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Chapter 1 Introduction To Statistics
Chapter 1 Introduction To Statistics
Techniques
Step 3: Gathering new •If the data are inadequate to get a clear picture of the problem, the management may
decided to collect new data. Sometimes, secondary data are already out-dated and
data not suitable to be used. Must obtain from primary data.
Step 4: Classifying and •To make data more meaningful, readable and understandable.
organizing data
Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics
Types of
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
- Data are complied, organized, summaries,
and presented in suitable visual forms
- Easy to understand
- Represent the data in tables, graphs,
charts, and diagrams
- For general conclusion
Inferential Statistics
- Suppose need to collect data on a very
large population.
i.e: average height of all man in a city with a
population of million residents. Therefore it
isnt’ practical to try and get the height of
each of man
- Makes inference about populations by
collecting the data on the samples.
Statistical Terms
1. Population and sample
Population Sample
Parameter Statistic
Statistical Terms
3. Census
The collection of data from every member of the
population
Population Distribution by State, Malaysia, 2016
Statistical Terms
4. Sample Survey
- Subgroup (sample) of population being chosen
and questioned on a set of topics
- The answer are used to make inferences for a
large population
- Advantages:-
reduce cost and time
the results also accurate as the census study if the
sample is selected using proper sampling
technique
Statistical Terms
5. Pilot Study
- A study done before the actual fieldwork is carried out
- The purpose is to identify the possible problems and
difficulties that researcher may accounted when the
actual study is being carried out
- Also used to test the questionnaire and improve the
questionnaire in terms of flow, question design, language
and clarity
Data
Qualitative Quantitative
Data
Qualitative Data
Using non-numerical data in their reports
Provided definite information regarding
opinions, perceptions, preferences and
behavior of respondents
Less accurate and have limited statistical
methods for data analysis
Transcripts of individual interviews and
focus groups, filed notes from observation
of certain activities, copies of documents,
audio/video recordings
Qualitative Data
Types of Qualitative Data
- Structured text ( writings, stories, survey
comments, news articles, books etc)
- Unstructured text (transcription, interviews,
focus groups, conservation)
- Audio recordings, music
- Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures,
visuals)
Quantitative Data
When numerical data are required
Provide more accurate market
information as they are numerical
Quantitative data are more accurate
compare to qualitative data
Quantitative Data
Advantages of quantitative data:-
- Specific
- Replicable
- Generalizable
- Breadth…aggregate across multiple subjects,
summarizes findings
BUT
- Data are constructed what you look for and
see are subjective as are interpretations
- Danger of being seduced by numbers
Quantitative Data
Types of Quantitative Data
- Primary data (questionnaires,
measurement)
- Secondary data (existing research, library
searches of statistical data)
Data Sources: Primary and
Secondary
Primary Data:-
- Collect by user himself
- First-hand information
- Example: personal interview
- Primary data collection activities:- survey, recording
observation, conducting laboratory
Secondary Data:-
- Previously collected and summarized by other parties
or department for their own use
- Example: newspaper report, annual report
- Primary data collection activities:- collecting data at
JPPH department
Types of Variables
Quantitative
Can be measured numerically or counted
Qualitative
Cannot be measured numerically or counted
Types of Variables
Variables
The characteristics of the population of
interest
i.e monthly income, respondents’ age,
gender, level of education, and types of
house owned
Qualitative or Attributive
Quantitative or Numerical
- Measured with a non-numerical
- Measured with numerical scale
scale
- Yields numerical response
Yields categorical response
Example is: The MFA size of the
Example is: environmental factors;
house?
sea view
The answer is numerical
The answer is Yes or No
Discrete Continuous
Numerical response which arise Numerical response which arise
from a counting process from a measuring process
Example: How many children do Example: How tall are you
you have What is you weight
Scale of Data Measurement
Nominal data:- categorical data, lowest in
the data measurement scale
Ordinal data:- can be arranged in ranking
order and inequality signs can be used
when comparing the values of variables
Interval data:- is meaningful but cannot be
manipulated
Ratio data:- the highest level of
measurement scale
Scale of Data Measurement
Ratio
• Absolute zero
Interval
• Distance is
Ordinal meaningful
• CGPA of UiTM
• Attributes can be students
Nominal ordered
• Ranking from best
• Attributes are only to worst
named; weakest
• Using likert scaling
• i.e gender (male,
female)
Statistics
Scale Basic characteristics Examples Descriptive Inferential