ринкова орієнтація market orientation
ринкова ціна market price
ринкове господарство market economy
ринкові кондиції (умови) market condition
ринкові фонди market funds
ринково-оцінні механізми market estimation mechanism
ринок market
ринок-спот spot market
ринок акцептів acceptance market
ринок для продажу нерухомого real estate market
майна
ринок іноземної валюти foreign currency market
ринок капіталів capital market
ринок позикового капіталу loan capital market
ринок покупця buyer’s market
ринок поточних операцій stop market
ринок продавця seller’s market
ринок проміжних продавців intermediate seller’s market
ринок реального товару physical commodity market
ринок робочої сили manpower market
ринок цінних паперів securities» market
ринок чистої конкуренції market of pure competition
рівень level
рівень використання utilization level
рівень маркетингових витрат marketing costs level
рівень прогнозування forecasting level
рівень розвитку development level
рівень управління management level
рівність parity
рівновага equilibrium
рівновага попиту та пропозиції equilibrium of demand and supply
рівняння equation
рід kind
різке скорочення ax (e)
різний various
різний; диферент different
389
різниця між активами та зо- gap
бов’язаннями
різниця між масою товарів брутто allowance
і нетто
різниця розрахунку часу timing difference
різноманітний various
різноманітність diversity, variety
рік у рік year-in-year-out
річний звіт annual account
рішення verdict, vote
рішення суду judgement
робітник worker
робітник низької кваліфікації labourer
робітник фізичної праці manual worker
робітник однієї зміни shift
робота job, work
робоча бригада work team (group)
робоча зміна shift
робоча сила labour force, work force
робоче місце working place, job (місце роботи)
робоче середовище working environment
робочий день business day, work day, working day
робочий період operating period
робочий процес working procedure
робочий час time of operation, working time
робочі підрозділи work units
розбиратися to know
розбіжність строків maturity mismatch
розвиток development
роздріб retail
роздрібна торгівля retail trade
роздрібна ціна retail price
роздрібний товарооборот retail turnover
розірвання cancellation
розкіш luxury
розмір measurement, quantity
розмір виробітку yield
розміщення location
розміщення виробництва manufacturing location
розміщення продуктових сил productive forces location
розміщення цінних паперів placement of securities
розписка release (про передачу права майна),
receipt
розпізнаваний knowable
розпізнавання identification
розпізнавати to know
розповсюдження distribution
390
розподіл allotment, distribution
розподіл обов’язків distribution of duties
розподіл у часі timing
розподіл функцій distribution of functions
розподілювальний прибуток distributed profit
розподіляти на зони to zone
розпорядник manager
розпродаж sell out, sales
розпродаж речей дешево bargain sale
розпродати to sell out
розраховуватися to pay, to settle (up)
розрахункова плата calculated pay (ment), settlement pay (ment)
розрахункова рентабельність calculated profitability, rated profitability
розрахунковий кредит accounting credit, settlement credit
розрахунковий прибуток calculated profit, settlement profit
розрахунковий рахунок settlement account
розрахунок clearing-off
розривати to cancel
розрізняти to know
розряд kind
розстрочка instalment, installment
розсудливий safe
розтрата embezzlement
розтрачувати (чужі гроші) to embezzle
розтринькувати гроші (амер.) to knock down
розукрупнення disintegration
розумний (обачний, бережливий) prudential
розцінка pricing, quotation, rate
розширення expansion, extension
розширення виробництва expansion of production
розширення підприємства extension of an enterprise
розширювати to broaden, to expand
руйнувати (будівлі) to knock down
рутина rut (routine)
рух основних фондів capital funds movement
рухоме майно movable property
ручна праця manual labour
ручний manual
рушійна сила driving force, motive force, motive
power
ряд range

