(Linear) Momentum, p

● is mass times velocity

p = mv vector!

● (p) = kg m/s
► a 1 kg object moving at 1000 m/s has the same momentum
as a 1000 kg object moving at 1 m/s (p = 1000 kg m/s)

► a roller skate rolling has more momentum than

stationary truck.
 Momentum is a commonly used term in sports.
When a sports announcer says that a team has the
momentum they mean that the team is really on the
move and is going to be hard to stop.

The term momentum is a physics concept. Any object with

momentum is going to be hard to stop or change.

To change the motion of such an object, it is necessary to

apply a force against its motion for a given period of time.
The more momentum that an object has, the harder that it
is to stop. Thus, it would require a greater amount of force
or a longer amount of time or both to bring such an object
to a halt. As the force acts upon the object for a given
amount of time, the object's velocity is changed; and
hence, the object's momentum is changed.
 How can the momentum of an object be changed?
By changing its mass,
or, more usually, by exerting a force causing an
acceleration that changes its velocity.
Let’s go back to Newton’s second law: F = ma.

Actually, Newton formulated his second law as:

Δp
Force = time rate of change of momentum F =
Δt

Δp is the change in momentum produced by the force F in time Δt

Δ(mv) Δv
If the mass doesn’t change, then F= =m = ma
Δt Δt
 Δp
F=
Δt

is in fact the form in which you should

remember the second law of motion since
the law in the form F = ma is actually, as
we have seen mathematically, a special
case – it can not be applied to situations in
which mass can change.

If the mass does change, then

∆p ∆(mv) ∆m
F= = =v
∆t ∆t ∆t
 Δp → we can get a very useful form of Newton’s 2nd law:
F=
Δt
F∆t = ∆p Dp = mv - mu

F∆t is called the impulse of the force.

impulse (action of a force F over time Dt )

will produce change in momentum Dp

units: (F∆t) = Ns Ns = kg m/s

REMEMBER: Although we write F for simplicity, we actually

mean Fnet , because only Fnet and not individual forces can
change momentum (by producing an acceleration)
 ● Achieving the same change in momentum over a long time
requires smaller force and over a short time greater force.
∆p = F∆t
Let’s think about the time it
takes to slow the truck to zero.

10 kg m/s =
(10N)(1s) =

(5N)(2s) =

You could stop it with your own or, you could exert a (1N)(10s) =
force – just if you exert it over a huge force over very
long, long period of time. short period of time.
(0.1N)(100s) =

And the story goes on….

 For better understanding we’ll do another example:

h=2m m = 30 g = 0.03 kg
both eggs fall the same distance,
h h so the velocity of both eggs just
before impact is:

v = u2 +2gh = 2gh = 6m/s

Impact: before impact u = 6 m/s; just after impact is v = 0

∆p = mv – mu = – 0.18 kg m/s
In both cases momentum is reduced to zero during impact/interaction with the
floor. But the time of interaction is different. In the case of concrete, time is
small while in the case of pillow, the stopping time is greatly increased.
If you look at the impulse-momentum relation
F∆ t = ∆p, you see that for the same change in momentum (– 0.18 kg m/s in this case),
if the time is smaller the ground must have exerted greater force on the egg. And vice
versa. The pillow will exert smaller force over greater period of time.
● Often you want to reduce the momentum of an object to zero but
with minimal impact force (or injury). How to do it? Try to maximize
the time of interaction; this way stopping force is decreased.

Getting smart and smarter by knowing physics:

► Car crash on a highway, where there’s either a concrete wall or

a barbed-wire fence to crash into. Which to choose?
Naturally, the wire fence – your momentum will be decreased by the
same amount, so the impulse to stop you is the same, but with the
wire fence, you extend the time of impact, so decrease the force.

