1

CELL:
The cells are living units of the body. Each organ is an aggregate
of many different cells helped together by inter-cellular supporting
structures.
Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one or a few
particular functions. For instance, the red blood cells ,numbering
about 25 trillion In each human being, transport oxygen from the
lungs to the tissues. Although the red blood cells are the most
abundant of any single type of cell in the body, about 75 trillion
cells of other types perform functions different from those of the
red blood cells. The entire body, then, contains about hundred
trillion cells.
All organisms are made up of one or more cells and product of
those cells. All cells required or carry out life activities required
energy, grow, have a limited size.
 2

CELL ORGANELLES:
The cytoplasm is filled with both minute and large dispersed
particles and organelles. The jelly-like fluid portion of the
cytoplasm in which the particles are dispersed is called cytosol
and contains mainly dissolved protein, electrolytes and glucose.
Dispersed in the cytoplasm are the neutral fat globules, glycogen
granules, ribosome, secretary vesicles, and five especially
important organelles:
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi apparatus

Mitochondria

Lysosome

Peroxisomes

The jelly-like substance composed of mainly water and found

between the membrane and nucleus. The cytoplasm make up
most of the body of a cell and is constantly streaming.
Organelles are found in cytoplasm and substances like, salt may
be dissolve in it.
 3

THE NUCLEUS :
Nucleus the most prominent organelle of the cell. The number of
nuclei may vary, they may be uni-nucleate (single nucleus), bi-
nucleate (two nuclei) or even multi-nucleate. 

Nucleus is present in all eukaryotic cells, they may be absent in

few cells like the mammalian RBCs. 

The shape of the nucleus is mostly round, it may be oval, disc

shaped depending on the type of cell.
The word nucleus is derived from
a Latin word nucleus or nuculeus which means 'kernel'. Nucleus a
double-membrane bound cell organelle present in eukaryotic
cells. The nucleus constitutes most of the genetic material of the
cell - the DNA.
The nucleus maintains the integrity of the genes which regulate
the gene expression, in-turn regulating the activities of the cell.
Therefore, the nucleus is known as the control center of the cell.

THE NUCLEUS STRUCTURE:

The nucleus is the largest organelle of the cell. The nucleus
appears to be dense, spherical organelle.  It occupies about 10%
of the total volume of the cell.
In mammalian cells the average diameter of the nucleus is
approximately 6 micrometers. A semi-fluid matrix nucleoplasm is
 4

seen inside the nucleus which is a viscous fluid and is similar to

the composition of the cytoplasm.

NUCLEUS

Functions of
Nucleus:
Below you could see
the functions of the nucleus

It controls the heredity

characteristics of an
organism.

It is responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth and

differentiation. 

Stores heredity material in the form of deoxy-ribonucleic acid

(DNA) strands.
Also stores proteins and ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleolus. 

It is a site for transcription process in which messenger RNA (m

RNA) are produced for protein synthesis.
 5

Aids in exchange of DNA and RNA (heredity materials) between

the nucleus and the rest of the cell.

Nucleolus produces ribosomes and are known as protein

factories.
It also regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression.

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE:
The nuclear membrane, also called the nuclear envelope, is a
double membrane layer that separates the contents of the
nucleus from the rest of the cell. It is found in both animal and
plant cells. A cell has many jobs, such as building proteins,
converting molecules into energy, and removing waste products.
The nuclear envelope protects the cell’s genetic material from the
chemical reactions that take place outside the nucleus. It also
contains many proteins that are used in organizing DNA and
regulating genes.

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEAR MEMBRANE:

The nuclear membrane is a barrier that physically protects the
cell’s DNA from the chemical reactions that are occurring
elsewhere in the cell. If molecules that stay in the cytoplasm were
to enter the nucleus, they could destroy part of the cell’s DNA,
which would stop it from functioning properly and could even lead
to cell death. The envelope also contains a network of proteins
that keep the genetic material in place inside the nucleus.
 6

It also manages what materials can enter and exit the nucleus. It
does so by being selectively permeable. Only certain proteins can
physically pass through the double layer. This protects genetic
information from mixing with other parts of the cell, and allows
different cellular activities to occur inside the nucleus and outside
the nucleus in the cytoplasm, where all other cellular structures
are located.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
Think of a cell as a “multitude of membranes” we said in an earlier
section. This statement certainly applies to the endoplasmic
reticulum an organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
About 50% of the total membrane surface in an animal cell is
provided by endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The organelle called
‘endoplasmic reticulum’ occurs in both plants and animals and is
 7

a very important manufacturing site for lipids (fats) and many

proteins. Many of these products are made for and exported to
other organelles.