ë
сальдо готівки cash balance
саморегульована self- regulatory
самоаналіз self-analysis
391
самоврядування self-management
самозабезпечення self-sufficiency
самообслуговування self-service
самоокупність self-recoupment, self-repayment
саморегуляція self-control
самостійна вартість self-value
самофінансування self-finance, self-financing
свідок witness
свідоцтво testimony, voucher
свідоцтво платежу voucher for payment
свідчення evidence
свідчити to verify
свіжий погляд на речі young-eyed
світова ціна world market price
світове господарство world economy
світовий worldwide
світовий ринок world market
свитч switch
своєчасність timeliness
своєчасно in due course, in due time
сегментація segmentation
сегмент ринку segment of market
сезонна знижка seasonal discount
сезонна ціна seasonal price
сейф safe
сейф (приміщення) vault
сейфове сховище банку safe deposit vault
сек’юритизація securitization
секвестр sequester, sequestration
секретний confidential
селективний попит selective demand
селективний протекціонізм selective protectionism
селективний розподіл selective distribution
сервіз service
сервісне обслуговування servicing
середина mean
середнє квадратичне quadratic mean, q.m.
середнє число mean
середній заробіток average wages
середньо терміновий прогноз medium-range forecast
середня величина average value, mean quantity, mean
value
середня геометрична geometric average, geometric mean,
geometrical average
середня зважена weighted average, weighted mean
середня норма прибутку average rate of profit
середня хронологічна chronological average, chronological
392
 mean
середня цифра mean number
середовище опосередкованого environment of indirect influence
впливу
середовище прямого впливу environment of direct influence
серійне виробництво full-scale production, lot production,
serial production
сертифікат certificate
сертифікаційна комісія certifying commission
сертифікація certification
сила strength, force, power, violence
симетрична модель розрахунків symmetrical model of payments, sym-
metrical model of settlements
синдикат syndicate
синергізм synergism
сирий raw
сировина raw materials
система system
система бухгалтерського обліку accounting system
система економічних показників system of economic indices
система обліку по фактичній собі- historical cost system
вартості
системи оплати праці system of labour remuneration
система перевезень transportation system
система прискореного компенсу- accelerated cost recovery system
вання витрат
система управління management system, managerial system
систематичний systematic
системний аналіз system analysis
сітковий графік network schedule
сітьова модель network model
скарбник treasurer
скасовувати to cancel, to quash
скасування quash
склад storehouse, warehouse
складна проблема knotty problem
складний knotted, complex
складні проценти compound interests
складність операції complexity of operation
складність процесу complexity of process
складська форма постачання warehouse form of supply
складський товарооборот warehouse commodity circulation
складування storekeeping, warehousing
скнарити to scrape
скорочений робочий день reduced working day
скорочувати штати to ax (e)
скотний двір yard
скринька в банку для зберігання safety deposit box
393
цінностей
скритий implicit, hidden
скрутні обставини reduced circumstances
скупчування accumulation
слабкий weak
слабкий доказ weak argument
слабкий ринок weak market
слаборозвинена країна underdeveloped country
служба job
службове відрядження business trip
службовець employee
службовець банку (обробляє по- mail teller
штові вклади)
смаки покупця buying habits
собівартість cost price, prime cost
собівартість запасів cost of inventories
собівартість збуту cost of goods sold
собівартість комерційної продукції commercial products cost
собівартість одиниці продукції unit cost
собівартість перевезень transfer cost, transportation cost
собівартість продажу cost of sales
собівартість промислової продукції industrial product cost, industrial prod-
uct cost price
сорт grade, kind
сортувальна станція yard
соціальна статистика social statistic
соціальне страхування social insurance
соціальні виплати social payments
спад decline, recession
спадаюча валюта falling currency
спадаючий попит falling demand
спадщина inheritance
спекулянт speculator
спекулянт на біржі bear, bull
спекулятивний капітал venture capital
спекуляція speculation
сперечатися (про щось – about, over) to haggle
спеціалізація виробництва specialization of production
спеціалізація праці specialization of labour
спеціалізований митний склад specialized custom warehouse
спеціальна довіреність special power of attorney, special war-
rant
спеціальна економічна зона special economic area
спеціальна знижка special allowance
спеціальний express, special
спеціальні знижки extra discounts
спеціальні капітальні інвестиції specific capital investments