► Bend your knees when you jump down from high! Try keeping your knees stiff
while landing – it hurts! (only try for a small jump, otherwise you could get
injured…) Bending the knees extends the time for momentum to go to zero,
by about 10-20 times, so forces are 10-20 times less.
► Safety net used by acrobats, increases impact time, decreases the forces.
► Catching a ball –let your hand move backward with the ball after contact…
► Bungee jumping
► Riding with the punch, when boxing, rather than moving into

By moving away, the time of By moving into the glove, he

contact is extended, so force is is lessening the time of
less than if he hadn’t moved. contact, leading to a greater
force, a bigger ouch!

► Wearing the gloves when boxing versus boxing with bare fists.
● Sometimes you want to increase the force over a short time

This is how in karate (tae kwon do), an expert can break a

stack of bricks with a blow of a hand:
Bring in arm with tremendous speed (large momentum), that
is quickly reduced on impact with the bricks.
The shorter the time, the larger the force on the bricks.
 Determine the change in impulse due to a time varying force
Formulas we had are for the constant force.
What if the force changes over time ∆t ?
The graph shows the variation with time
of the force on the football of mass 0.5 kg.

ball was given an impulse of approximately

100x0.01 = 1Ns during this 0.01s.

area under graph is the total impulse given

to the ball ≈ 2x(100x0.05)/2 = 5 Ns

F∆t = ∆p → ∆p = 5 kg m/s

∆p = m∆v → ∆v = 10 m/s v = u + ∆v

Change in momentum, Δp, in time Δt is

the area under the graph force vs. time.
In actuality one is much more likely to use the
measurement of the speed of the football to
estimate the average force that is exerted by the
foot on the football.
The time that the foot is in contact with the ball
can be measured electronically.

Favg = m ∆v/ ∆t
Kinetic energy in terms of momentum
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 linear momentum
1
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 kinetic energy
2
EXAMPLE: Show that kinetic energy can be calculated directly from the
momentum using the following:
𝑝2
𝐸𝐾 = kinetic energy
2𝑚
SOLUTION:
𝑝
From 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 we obtain 𝑣 = . Then
𝑚
1 1 𝑝 2
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2= 𝑚
2 2 𝑚
2
𝑚𝑝
= 2
2𝑚
𝑝2
=
2𝑚
Kinetic energy in terms of momentum
𝑝2
𝐸𝐾 = kinetic energy
2𝑚

PRACTICE: What is the kinetic energy of a 4.0-gram NATO SS 109

bullet traveling at 950 m/s and having a momentum of 3.8 kg m s-1?
SOLUTION: Start from scratch using
1 𝑝2
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 or you can use 𝐸𝐾 =
2 2𝑚
Let’s use the new formula…
𝑝2
𝐸𝐾 =
2𝑚
3.82
=
2)(0.004
= 1800 J
 Till now we were concentrated on ONE object.
Now we move to the system of (usually) two objects
exerting strong forces over a short time intervals on each other
like: collisions, explosions, ejections
● collisions can be very complicated

● two objects bang into each other and exert

strong forces over short time intervals which
are very hard to measure

● fortunately, we can predict the future without

going into pesky details of force.

● What will help us is the law of conservation of

linear momentum:
 Law of Conservation of Momentum
● consider system:
particle 1 and particle 2 collide with one another.

velocities just before velocities just after

interaction (collision) interaction (collision)
m1
v1 (p1 + p2 = p)
u1
pafter = pbefore
u2 v2
m2 m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
The total linear momentum of a system of interacting
particles is conserved - remains constant, provided there is
no resultant external force.
Such a system is called an “isolated/closed system”.
A closed system has no work done on its parts by external
forces.
Certain situations (collisions, explosions, ejections) do not allow detailed
knowledge of forces (strength, direction, duration) or acceleration. Of course
that these situations must follow Newton’s laws. The only problem is that it is
difficult to see exactly how to apply them. One cannot easily measure neither
forces involved in the collision nor acceleration (velocity appears to be
instantaneously acquired).
The law of conservation of momentum gives us an easy and elegant way to
predict the outcome without knowing forces involved in process. It is much
easier to measure velocities and masses before and after interaction.

