DEFINITION OF ACIDS AND BASES

EFFECT ON LITMUS

An acid is a substance that turns blue litmus paper red.

A base is a substance that turns red litmus paper blue.

DISSOCIATIVE PROPERTY

An acid is a substance that produces hydronium ion (H3O+) as the only positive ion in an aqueous solution.

A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ion (OH–) as the only positive ion in an aqueous solution.

ARRHENIUS THEORY

Was introduced by the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius in 1884. He defined acids and bases as;

 An Arrhenius acid increases the concentration of hydrogen (H+) ions in an aqueous solution.
 An Arrhenius base increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH–) ions in an aqueous solution.

The universal aqueous acid–base definition of the Arrhenius concept is described as the formation of a water molecule
from a proton and hydroxide ion. Therefore, in Arrhenius acid–base reactions, the reaction between an acid and a base
is a neutralization reaction.

Equation
According to Arrhenius,
Behaviour of an Acid
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ + NO−3(aq)

Behaviour of a Base
LiOH(aq) → Li+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Limitations of Arrhenius Theory

The Arrhenius definitions of acidity and alkalinity are restricted to aqueous solutions and refer to the concentration of
the solvated ions. Examples include;

Under this definition, pure H2SO4 or HCl dissolved in toluene are not acidic, despite the fact that both of these acids
will donate a proton to toluene.

In addition, under the Arrhenius definition, a solution of sodium amide (NaNH 2) in liquid ammonia is not alkaline,
despite the fact that the amide ion, NH2 will readily deprotonate ammonia.

Thus, the Arrhenius definition can only describe acids and bases in an aqueous environment but doesn't explain why
certain compounds that do not contain hydroxide ions, such as ammonia, can form bases in solution.

BRØNSTED-LOWRY THEORY

Was introduced in 1923 by chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry.
Brønsted-Lowry theory of acid and bases took the Arrhenius definition one step further, as a substance no longer
needed to be composed of hydrogen (H +) or hydroxide (OH-) ions in order to be classified as an acid or base.
According to Brønsted-Lowry,

 An acid is a substance that can release a proton (hydrogen ion, H +) i.e. proton donor.
 A base is a substance that can accept a proton (hydrogen ion, H+) i.e. proton acceptor.

Equation
According to Brønsted-Lowry,
Behaviour of an Acid
HA(aq) ⇌ A−(aq) + H+(aq)

Behaviour of a Base
B(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HB+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Limitations of Brønsted-Lowry Theory

The Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has been used throughout the history of acid and base chemistry. However, this
theory is very restrictive and focuses primarily on acids and bases acting as proton donors and acceptors. Sometimes
conditions arise where the theory doesn't necessarily fit, such as in solids and gases.

LEWIS THEORY

A third theory, introduced by Berkeley chemist G.N. Lewis, also in 1923.

Lewis definition of acids and bases allow chemists to predict a wider variety of acid-base reactions. Lewis' theory
used electrons instead of proton transfer and specifically stated that an acid is a species that accepts an electron pair
while a base donates an electron pair. According to Lewis,

 An acid is a specie that accepts an electron pair (i.e., an electrophile) and will have vacant orbitals .
 A base is a specie that donates an electron pair (i.e., a nucleophile) and will have lone-pair electrons .

Examples of Lewis Acids

 Various species can act as Lewis acids. All cations are Lewis acids since they are able to accept electrons.
(e.g., Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+)
 An atom, ion, or molecule with an incomplete octet of electrons can act as an Lewis acid (e.g., BF 3, AlF3).
 Molecules where the central atom can have more than 8 valence shell electrons can be electron acceptors, and
thus are classified as Lewis acids (e.g., SiBr 4, SiF4).
 Molecules that have multiple bonds between two atoms of different electronegativities (e.g., CO 2, SO2)

Examples of Lewis Acids

OH−, CN−, CH3COO−, NH3, H2O, CO2

AMPHOTERISM

Some substances can be both an acid and a base. You may have noticed this with water, which can act as both an acid
or a base. This ability of water to do this makes it an amphoteric molecule.
Water can act as an acid by donating its proton to the base, thus becoming its conjugate acid, OH -.

Water can also act as a base by accepting a proton from an acid to become its conjugate base, H 3O+.

Hence, water is a universal acid and a universal base.

SOME PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

acids bases

sour taste bitter taste

corrosive slippery when wet

turn blue litmus paper red turn red litmus paper blue

pH < 7 pH > 7

neutralize a base neutralize an acid

release hydronium ions in aqueous release hydroxide ions in aqueous

solution solution