394
спеціальність occupation, speciality
список осіб waiting list
список пасажирів way-bill
спілка аудиторів auditors» association
списувати (заборгованість) to write off
співвідношення correlation
співвідношення між вигодою та balance between benefit and cost
витратами
спільна відповідальність joint liability
спільна лінія common line
спільне володіння (майном) joint tenancy
спільне коливання обмінного курсу joint float
спільне підприємство joint venture, joint-stock partnership
спіраль цін і платні price-wage spiral
спірне питання matter of argument
сплачування payment
consumption
споживацький кредит consumer credit
споживацькі витрати consumer costs
споживацькі оцінки consumer estimates
споживач consumer, user
споживна вартість consumer cost
споживчий бюджет consumer budget
споживчий ефект consumer effect
спонсор sponsor
спосіб method
спосіб виживання direction for use
спосіб виробництва mode of production
спосіб для досягнення чогось leverage
способи контролю над ways of control over
спостереження observation
спостережна рада supervisory council
спостережний лист observation sheet
справедлива вартість fair value
справедлива вимога fair claim
справедливість identity, justice
сприйнятливий acquisitive
сприятливі умови facilities
спроба стягнути списаний (бан- salvage
ком) кредит
спроможність (компанії) earning power
спростувати (доказ) to knock down
спряжені капіталовкладення connected capital investments
стабілізація stabilization
стабілізація валюти stabilization of currency
ставка переведення (валюти) rate of conversion
стагнація stagnation
395
стагфляція stagflation
стадія запровадження товару phrase of goods introduction, stage of
goods introduction
стадія зрілості товару phase of goods maturity, stage of goods
maturity
стадія росту товару phase of commodity growth, phase of
commodity increase, stage of commodity
growth, stage of commodity increase
стадія спаду товару phase of commodity fall
сталі пасиви stable liabilities
стан rating, state
стан ліквідів liquidity statement
стандарт standard
стандарт кредитоспроможності standard of credit worthiness, standard
of solvency
стандарт товаропросування sales» promotion standard
стандарти аудиту auditing standards
стандартизація standardization
старанний zealous
старанність zeal
статистика statistics
статистика природного руху насе- vital statistics, V.S.
лення
статистична звітність statistical accounting, statistics ac-
counting
статистичне дослідження statistical investigation
статистичне моделювання statistic modeling
статистичний аналіз statistical analysis
статистичний контроль якості statistical quality check, statistical
quality control
статистичні показники statistical indices, statistical indicators
стаття item
статус status
статус майна банкрута receivership
статут by-law, statute
статутний капітал equity capital
статутний фонд authorized fund
створення creation, setting up
стимул inducement, stimulus, incentive
стимул заробітної плати wage incentive
стимулювання promotion, stimulation
стимулювати to induce
стимулюючий попит stimulating demand
стійки пасиви stable liabilities
стійкість системи system stability
страйк без санкцій профспілки wild-cat strike
стратегічна зона господарювання strategic economic area
стратегічний товар strategic goods
396
стратегія
стратегія високих цін
стратегія відступу
стратегія диверсифікації
стратегія дискримінаційних цін
стратегія диференційованих цін
стратегія еластичних цін
стратегія єдиних цін
стратегія конкурентних цін
стратегія маркетингу
стратегія наступу
стратегія нестабільних цін
стратегія низьких цін
стратегія пільгових цін
стратегія престижних цін
стратегія цінового лідера
страхова надбавка
страховий внесок
страховий поліс
страхування
страхувати
строк (платежу)
строк корисної служби
строк окупності
строкова позика
строковий вклад
структура
структура виробництва
структура виробничих витрат
структура попиту
структура пропозиції
структура управління
структурна політика
стягання (грошей)
стягнення
стягувати відсоток / процент
стягувати відсоток за позикою
стягувати плату за
суб’єкт
суб’єкт господарської діяльності
суб’єкт приватизації
суб’єкт управління
субконтракт
суборенда
397
strategy
strategy of high prices
strategy of withdrawal
diversification strategy
strategy of discriminatory prices
strategy of differential prices
strategy of elastic prices
strategy of flat price, strategy of uni-
form prices
strategy of competitive prices
strategy of marketing
strategy of approach
strategy of unstable prices, strategy of
unsteady prices
strategy of low prices
strategy of reduced prices, strategy of
special prices
strategy of prestige prices
strategy of price leader
insurance premium
insurance fee, insurance payment
insurance policy, policy of assurance
insurance
to insure
maturity date
useful life
term of payback
matured loan
non-transferable deposit
structure
production structure
structure of production costs
structure of demand
structure of supply
management structure
structural policy
collection
exaction, penalty
to charge interest
to take off interest on loan
to charge a fee for
subject
subject of economic activity
subject of privatization
subject of management
subcontract
sublease
субсидія grant, subsidy, subvention
суддя judge, justice
судити to judge
судове рішення adjudgement
судовий захист legal protection
судовий наказ writ
судовий позов action at law, legal action
сукупний валовий продукт aggregate gross product
сукупний запас aggregate stock
сукупний суспільний продукт gross social product
сукупні капіталовкладення aggregate capital investment
сукупність collection, totality
сукупність операцій circuit
сума quantity, sum
сума позики volume of credit
суміжні виробництва related industries, related manufactures
сумнівна якість questionable quality
сумнівне джерело прибутку racket
сумнівний questionable, uncertain
суперечність contradiction
супермаркет supermarket
супровідна ліцензія attendant license
супровідний лист (до чеку) remittance letter
суспільна власність public ownership, public property
суспільна формація social formation
суспільний поділ праці social division of labour
суспільні потреби social needs, social requirements
суспільні фонди споживання social consumption funds
суттєва непослідовність material inconsistency
суттєвість materiality
сфера field, sphere
сфера матеріального виробництва field of material production
сфера обслуговування service industry
схвалення recognition
схвалити to give an approval
схильний acquisitive
сховище depository
сховище (банку) vault

í
табель table
таблиця table
тавро earmark, punch
такса rate
тактика переговорів tactics of negotiation
талон voucher