WE CAN APPLY THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM TO

COLLISIONS AND EXPLOSIONS (EJECTIONS) IF DURING INTERACTION
THE NET EXTERNAL FORCE IS ZERO OR IT CAN BE NEGLECTED.

Example: baseball is struck with a bat – duration of the collision is about 0.01 s,
and the average force the bat exerts on the ball is several thousand Newtons
what is much greater than the force of gravity, so you can ignore it. And as we
consider velocities just before and just after interaction, there is no much
change due to gravity. The system can be considered isolated and momentum
is conserved.
 beauty of the law of conservation of
momentum

● if we know what the objects were doing before they

collided, we can figure out what can happen after they
collide.

● We can work backward sometimes to figure out from the

collision scene what was going on before the collision.
 Momentum is
conserved in every
isolated system.
Internal forces can
never change
momentum of the
system.
Newton’s second law based on momentum
The resultant force is directly proportional to the rate of
change on momentum. And the direction of the resultant
force is the same as the direction of change of the
momentum / velocity.
Fnet, Impulse acceleration and change in velocity; all
have the same direction
 Example how to use law of conservation of
momentum in the case of ejections or explosions.
A 60.0-kg astronaut is on a space walk when her tether line breaks.
She throws her 10.0-kg oxygen tank away from the shuttle with a speed
of 12.0 m/s to propel herself back to the shuttle. What is her velocity?

before after
12.0 m/s
70 60 10

u=0 v1 = ?

pbefore = pafter
0 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
0 = 60.0 v1 + 10.0 (12.0)
v1 = − 2.0 m/s

moving in the negative direction means toward shuttle

Very similar case is spaceship propulsion which is actually
example of conservation of momentum. Since no outside
forces act on the system (spaceship + its fuel) or it is very
small compared to the explosion, the momentum gained by
fuel ejected in the backward direction must be balanced by
forward momentum gained by the spaceship.
hot gas ejected at
very high speed

pbefore = pafter
0 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
m1 v1 = - m2 v2
● the same as untied balloon.
Similar examples are: recoil of the firing gun, recoil of the
firing cannon, ice-skater’s recoil, throwing of the package
from the boat etc.
 Collisions
If we take a close-up look at a collision between two bodies,
we can plot the force acting on each mass during the
collision vs. the time :
vAi vBi “Before” F
A B phase During
Before After
FAB FBA
A B
t
“During”
FAB A B FBA
phase
FAB FBA FYI
A B
Note the perfect
vAf vBf “After” symmetry of the action-
A B
phase reaction force pairs.
Impulse and force – time graphs
Although the force varies

Force
with time, we can simplify it
by “averaging it out” as follows: F
Imagine an ant farm (two t
sheets of glass with sand in ∆t
between) filled with the sand in the shape of the above
force curve:
We now let the sand level itself out (by tapping or
shaking the ant farm):
The area of the rectangle is the same as the area
under the original force vs. time curve.
The average force F is the height of this rectangle.
 Force
We define a new quantity F
called impulse J as the t
average force times the time. ∆t

Force
This amounts to the area t
under the force vs. time graph.
𝐽 = 𝐹∆𝑡 area under F vs. t graph impulse
D𝑝
Since 𝐹 = D𝑡 we see that 𝐹∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝 and so we can
interpret the impulse as the change in momentum of the
object during the collision.

𝐽 = 𝐹∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝 = area under F vs. t graph impulse

