2.

008x

Sheet Metal Forming

MIT 2.008x

Prof. David E. Hardt

 Key Topics
• Products and Processes
• The Process Taxonomy
• Demonstrations
– Pure Bending
– Adding Stretch
• Processes and Mechanics
• Comparison Criteria
– Rate
– Quality
– Flexibility
– Cost

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 Process Taxonomy
• Shape Change Mechanism?
– Removal (2-D)
• Mechanical Shear
• Water Jet (Fluid Shear)
• Thermal Ablation or Melting

– Plastic Deformation (2 and 3-D)

• Simple Bending (Along a Line)
• Bending + Stretching
• 3D Draw-Forming

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Manufacturing
 The “Big Four”
• Rate
– What Limits This?

• Quality
– What Causes Dimensions/Shape/Properties to
Vary from Specifications?

• Cost
– Material/Machine/Labor

• Flexibility
– Ease of Product Changeover

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Manufacturing
Amada CNC Automated Shear Punch

• Removal (Cutting) Amada

CNC Punch Press

• What Determines
the Part
Geometry?

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Manufacturing
 Processes CNC Laser
Cutter
• Removal (Cutting)
– Serial Thermal Energy

• What Determines the

Part Geometry?

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Manufacturing
 Simple Bending
• Plastic Deformation Via Bending Stresses

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Manufacturing
 Processes: Bending
• Local High Bending Stress
• Plastic Deformation

• What Determines the Part Geometry?

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Manufacturing
 Combined Die Cutting and Bending
• “Progressive” Dies

• Strip of Sheet Sequences Through a

“Progression” of Cutting and Bending Tools

Electrical Connectors

http://stampingworld.com/stripjoint/highspeedstamping/10

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
Making Airplane Skins: Large Smooth
Panels with Compound Curvature:
Stretch Forming Process

Why do we need the Stretch?

What Determines the Part Geometry?
From Cyril Bath Co.

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
3D Sheet Stamping for Car Bodies
Simultaneous Deformation over the Area of the Part

What Determines the Part Geometry?

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Manufacturing
 Process Mechanics
• Removal
– Serial Shear (Shearing)
– Parallel Shear (Punching)
• Planar Deformation
– Focus on Simple Bending but with Plasticity
• Elastic Springback
– Effect of Adding Stretch
• Reduction of Springback
• Potential for Tensile Failure
• General 3D Deformation
– Bending, Tension and Compression
• Buckling!

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Manufacturing
 Processes and Mechanics
• Cutting
– Similar to Machining
– Large Shear at Tool - Material interface

Looks just like

machining at the
interface

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 Processes and Mechanics
• Simple Bending
– Bending Only
– Low Forces
– Large Springback
• Low accuracy

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 Brake Bending of Sheet

• Simple Process
• Complex Mechanics
• Variable Moments
M M • Variable Curvature
• Combined Elastic-
ε Plastic Zones

σ
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Manufacturing
 Simple Model : Pure Moment Bending

Springback

Constant Radius Tool

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Manufacturing
 Simple Bending Mechanics:

• Tool Shape (Rtool) determines the shape

under load
• Can Model as Pure Moment Beam Bending
• Elastic Springback determines the final shape

• What determines the Springback?

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 Simple Bending Model

r = 1/K

M M h

y
b
e=K y

What is M(K)
K = curvature of the tooling
h = thickness of the sheet
(or K(M)) ?
e(y) = through thickness strain

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Manufacturing
 Moment – Curvature for Bending
• Relates the Shape to the Applied Moment
• Is the Bending Equivalent to Force-
Displacement or Stress-Strain
• Will look similar:

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Manufacturing
 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Stress and Strain in Bending

In Elastic Range
M Stress is
Proportional to Strain

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K
Manufacturing 2.008 Fall 2016
 Stress and Strain in Bending

NB: Yield exceeded

M

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K
Manufacturing 2.008 Fall 2016
 Stress and Strain in Bending

NB: Yield exceeded

M

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K
Manufacturing 2.008 Fall 2016
 Stress and Strain in Bending

NB: Yield exceeded

M

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K
Manufacturing 2.008 Fall 2016
 Analysis: Simple Beam Given K,
Theory M=?