398
тариф rate, tariff
тариф заробітної плати wage-rate
тарифікація робіт job rating
тарифна система tariff system
тарифна угода tariff agreement
тарифний коефіцієнт tariff coefficient, tariff ratio
тарифний розряд tariff category
тарування parcking
тварина (сільгосп.) yielder
тверда контрактна ціна firm contract price
тверда сума фрахту lumpsum
твердження statement
твердження (у фін. звітах) assertion
текстовий процесор (комп’ют.) word processor
телеграфне інкасо collection against bank cable notification
темп pace, rate, tempo
темп зростання growth rate
темп приросту rate of increase, rate of increment
темп зростання expansion rate, growth rate
тенденція до зниження цін weak tendency in price
тендер tender
тендерна документація tender documentation
тендерний комітет tender committee
теоретико-економічна модель theoretical-economic model
теорія theory
теорія граничної корисності marginal utility
теорія економічного зростання theory of economic growth
теорія розвитку систем theory of system development
теорія черговості queuing theory
теперішня (дисконтована) вартість present value
термін відстроченої оплати deferred payment terms
термін (боргового зобов’язання) maturity date (day)
термінова робота rush work
термінове замовлення rush order
термінове поштове відправлення express mail
терміновий express
терміновий вклад time deposit
тестування testing
техніко-економічний рівень виро- technical and economic level of pro-
бництва duction
техніко-економічні норми technical and economic norms, techni-
cal and economic standards
техніко-економічні показники technical and economic indices, techni-
cal and economic indicators
техніко-економічні розрахунки technological and economic calcula-
tions, technological and economic es-
timates

399
технічна документація technical documentation
технічна калькуляція engineering calculation
технічна озброєність праці technical intensity of labour
технічна оснащеність виробництва technical equipment of production
технологічна дисципліна technological discipline
технологічний лаг lag in technology
технологія управління management technology
тимчасова знижка temporary discount
тимчасова різниця temporary difference
тимчасова розписка interim receipt
тимчасова фінансова звітність interim financial reporting
тимчасова цінність temporary value
тимчасове користування temporary use
тимчасовий interim
тимчасовий працівник temporary worker
тимчасові витрати provisional expenses, temporary ex-
penses
тимчасово pro tempore
типові норми standard norms
титул title
титул (право на майно) title (to property)
титульний список title list
тіньова економіка underground economy, shadow econ-
omy
товар commodity, product, wares, goods
товари низької вартості / якості inferior goods
товари особливого попиту goods of particular demand
товари пасивного попиту goods of passive demand, goods of
stack demand
товари підвищеного попиту goods of keen demand
товари тривалого користування durable goods
товари широкого вжитку consumer goods
товари щоденного попиту goods of everyday demand
товариство partnership
товариство з додатковою відпові- additional unlimited partnership
дальністю
товариство з обмеженою відпові- limited partnership
дальністю
товарна біржа commodity exchange, goods exchange
товарна квитанція warehouse receipt, W/R
товарна кон’юнктура market conjucture
товарна номенклатура classification of goods, commodity
classification
товарна одиниця commodity unit
товарна продукція commodity product
товарна пропозиція goods supply, offer of goods
товарна розписка warehouse receipt, W/R

400
товарне виробництво commodity production, priduction of
commodities
товарне забезпечення provision of goods, supply of goods
товарний арбітраж arbitrage in goods
товарний демпінг commodity dumping
товарний дефіцит commodity deficiency, lack of goods,
scarcity of goods
товарний запас commodity stock, stock of commodi-
ties
товарний знак trade brand
товарний переказний вексель sales draft
товарний ринок commodity market
товарний фетишизм consumerism
товарні гроші commodity money
товарно-видовий конкурент commodity resources
товарні ресурси commodity-kind competitor
товарно-грошові відносини commodity money relations
товаровиробник commodity producer
товарообіг commodity circulation
товарообмін exchange of commodities
товарообмінний залік exchangeable offset, offset of commod-
ity exchange, offset of goods turnover
товарооборот goods turnover
том volume
торги bidding
торгівля commerce, trade
торгова знижка rebate, trading discount
торгова конференція trade conference
торгова марка trademark
торгова нарада trade meeting
торгова одиниця trade unit
торгова політика trade policy
торгова преференція trade preference
торгова угода trade agreement
торгове посередництво mediation
торговельний баланс balance of trade
торговець tradesman, merchant, vendor
торговий агент commercial agent, sales» agent
торговий баланс trade balance
торговий каталог trade catalogue
торговий комплекс trade complex
торговий прибуток trading profit
торговий центр trade center
торговий чек receipt
торгово-промислова палата Chamber of Commerce and Industry
торгувати to sell
торгуватися to haggle

401
тотожний identical
тотожність identity
точні директиви express orders
традиційна система збуту traditional system of sales
транзит transit
транзитна норма transit rate, transit standard
транзитний товарооборот transit commodity circulation, transit
trade turnover
транспортний тариф transport rate
транспортні витрати expenses of transportation, transport
costs, transport expenses
транспортні запаси transport reserves
транспортні тарифи transport tariffs
трансфер(т) transfer
трансфер(т) облігацій transfer of debentures
трансфертна ціна transfer price
трансферний платіж transfer payment
трасант drawer
траст trust
трастові операції trust activities
тратта draft
трест trust
тримати to keep
тримати (на роботі) to employ
трудова теорія вартості labour theory of value
трудова угода labour contract
трудовий потенціал labour potential
трудові відносини working relations
трудові ресурси labour resources
тяганина red-tape