 J = F ∆t = Dp = area under F vs. t graph impulse
It is well to point out here
that during a collision there F
are two objects interacting t
with one another.
Because of Newton’s third F
law, the forces are equal but opposite so that F = - F.
Thus for one object, the area (impulse or momentum
change) is positive, while for the other object the area
(impulse or momentum change) is negative.
FYI
Thus impulse can be positive or negative.
EXAMPLE: A 0.140-kg baseball comes in at 40.0 m/s,
strikes the bat, and goes back out at 50.0 m/s. If the
collision lasts 1.20 ms (a typical value), find the impulse
imparted to the ball from the bat during the collision.
SOLUTION:
v0 = -40 m s-1
p0 = -40( 0.14 )
Before p0 = -5.6 kg m s-1
We can use J = Dp:
vf = +50 m/s
J = p f – p0
pf = +50( 0.14 )
= 7 – (- 5.6) After pf = +7 kg m s-1
= 12.6 Ns.
FYI The units for impulse can also be kg m s-1.
EXAMPLE: A 0.140-kg baseball comes in at 40.0 m/s,
strikes the bat, and goes back out at 50.0 m/s. If the
collision lasts 1.20 ms (a typical value), find the average
force exerted on the ball during the collision.
SOLUTION: We can use 𝐽 = 𝐹D𝑡. Thus
𝐽
𝐹 = D𝑡 Fmax
12.6 F
= 1.20×10−3
= 10500 N.
FYI
Fmax is even greater than F!
Sketching and interpreting force – time graphs
J = F ∆t = Dp = area under F vs. t graph impulse
PRACTICE: A bat striking a ball imparts a force to it as
shown in the graph. Find the impulse.
SOLUTION:
Break the graph into simple areas of rectangles and triangles.
 A1 = 12(3)(9) = 13.5 N s 9
 A2 = (4)(9) = 36 N s Force F / n 6
 A3 = 12(3)(9) = 13.5 N s
3
Atot = A1 + A2 + A3
Atot = 13.5 + 36 + 13.5 = 63 N s. 0
0 5 10
Time t / s
Impulse and force – time graphs
EXAMPLE: T
How does a jet engine v
produce thrust?
SOLUTION:
The jet engine sucks
in air (at about the speed
that the plane is flying through the air), heats it up, and
expels it at a greater velocity.
The momentum of the air changes since its velocity
does, and hence an impulse has been imparted to it by
the engine.
The engine feels an equal and opposite impulse.
Hence the engine creates a thrust.
 This is a 2-
stage rocket.
The orange
EXAMPLE: tanks hold fuel,
∆𝑚 and the blue
Show that 𝐹 = ∆𝑡 𝑣. tanks hold
SOLUTION: oxidizer.
From 𝐹 = DD𝑝𝑡 we have The oxidizer
D𝑝 D 𝑚𝑣 is needed so
𝐹 = D𝑡 = D𝑡 that the rocket
D𝑚 works without
𝐹 = D𝑡 𝑣 (if v is constant).
FYI air.
The equation 𝐹 = DD𝑚𝑡 𝑣 is known as the rocket engine
equation because it shows us how to calculate the
thrust of a rocket engine.
The second example will show how this is done.
 T
EXAMPLE:
What is the purpose of the rocket nozzle?
SOLUTION:
In the combustion chamber the gas
particles have random directions.
The shape of the nozzle is such that
the particles in the sphere of combustion
are deflected in such a way that they all
come out antiparallel to the rocket.
This maximizes the impulse on the gases.
The rocket feels an equal and opposite (maximized)
impulse, creating a maximized thrust.
 D𝑚
𝐹= 𝑣 rocket engine equation
D𝑡
EXAMPLE: A rocket engine consumes
fuel and oxidizer at a rate of 275 kg s-1
and used a chemical reaction that gives
the product gas particles an average
speed of 1250 ms-1. Find the thrust
produced by this engine.
SOLUTION:
The units of DD𝑚𝑡 are kg s-1 so that
clearly DD𝑚𝑡 = 275.
The speed v = 1250 ms-1 is given. Thus
D𝑚
𝐹= 𝑣 = 275 1250 = 344000 𝑁.
Use the principle of conservation of momentum and Newton’s law to
explain a helicopter hovers

For this closed system (Fnet is zero), the blades exert a force
on the air (according to newton’s 3rd law; the air will exert an
equal and opposite force upwards on the blades). The air
has a change in momentum downwards which gives rise to a
net force on the air molecules; so it produces an upwards
thrust force on the helicopter.
Since the weight of the helicopter is equal to the thrust force,
then Fnet is zero on the helicopter, so the vertical
acceleration id zero and the helicopter can be said to be
hovering.
Thrust