This is an electron microscope image showing part of the rough

endoplasmic reticulum in a plant root cell from maize. The dark
spots are ribosome.

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

This is an extensive organelle composed of greatly convoluted but
flattish sealed sacs, which are contiguous with the nuclear
membrane. It is called ‘rough’ endoplasmic reticulum because it is
studded on its outer surface (the surface in contact with the
cytosol) with ribosomes. These are called membrane bound
ribosomes and are firmly attached to the outer cytosolic side of
the ER About 13 million ribosomes are present on the RER in the
average liver cell. Rough ER is found throughout the cell but the
density is higher near the nucleus and the Golgi apparatus.
Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum are called
‘membrane bound’ and are responsible for the assembly of many
proteins. This process is called translation. Certain cells of the
pancreas and digestive tract produce a high volume of protein as
enzymes. Many of the proteins are produced in quantity in the
 8

cells of the pancreas and the digestive tract and function as

digestive enzymes.

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

Smooth ER is more tubular than rough ER and forms an
interconnecting network sub-compartment of ER. It is found fairly
evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
It is not studded with ribosomes hence ‘smooth’ ER.
Smooth ER is devoted almost exclusively to the manufacture of
lipids and in some cases to the metabolism of them and
associated products. In liver cells for example smooth ER enables
glycogen that is stored as granules on the external surface of
smooth ER to be broken down to glucose. Smooth ER is also
involved in the production of steroid hormones in the adrenal
cortex and endocrine glands.
 9

MITOCHONDRIA:
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They
are organelles that act like a digestive system which takes in
nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules
for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known
as cellular respiration. Many of the reactions involved in cellular
respiration happen in the mitochondria. Mitochondria are the
working organelles that keep the cell full of energy. 

MITOCHONDRIA STRUCTURE:
Mitochondria are shaped perfectly to maximize their productivity.
They are made of two membranes. Theouter membrane covers
the organelle and contains it like a skin. The inner
membrane folds over many times and creates layered structures
called cristae. The fluid contained in the mitochondria is called
the matrix.

FUNCTIONS:
Mitochondria are often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.
They are small structures within a cell that are made up of two
cell, breaks it down, and turns it into energy. This energy is then
in turn used by the cell to carry out various functions.
 10

Each cell contains a different number of mitochondria. The

number present is dependent upon how much energy the cell
requires. The more energy a cell needs the more mitochondria
that will be present. Cells have the ability to produce more
mitochondria as needed. They also can combine mitochondria to
make larger onesmembranes and a matrix. The membrane is
where the chemical reactions occur and the matrix is where the
fluid is held. Mitochondria are a part of eukaryotic cells.

The main job of mitochondria is to perform cellular respiration.

This means it takes in nutrients from the.
 11

GOLGI APPARATUS:
The Golgi apparatus earlier when we discussed the production of
proteins in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. If the smooth and
rough endoplasmic reticula are how we make our product, the
Golgi is the mailroom that sends our product to customers . It is
responsible for packing proteins from the rough endoplasmic
reticulum into membrane-bound vesicles (tiny compartments of
lipid bilayer that store molecules) which then translocate to the
cell membrane. At the cell membrane, the vesicles can fuse with
the larger lipid bilayer, causing the vesicle contents to either
become part of the cell membrane or be released to the outside.
The shipping department identifies the molecule and sets it on
one of 4 paths:

1. CYTOSOL: the proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake

are sent back into the cytosol (imagine the barcode scanning
wrong and the item being returned).

2. Cell Membrane: proteins destined for the cell

membrane are processed continuously. Once the vesicle is
made, it moves to the cell membrane and fuses with it.
Molecules in this pathway are often protein channels which
allow molecules into or out of the cell, or cell identifiers which
project into the extracellular space and act like a name tag
for the cell.