ì
у борг on credit
у даний момент pro tempore
у дійсності in actual fact
у заставі in pawn
у рахунку on account, o.a.
угода undertaking
угода (вигідна, збиткова) bargain (good, bad)
угода дарування gift agreement
угода збереження savings agreement
угрупування grouping
удосконалення improvement, perfection
узагальнення generalization
узагальнення виробничого досвіду generalization of know-how
узагальнювати to generalize

402
узагальнюючий індекс generalized index
узгоджувати (рахунки, показники) to agree
укладати to conclude
укладений done
укласти угоду to close bargain
уміння подати товар window-dressing
уміння працювати руками manual skill
уміння продавати salesmanship
умова «без застави» negative pledging clause
умови conditions, terms
умови виробництва production conditions
умови контракту contract terms
умови постановки terms of delivery
умови праці labour condition, work condition
умови розрахунку terms of payment
умови торгівлі terms of trade
умовний актив contingent asset
умовні доходи contingent gains
умовні збитки contingent losses
умовні зобов’язання contingent liabilities
умовно безповоротні позики forgivable loans
умовно-позитивна думка (ауд.) qualified opinion
уникнення податків tax avoidance
універсальна біржа universa exchange
універсальний universal
універсальний магазин department store
універсальний товарний код universal product code
уніфікація unification
унція ouince, oz
упаковка packing
упізнавати to know
управління management
управління виробництвом management of production
управління маркетингу marketing management
управління підприємством factory management, plant management
управління якістю quality control
управлінська гра managerial game
управлінська праця managerial labour
управлінське рішення managerial decision, managerial solution
уречевлена праця embodied labour
урізування ax (e)
урізувати асигнування to ax (e)
урожай yield
урочистий час estimated time, fixed time
усвідомлювати to know
усереднена вартість average cost
успадкування inheritance
403
установа office, establishment
установчі документи constituent documents, foundation
documents
установчі збори meeting of foundation members
устаткування facilities
утворення formation
утримання allowance
утримання податків (із заробітної tax withholding
плати)
утримувати сім’ю to keep a family
ухилення від виконання absenteeism
обов’язків
ухилитися від податків to deviate from taxes
уцінка товарів price reduction
учасник participant, partner
учасник договору principal
учасник ринку market participant, market partner
участь participation
учинений ywrought
утілення робочого дня filing up of the working day
уявно quasi

î
фактичні затрати actual expenses
фактор factor
факторинг factoring
факторингова операція factoring
факторна дисперсія factor variance
факторний аналіз factor (ial) analysis
фактура invoice
фактурна вартість invoice cost
фактурна ціна invoice price
фальшивий counterfeit
фізична особа physical person
фізична праця physical labour
фізичне зношення physical wear
фіксований валютний курс fixed exchange
фіксовані платежі fixed payments
фіктивний капітал fictitious capital
філія; дочірнє підприємство affiliate, subsidiary
ФІЛО FILO
філософія управління managerial philosophy
фінанси finance, finances
фінансова блокада financial blockade
фінансова звітність financial statement
(підприємства)

404
фінансова криза financial crisis
фінансова оренда finance lease
фінансове планування financial planning
фінансовий актив чи зобов’язання financial asset or liability held for
для торгівлі trading
фінансовий закон financial law
фінансовий інспектор financial inspector
фінансовий капітал financial capital
фінансовий лізинг financial leasing
фінансовий план financial plan
фінансовий стан financial position
фінансовий активи на продаж available-for-sale financial assets
фінансові інвестиції financial investment
фінансові результати діяльності; performance
виконання
фінансові ресурси financial resources
фірма firm
фірмова структура ринку firm market structure
фірмовий блок firm block
фірмовий лозунг firm motto
фірмовий стиль firm style
фіскальна політика fiscal policy
ФІФО FIFO
флет flat
фонд fund
фонд заміщення substitution fund
фонд заробітної плати wages fund
фонд оплати праці labour remuneration fund
фонд соціального страхування social insurance fund
фонд споживання consumption fund
фонд сприяння зайнятості насе- employment fund
лення
фонди економічного стимулювання economic stimulation funds
фондова біржа stock exchange
фондовіддача yield of capital investments
фондоємність fund intensity
фондоозброєність capital equipment
фондооснащеність capital availability
форвардна операція forward operation
форма form
форма вартості form of value
форма власності form of ownership, form of property
форма довіреності proxy card
форма постачання form of supply
формальна організація formal organization
формування попиту demand making
форфейтинг (кредитування зов- forfeiting