Weight
Conservation of linear momentum
Recall Newton’s second law (p-form):
D𝑝
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
D𝑡
Newton’s second law (p-form)
If the net force acting on an object is zero, we have
D𝑝
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
D𝑡
D𝑝
0=
D𝑡
0 = D𝑝
In words, if the net force is zero, then the momentum
does not change – p is constant.
conservation of
If Fnet = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
FYI If during a process a physical quantity does not
change, that quantity is said to be conserved.
 The
internal
forces
cancel
Conservation of linear momentum
Recall that a system is a collection of more than one body,
mutually interacting with each other – for example, colliding
billiard balls:

Note that Fnet = Fexternal + Finternal.

But Newton’s third law guarantees that Finternal = 0.
Thus we can refine the conservation of momentum:
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it as it travels
by. Find the initial momentum of
the system.
SOLUTION: The system consists of sand and car:
p0,car = mcarv0,car = 2500(3) = 7500 kgms-1.
p0,sand = msandv0,sand = 1500(0) = 0 kgms-1.
p0 = p0,car + p0,sand = 0 + 7500 kgms-1 = 7500 kgms-1.
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it as it travels
by. Find the final speed of
the system.
SOLUTION: The initial and final momentums are equal:
p0 = 7500 kgms-1 = pf.
pf = (msand + mcar) vf = (2500 + 1500) vf = 4000 vf.
7500 = 4000 vf  vf = 1.9 ms-1.
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 12-kg block of ice is struck by a hammer
so that it breaks into two pieces. The 4.0-kg piece
travels travels at +16 m s-1 in the x-direction. What is the
velocity of the other piece?
SOLUTION: Make before/after sketches! 8 4
The initial momentum of the two is 0.
v 8 4 16
From p = CONST we have p0 = pf.
Since p = mv, we see that
(8 + 4)(0) = 8v + 4(16)  v = -8.0 m s-1.
 before after
25 0 vf
730 1800 730
+1800
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 730-kg Smart Car traveling at 25 m s-1 (x-
dir) collides with a stationary 1800-kg Dodge Charger.
The two vehicles stick together. Find their velocity
immediately after the collision.

SOLUTION: Make sketches!

p0 = pf so that (730)(25) + 1800(0) = (730 + 1800)vf.
18250
18250 = 2530vf  vf = = 7.2 m s-1.
2530
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A loaded Glock-22,
having a mass of 975 g, fires
a 9.15-g bullet with a muzzle
velocity of 300 ms-1.
Find the gun’s recoil velocity.
SOLUTION: Use p0 = pf. Then
p0 = pGlock,f + pbullet,f
975(0) = (975 – 9.15)v + (9.15)(-300)
0 = 965.85 v – 2745
2745
v = 965.85 = 2.84 m s-1.
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A loaded Glock-22,
having a mass of 975 g, fires
a 9.15-g bullet with a muzzle
velocity of 300 ms-1.
Find the change in kinetic energy
of the gun/bullet system.
SOLUTION: Use EK = 12mv 2 so EK0 = 0 J. Then
1 1
2
𝐸𝐾𝑓 = 2
0.975– 0.00915 2.842 +2 0.00915 −300 =
416 J
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved (it does
not change). Thus EK,f = EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Two billiard balls colliding in such a way that the speeds
of the balls in the system remain unchanged.

The red ball has the same speed as the white ball…

Both balls have same speeds both before and after…

Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved (it
does change). Thus EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
A baseball and a hard wall colliding in such a way that
the speed of the ball changes.
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
In a completely inelastic collision the colliding bodies stick
together and end up with the same velocities, but different
from the originals. EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Two objects colliding and sticking together.

u1 v u2 v

The train cars hitch and move as one body…

The cars collide and move (at first) as one body…

Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
 An explosion is similar to a completely inelastic
collision in that the bodies were originally stuck together
and began with the same velocities. EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Objects at rest suddenly separating into two pieces.