r = 1/K

M M h

y b

ε (y) = Ky e=K y dA
ds b
σ = f (ε ) (stress-strain curve) y
dy
h/2 h
M= ∫ −h/2 σ (y)yb dy

moment arm From 2.001 Elastic Beam Bending

dA
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Manufacturing
 Idealized Material Model:
Elastic Perfectly Plastic

s
sY
s= E e e <eY
E
s= sY e >eY

eY e

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Manufacturing
 Moment - Curvature
Relationship M(K)
If the die curvature K is such that:
h
K = ε max < ε Y (All strains are below yield)
2
Then only elastic deformation will
take place and:
h /2 h /2
2
M = ∫−h/ 2 σ (y)ybdy = ∫−h/ 2 EKy bdy

bh 3
= KE = KEI = loaded curvature bending
12 stiffness
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Manufacturing
 Moment - Curvature
Relationship
As K increases, eventually:
h
K > ε Y ∴yielding occurs
2
But for all e> e Y, s= s Y (i.e. constant stress)

From M = Melastic + M Plastic

We can get
2
3 " " K y % % KY = εY / (h / 2)
M = My $ 1− 13 $ ' '
2 # #K& & M Y = EI KY
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Manufacturing
 The Resulting M-K Curve

3/2 MY
Mmax
M Loading
MY
Unloading
EI EI
DK

KY Kpart Ktool K
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Manufacturing
 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
Manufacturing 2.008 Fall 2016
 Stress and Strain in Bending

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K
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 Final Shape: Springback
Mmax
ΔK = ∴ K part = K tool − ΔK
EI
K = shape of tool
E= material modulus
1 3
I= bh cubic dependence on thickness
12 3/2 MY
Mmax
Mmax = ? M
MY

Mmax = Φ (KY , EI) EI EI

DK
KY K
Kpart Ktool

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Manufacturing
 Effect of Material Variations:
Increase in Yield Stress

MY
M
MY

EI
DK

KY
Kpart DK Ktool K
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Manufacturing
 Other Possible Variations

• Yield Stress (+ 10%reported)

– Chemistry, working history
• Thickness
– Rolling mill quality
– Design vs. manufacturing specs
• Tooling Errors

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Manufacturing
 Conclusions for
Simple Bending
• High Degree of Springback
• Strong Material Dependence
• Yield Strength
• Strain Hardening
• Thickness
• Low Forming Forces

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 More Precision?
• Bend + Stretch
– Reduction in Springback
• Higher Accuracy
– Increase in Forces
– Increase in strain: more failure

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 Adding Stretch to Pure Bending

F F

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Manufacturing
Effect of Tensile Strain with Bending

ε(y)

F F

M
Pure Bending Moment “M”
Added Tensile Force “F”
M
!
Bending Strains are Biased toward Tensile

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Manufacturing
 Effect on Stresses?

σ(y)

F F

M M

Stresses Are Likewise Biased Toward Tensile

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Manufacturing
 Effect on Springback?
ε(y)

F F

M ε(h/2) = εY M

F Uniform Stress: F
No Springback

M σY M
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Manufacturing
 Processes and Mechanics
• Deep Drawing (3D Bend + Stretch)
– Extreme Deformation
– Large Compressive Strains
• Buckling Failure possible
– Large Forces
– Critical Flow Control
• Sheet Formability
– Balance of Biaxial Strains (++ and +-)

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing
 The Big Four
• Rate Limits
– Deformation Speed (Usually “Fast”)
– Parallel Processes – Large Areas “Fast”
• Quality
– Springback
– Strong Material Property Dependence
• Cost
– High Volumes – Material Dominates, but Low
Waste in General
– Low Volumes – Tooling and Machine Dominates
• Flexibility
– Serial Processes – Trajectory Easily Changed
– Parallel Processes – Low – Complex and Costly
Tooling
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Manufacturing
 Process Comparisons

Sheet Forming Machining

• Rate High Low

• Quality Moderate High

• Cost Low Moderate-High

• Flexibility Low High

10/12/16 2.008 Fall 2016

Manufacturing