3. Secretion: some proteins are meant to be secreted from

the cell to act on other parts of the body. Before these
vesicles can fuse with the cell membrane, they must
accumulate in number, and require a special chemical signal
 12

to be released. This way shipments only go out if they’re

worth the cost of sending them (you generally wouldn’t ship
just one toy and expect to profit).

4. LYSOSOME: The final destination for proteins coming

through the Golgi is the lysosome. Vesicles sent to this
acidic organelle contain enzymes that will hydrolyze the
lysosome’s content.

RIBOSOMES:
Ribosomes are a cell structure that makes protein. Protein is
needed for many cell functions such as repairing damage or
directing chemical processes. Ribosomes can be found floating
within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
The location of the ribosomes in a cell determines what kind of
protein it makes. If the ribosomes are floating freely throughout
the cell, it will make proteins that will be utilized within the cell
itself. When ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic reticulum, it
is referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum or rough ER.
 13

Proteins made on the rough ER are used for usage inside the cell
or outside the cell.

RIBOSOME

FUNCTIONS:
1. They assemble amino acids to form specific proteins,
proteins are essential to carry out cellular activities.
2. The process of production of proteins, the deoxyribonucleic
acid produces mRNA by the process of DNA transcription.
3. The genetic message from the mRNA is translated into
proteins during DNA translation.
4. The sequences of protein assembly during protein synthesis
are specified in the mRNA.
5. The mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and is transported
to the cytoplasm for further process of protein synthesis.
6. In the cytoplasm, the two subunits of ribosomes are bound
around the polymers of mRNA; proteins are then
synthesized with the help of transfer RNA.
 14

7. The proteins that are synthesized by the ribosomes present

in the cytoplasm are used in the cytoplasm itself. The
proteins produced by the bound ribosomes are transported
outside the cell.

LYSOSOMES:
Lysosomes are specialized vesicles within cells that digest large
molecules through the use of hydrolytic enzymes. Vesicles are
small spheres of fluid surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane,
and they have roles in transporting molecules within the cell.
Lysosomes are only found in animal cells; a human cell contains
around 300 of them. Not only do they digest large molecules, they
are also responsible for breaking down and getting rid of waste
products of the cell. Lysosomes contain over 60 different
enzymes that allow them to carry out these processes.

FUNCTIONS:
Lysosomes digest many complex molecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which the cell
then recycles for other uses. The pH of lysosomes is acidic
(around pH 5) because their hydrolytic enzymes function best at
this pH instead of at the neutral pH of the rest of the cell.
 15

Hydrolytic enzymes specifically break down large molecules

through hydrolysis. During the process of hydrolysis, a molecule
of water is added to a substance, causing it to cleave. Like the
human body, which breaks down food using enzymes, the
lysosome can be thought of as the “digestive system” of the cell
because it breaks down molecules using enzymes.

PEROXISOMES:
There are many ways that peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes.
They are small vesicles found around the cell. They have a single
membrane that contains digestive enzymes for breaking down
toxic materials in the cell. They differ from lysosomes in the type
of enzyme they hold. Peroxisomes hold on to enzymes that
require oxygen (oxidative enzymes). Lysosomes have enzymes
that work in oxygen-poor areas and lower pH.
 16

CENTRIOLS:
Every animal-like cell has two small organelles
called centrioles. They are there to help the cell when it comes
time to divide. They are put to work in both the process
of mitosis and the process of meiosis. You will usually find
them near the nucleus but they cannot be seen when the cell is
not dividing. And what are centrioles made of: Microtubules.

Function of centrosome: Centrioles play very

important role in cell division. During cell division, they duplicate
and a pair of centrioles moves to each pole of the cell. Each pair
at opposite poles produces the spindle fibers, which radiate
towards the equator of cell and then attach the chromosomes and
help them to migrate towards both poles of the cell.

CELL MEMBRANE:
The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-permeable
membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. Its function is to
 17

protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain

substances into the cell while keeping other substances out. It
also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some
organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane
also serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.

Another function of the membrane is to regulate cell growth

through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis. In
endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell
membrane as substances are internalized. In exocytosis, vesicles
containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell membrane
increasing cell size. Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and
fungal cells have plasma membranes. Internal organelles are also
encased by membranes.
18