A block of ice broken in two by a hammer stroke…

A bullet leaving a gun

Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. What is their final speed?

u1 v u2 v
SOLUTION: Use momentum conservation p0 = pf. Then
p1,0 + p2,0 = p1,f + p2,f
mu1 + mu2 = mv + mv
m(u1 + u2) = 2mv
10 + 5 = 2v  v = 7.5 m s-1.
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Find the change in kinetic energy.

u1 v u2 v
SOLUTION: Use EK = ½mv 2. Then
EK,f = ½(m + m) v 2
= ½(750 + 750) 7.5 2 = 42187.5 J.
EK,0 = ½(750) 10 2 + ½(750) 5 2 = 46875 J.
DEK = EK,f – EK,0 = 42187.5 – 46875 = - 4700 J.
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Determine the type of collision.

u1 v u2 v
SOLUTION:
Since EK,f ≠ EK,0, this is an inelastic collision.
Since the two objects travel as one (they are stuck
together) this is also a completely inelastic collision.
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Was mechanical energy conserved?

u1 v u2 v
SOLUTION:
Mechanical energy E = EK + EP.
Since the potential energy remained constant and the
kinetic energy decreased, the mechanical energy was
not conserved.
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Was total energy conserved?

u1 v u2 v
SOLUTION:
Total energy is always conserved.
The loss in mechanical energy is DEK = - 4700 J.
The energy lost is mostly converted to heat (there is
some sound, and possibly light, but very little).
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling horizontally
at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood resting on a wood
floor. How fast is the block/bullet combo moving immediately
after collision?
SOLUTION:
If we consider the bullet-block combo as our system, there
are no external forces in the x-direction at collision. Thus pf =
p0 so that
mvf + MVf = mvi + MVi the bullet and the block
move at the same speed
.02v + 4 v = (.02)(300) + 4(0) after collision
4.02v = 6 (completely inelastic)
v = 1.5 m/s
 f
s
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling horizontally
at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood resting on a wood
floor. The block/bullet combo slides 6 m before coming to a
stop. Find the friction f between the block and the floor.
SOLUTION: Use the work-kinetic energy theorem:
∆EK = W
½mv 2 – ½mu 2 = f s cos 
½(4.02)(0)2 – ½(4.02)(1.5)2 = f (6) cos 180°
- 4.5225 = - 6f
−4.5225
f= −6
f = 0.75 N.
 f
s
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling horizontally
at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood resting on a wood
floor. The block/bullet combo slides 6 m before coming to a
stop. Find the dynamic friction coefficient µd between the
block and the floor.
SOLUTION: Use f = µdR: R
Make a free-body diagram to
f
find R:
W
Note that R = W = mg
= (4.00 + 0.020)(10) = 40.2 N.
Thus
𝑓 0.75
µd = = = 0.19.
 F s

Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions

EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling horizontally
at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood resting on a wood
floor. If the bullet penetrates .060 m of the block, find the
average force F acting on it during its collision.
SOLUTION: Use the work-kinetic energy theorem on only
the bullet:
∆EK = W
½mv 2 – ½mu 2 = Fs cos 
½(.02)(1.5)2 – ½(.02)(300)2 = - F (.06)
- 900 = - 0.06F
F = 15000 N

● Two stationary ice skaters
push off
● both skaters exert equal
forces on each other
● however, the smaller skater
acquires a larger speed (due to
larger acc.) than the larger skater.
● momentum is conserved!

pbefore = pafter
0 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
m1 v1 = - m2 v2
Example how to use law of conservation of
momentum in the case of collisions.
There are two fish in the sea. A 6 kg fish and a 2 kg fish. The big fish
swallows the small one. What is its velocity immediately after lunch?
a. the big fish swims at 1 m/s toward and
swallows the small fish that is at rest.