405
нішньоекономічних операцій)
франко (вільний від витрат) franco
франко (умова продажу) franco
франчайзер franchiser
франшиза franchise
фрахтовий ринок freight market
функціональна знижка functional rebate
функціональна організація марке- functional marketing organization
тингу
функціональна стратегія functional strategy
функціональне управління functional management
функціонально-вартісний аналіз functional cost analysis
функціонально-господарська functional-economic structure
структура
фунт pound
фунт аптекарської ваги pound (apothecary)
фунт стерлінгів pound
Ф’ючерсна біржа futures exchange
ф’ючерсний контракт futures contract
ф’ючерсний ринок futures market
ф’ючерсні операції futures operations

ï
хабар kickback
хайринг (вид оренди) hiring
характеризувати to describe
хедж hedge
хеджер hedger
хеджування hedging
хеджувати to hedge
хитромудрий knotted
хода pace
ходовий товар seller
холдинг holding
холдинг-компанія holding company

ñ
центр маркетингових досліджень
централізація капіталу
централізована маркетингова
програма
центральний банк
центральний процесор
у комп’ютері
цивільна відповідальність
center of marketing research
centralization of capital
centralized marketing programme
central bank
central processing unit (CPU)
civil liability, civil responsibility

406
цивільне право civil law
цивільне правопорушення civil infringement of a law
цикл circuit, cycle
цикл виробництва production cycle
цикл обігу коштів cash cycle
циклічний характер відтворення cyclical character of reproduction
циклічні акції cyclical stock
цілеспрямованість purposefulness
цілоденний простір daily downtime
цілодобовий day-and-night
цільова сума прибутку target profit amount (sum)
цільова функція purpose-oriented function, target function
цільове надходження purpose-oriented earnings / recipients,
target earnings, target receipts
цільове управління management by objectives
цільове фінансування target financing
цільовий target
цільовий маркетинг target marketing
цільовий ринок purpose-oriented market
цільові кредити target credits
ціна, яка включає мито duty paid price
ціна виробництва price of production
ціна позову claim (ed) amount
ціна попиту bid, demand price
ціна придбання acquisition price
ціна пропозиції price of an offer, supply price
ціна реалізації realization price
ціна споживання consuption price
цінник price list
цінні папери securities
цінні папери «із золотим обрізом» gilt-edged securities
цінність worth
цінність користування value in use
цінова еластичність попиту price demand elasticity
цінова знижка price discount
цінова конкуренція price competition
ціновий лідер price leader
ціновий маркетинг price marketing

ó
чайові tip
час виплати pay-off date (day)
час обігу time of circulation
час обороту капіталу period of capital turnover, time of
capital turnover
частина piece, part, portion

407
частка акціонера в капіталі equity share
(фірми)
частка меншості minority interests
частка у спільному бізнесі interests in joint ventures
(діяльності)
частковий коефіцієнт partial coefficient
частковий платіж installment payment
частота поставок frequency of delivery
чверть quarter
чек оплачений банком cancelled cheque
чеки у процесі інкасації uncollected funds
черга queue, turn, (waiting) line
черговий внесок installment payment
через via
через продавця via vendor
чесний fair
чинний current, valid
чисельність працюючих number of workers, quantity of workers
чиста балансова вартість net book value
чиста вартість майна net worth
чиста конкуренція pure competition
чиста монополія pure monopoly
чиста позика open loan
чиста поточна вартість net present value
чиста собівартість net cost
чистий net
чистий дохід net earnings, net income
чистий прибуток net profit
чистий прибуток без вирахування net before taxes
податків
чистий прибуток після вираху- net after taxes
вання податків
чисті витрати обігу pure costs of circulation
чистка shake-up
чіткі повноваження express authority
член жюрі juror
чорна біржа (терм.) illegal exchange
чутливість elasticity

ò
шантаж blackmail, racket
шантажист blackmailer
шахматний баланс chess balance
шахрайство fraud, racket
швидкість pace, speed
швидкість обороту rate of turnover

408
швидкість обороту оборотних за- rate of current capital circulation
собів
швидко реагувати to know all the answers
швидкозношуваний quick wearing
шкода damage, loss
шлях via
шматок piece
штамп punch
штат staff, personnel
штатний розклад personnel arrangement
штраф fine, penalty
штрафувати to fine piece
шукати недоліки to haggle

ô
abstract of title
що заощаджує час time-saving
що підлягає викупу redeemable
що підлягає сплаті payable
що підлягають викупу (акції) callable (shares, stocks)
що стосується справи relevant
що швидко псуються perishable (goods)
щоденний продаж sales per day
щорічник year-book

û
юридична особа juridical person, legal entity
юридичний juridical
юридичний список juridical list
юридично de jure
юрисдикція jurisdiction
юрисконсульт legal adviser
юриспруденція jurisprudence
юрист jurist, lawyer
юстиція Justice