before lunch after lunch Net external force is zero

1 m/s Momentum is conserved.
6 2 8
v=?
p before lunch = p after lunch momentum is vector, direction matters;
choose positive direction in the
Mu1 + mu2 = (M + m)v direction of big fish. +
(6 kg)(1 m/s) + (2 kg)(0 m/s) = (6kg + 2 kg) v
6 kg m/s = (8 kg) v

v = 0.75 m/s in the direction of the large fish before lunch

 +
b. Suppose the small fish is not at rest but is
swimming toward the large fish at 2 m/s.

before lunch after lunch

1 m/s - 2 m/s
6 2 8
v=?
p before lunch = p after lunch
Mu1 + mu2 = (M+m)v
(6 ) (1 ) + (2 ) (—2 ) = (6 + 2 ) v
6 —4 = 8 v

v = 0.25 m/s in the direction of the large fish before lunch

The negative momentum of the small fish is
very effective in slowing the large fish.
 +
c. Small fish swims toward the large fish at 3 m/s.

before lunch after lunch

1 m/s - 3 m/s
6 2 8
v=?
p before lunch = p after lunch
Mu1 + mu2 = (M+m)v
(6 ) (1 ) + (2 ) (—3 ) = (6 + 2 ) v
6 — 6 = (8 ) v

v = 0 m/s fish have equal and opposite momenta. Zero momentum

before lunch is equal to zero momentum after lunch, and
both fish come to a halt.
 +
d. Small fish swims toward the large fish at 4 m/s.

before lunch after lunch

1 m/s - 4 m/s
6 2 8
v=?
p before lunch = p after lunch
Mu1 + mu2 = (M+m)v
(6 ) (1 ) + (2 ) (—4) = (6 + 2 ) v
6 —8=8 v

v = — 0.25 m/s
The minus sign tells us that after lunch the two-fish
system moves in a direction opposite to the large
fish’s direction before lunch.
A red ball traveling with a speed of 2 m/s along the x-axis hits the eight
ball. After the collision, the red ball travels with a speed of 1.6 m/s in a
direction 37o below the positive x-axis. The two balls have equal mass.
At what angle will the eight ball fall in the side pocket? What is the
speed of the blue (8th) ball after collision.
v2
before collision: after collision:
8
u1 u2 = 0 θ2
8
370
the point of
pbefore = pafter collision v1
in x – direction m u1 + 0 = m v1 cos 370 + m v2 cos 2
v2 cos 2 = u1 - v1 cos 370 = 0.72 m/s (1)
in y – direction 0 = - m v1 sin 370 + m v2 sin θ2
v2 sin θ2 = v1 sin 370 = 0.96 m/s (2)

direction of v2 ; (2)/(1) tan θ2 = 1.33 θ2 = 530

(2) → v2 = 0.96 / sin 530 v2 = 1.2 m/s
 Derivation of the Law of Conservation of Momentum

● consider system: particle 1 and particle 2 collide with one

another with no net external force acting on neither of them.

velocities just before

forces during velocities just after
interaction (collision)
collision interaction (collision)
m1
F1 v1
u1
u2 F2
v2
m2

● During the time interval the collision takes place, ∆t, impulse F1∆t
given to particle 1 will cause its momentum change ∆p1. During
the same time interval impulse F2 ∆t will change particle’s 2
momentum by ∆p2.
 (p1 + p2 = p)
particle 1 : F1∆t = ∆p1
particle 2 : F2 ∆t = ∆p2

F1 = – F2 (N3.L) → ∆p2 = – ∆p1

What one object loses in the
collision the other one gains.
∆p1 + ∆p2 = 0 → ∆(p1 + p2 ) = 0 → ∆p = 0 → pafter = pbefore
Total momentum of a system before and after collision is the same.

Conservation of Momentum: if no external force act on a system,

the total momentum of the system is conserved – it will not
change. Such a system is called an “isolated system”.

This argument can be extended up to any number of

interacting particles so long as the system of particles is
still isolated.