ü
яка виставляє запит на купівлю bidder
(особа)
яка включає мито (ціна) duty paid price
яка володіє привілеєм (особа) franchiser
яка підписує документ (особа) signer
яка відповідає за продаж (особа) salesperson
який грає на зниженні цін акцій bear

409
(спекулянт) (бірж.)
який грає на підвищенні цін акцій bull
(спекулянт) (бірж.)
який дає право на власність землі land title paper
(документ)
який дає проценти (бізнес) yielding interest
який добився успіху (бізнесмен) businessman who has arrived
який не дає прибутку у вигляді yielding no interest
процентів (бізнес)
який не перевищує not exceeding
який підлягає оподаткуванню assessable
який понижується weak, falling
який став банкрутом failed
яким є товар (продаж без гарантії flat
якості)
які відповідають за податкову tax authorities
політику (органи)
які не входять у лістинг (цінні unlisted (securities, companies)
папери, компанії)
які приносять дохід (активи) earning assets
які стосуються активів related to assets
які стосуються доходів related to income
які утримують до погашення held-to-maturity
якісне зрушення qualitative change
якісний показник quality index
якісні продукти quality of products, QP
якість quality
якість виконання quality of execution
якість відповідальності quality of responsibility
якість забезпечення позики quality of collateral
якість партії (товару) quality of lot
якість продукції products» quality
якість роботи quality of work
якого не має в наявності (товар) unavailable
яку можна виправдати (дія) justifiable (action)
яку погашено одноразовим single-payment (loan)
платежем (позика)
ярд yard
ярлик label
ярмарок fair

410
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 25. Шимків А. Англо-український тлумачний словник економічної
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412
 Навчальне видання

ШЕВЧЕНКО Ольга Леонідівна

ДІЛОВА АНГЛІЙСЬКА МОВА

ДЛЯ ЕКОНОМІСТІВ:
ПИСЬМОВА ТА УСНА КОМУНІКАЦІЯ
Підручник

Видано в авторській редакції

Художник обкладинки С. Волощук

Технічний редактор М. Кручко
Коректор укр. тексту В. Македон
Верстка М. Кручко

Підп. до друку 17.11.09. Формат 60×84/16. Папір офсет. № 1.

Гарнітура Тип Таймс. Друк офсетний. Ум.-друк. арк. 24,18.
Обл.-вид. арк. 27,51. Наклад 960 пр. Зам. 07-3439.

Державний вищий навчальний заклад

«Київський національний економічний університет імені Вадима Гетьмана»
03680, м. Київ, проспект Перемоги, 54/1
Свідоцтво про внесення до Державного реєстру
суб’єктів видавничої справи (серія ДК, № 235 від 07.11.2000)
Тел./факс (044) 537-61-41; тел. (044) 537-61-44
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Видавництво Державного вищого навчального закладу
«Київський національний економічний
університет імені Вадима Гетьмана»

Гарантія відмінних знань

Видавництво КНЕУ, створене 1996 року, є провідним видавцем економіч-

ної літератури в Україні.
Видання КНЕУ — це книжки високої якості для студентів та викладачів
вищих навчальних закладів, науковців та підприємців.
Видавництво вже випустило у світ понад 1000 найменувань підручників і
посібників та регулярно забезпечує своїх читачів новими виданнями.

Якість понад усе

• Літературу видавництва КНЕУ розроблено відповідно до затверджених

Міністерством освіти і науки України навчальних програм та вимог Болонської
декларації.
• Процес випуску літератури видавництва включає повний цикл підготовки
книжок — від розміщення заявки автором до отримання надрукованих примір-
ників. Це гарантує актуальність матеріалів, адекватність їх сучасним умовам
ведення бізнесу та перевірку на практиці.
• Видання КНЕУ дають змогу комплексно забезпечити навчальний процес і
науковий розвиток студентів, аспірантів та викладачів. Оптимальне поєднання
теоретичних матеріалів з практичними прикладами робить видання корисними
для працівників підприємств та підприємців.
Видавництво пропонує Основні напрями видань

• підручники Міжнародна економіка

• навчальні посібники Економіка підприємства
• навчально-методичні посібники Статистика
• курси лекцій Менеджмент. Маркетинг
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• освітньо-кваліфікаційні характеристики Економіка агробізнесу
• освітньо-професійні програми Право
Точні науки
Суспільні та гуманітарні науки
______________________________
Видавництво КНЕУ імені Вадима Гетьмана
04053, м. Київ, пл. Львівська, 14
тел.: (044) 537-61-44, e-mail: publish@kneu.kiev.ua
Реалізація книжок
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Тел./факс: (044) 537-61-71, 537-61-77
e-mail:andrushko@icbe.com.ua
www.icbe.com.ua
Продаж літератури КНЕУ

ОПТОВИЙ ПРОДАЖ

Як придбати літературу

 За телефоном: 8 (044) 537-61-71, 537-61-77, 238-63-19

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Замовити
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літературу Дані замовлення
Повна назва та абревіатура Автор
організації замовника Кількість примірників
Контактна особа Телефон, факс
Повна назва книги Поштова адреса з індексом

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Отримати ім. В. Гетьмана», м. Київ, пл. Львівська, 14
літературу b Кур’єрською службою «МІБО КНЕУ» по м. Києву
Y Через службу «Київські відомості» по регіонах України

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Роздрібний продаж літератури в Києві

• пл. Львівська, 14 • вул. Мельникова, 79/81
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• Книжковий магазин «Знання», вул. Хрещатик, 44, тел.: 234-22-91
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• Книжковий магазин «Академкнига», вул. Стрітенська, 17, тел.: 272-35-82

______________________________
Видавництво КНЕУ імені Вадима Гетьмана
04053, м. Київ, пл. Львівська, 14
тел.: (044) 537-61-44, e-mail: publish@kneu.kiev.ua
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Тел./факс: (044) 537-61-71, 537-61-77
e-mail:andrushko@icbe.com.ua
www.icbe.com.ua
Продаж літератури КНЕУ
АРК
ВАТ «Кримкнига»
м. Сімферополь,вул. Горького, 5
тел.: (0652) 27-54-87
Книжковий магазин «Буква»
м. Сімферополь, вул. Севастопольська, 6
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тел.: (06569) 331-44
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тел.: (0654) 32-37-41
ВІННИЦЬКА ОБЛ.
Магазин «Кобзар»
м. Вінниця, вул. Привокзальна, 2/1
ВОЛИНСЬКА ОБЛ.
ТОВ «Знання»
м. Луцьк, пр. Волі, 41
тел./факс: (03322) 423-98
Книгарня «Дім книги»
м. Луцьк, вул. Конякіна, 37-а
тел./факс: (0332) 73-01-59
ДНІПРОПЕТРОВСЬКА ОБЛ.
Бібколектор обласний
м. Дніпропетровськ, вул. Кірова, 22
тел.: (056) 778-38-39-ф, 778-25-37
Магазин «Ера»
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тел.: (0564) 712367
Книжковий магазин «Дар»
м. Кривий Ріг, вул. Пухачевського, 75
тел.: (0564) 66-41-88
тел./факс: (0564) 66-01-68
ДОНЕЦЬКА ОБЛ.
ПП Ярошенко Н. М.
м. Донецьк, вул. Артема, 84
(приміщення обласної бібліотеки
ім. Н. Крупської)
тел.: (062) 343-88-07
СПД Дротенко
м. Донецьк, вул. Артема, 160
Книжковий ринок, м.Донецьк,
торговий комплекс «Маяк», місце 113
тел./факс: (0622) 22-68-79
ЖИТОМ ИРСЬКА ОБЛ.
«Світ книги»
м. Житомир, вул. Київська, 17/1
тел.: (0412) 47-27-52
ЗАКАРПАТСЬКА ОБЛ.
Книгарня «Книги»
м. Ужгород, пр. Свободи, 3
тел. : (0312) 61-36-95
Книгарня «Кобзар»
м. Ужгород, пл. Корятовича, 1
тел. : (03122) 3-35-16
ТОВ «Букініст»
м. Ужгород, вул. Л. Толстого, 4
тел.: (03122) 3-72-18
ЗАПОРІЗЬКА ОБЛ.
ТОВ «ЛЕКТОС» ЛТД
м. Запоріжжя, пр. Леніна, 142
тел.: (0612) 13-85-53, (061) 220-09-96
ІВАНО-ФРАНКІВСЬКА ОБЛ.
Книгарня
м. Івано-Франківськ, пл. Ринок, 14
тел. : (03422) 2-47-82
ТОВ «Арка»
м. Івано-Франківськ, Вічевий майдан, 3
тел./факс: (0342) 50-14-02, (03422) 3-04-60
КІРОВОГРАДСЬКА ОБЛ.
«Книжковий світ»
м. Кіровоград, вул. Набережна, 11
ЛУГАНСЬКА ОБЛ.
Глобус-книга
м. Луганськ, вул Совецкая, 58
тел./факс : (0642) 53-62-30
ФОП Гречишкін С. І.
м. Луганськ, вул. Леніна, 149-а
тел./факс: (0642) 58-95-28, 59-63-37
ЛЬВІВСЬКА ОБЛ.
Книгарня «Глобус»
м. Львів, пл. Галицька, 12
тел.: (0322) 74-01-77
ДКП «Бібліотечний колектор»
м. Львів, вул. Лисенка, 21
тел./факс: (0322) 75-79-86
ТОВ «Ноти»
м. Львів, пр. Шевченка, 16
тел./факс: (0322) 72-67-96