QUALITATIVE RESEARCH GROUP 5

Imanina Fitri Rahmawati (4101417109)

Gilang Kusuma Lestari (4101417149)

Maria Suari Nugraheni (4101417191)

 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH CHARACTERISTICS

1. The methodologies contribute a great deal to the growing disciplines

Page 0 2. Naturalistic inquiry, naturally, non-manipulative, unobtrusive, and non-controlling
3. Inductive analysis with specific data, discover important categories, and
interrelationship
4. Holistic perspective, because the whole phonemenon under study is understood as a
complex
5. Intense researchers’ involvement
6. On going data analysis because it captures people’ personal perspective and
experiences
7. Personal contact and insight because personal experiences and insights are
important part of the inquiry and understanding of phenomenon
Check 8. Dynamic system
9. Unique case orientation assumes case is special and unique
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA

 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

STEPS IN COLLECTING THE DATA

Page
1

Based on the general characteristics of qualitative research, qualitative data collection

consists of collecting data using forms with general, emerging questions to permit the
participant to generate responses; gathering word (text) or image (picture) data; and
collecting information from a small number of individuals or sites. There are five
interrelated steps in the process of qualitative data collection. These steps should not be
seen as linear approaches, but often one step in the process does follow another.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

STEPS IN COLLECTING THE DATA

Page
2

Identifying participants and sites to be studied.

1 It is used to engage a sampling strategy that will best help the researchers to
understand the central phenomenon and the research question. Purposeful
sampling based on places and people that can best help the researchers
understand the central phenomenon is used in this step.

Gaining access to these individuals and sites by obtaining permissions.

2 The researchers need greater access to the site because they will typically go to the
site and interview people or observe them, because in qualitative research, the
research problem needs to be explored.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

STEPS IN COLLECTING THE DATA

Page
3

Considering what types of information will best answer the research questions
3 after permissions are in place.
To find the information, this approach relies on general interviews or observations
so that the researchers do not restrict the views of participants. The researchers do
not use someone else’s instrument as in quantitative research and gather closed-
ended information; instead they collect data with a few open-ended questions that
have been designed.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

STEPS IN COLLECTING THE DATA

Page
4

Designing protocols or instruments for collecting and recording the information.

4 In this step, rather than using predesigned instruments from someone else or
instruments that the researchers design, they will record information on self-
designed protocols that help them organize information reported by participants to
each question.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

STEPS IN COLLECTING THE DATA

Page
5

Administering the data collection with special attention to potential ethical

5
issues that may arise.
The researchers will administer the procedures of qualitative data collection with
sensitivity to the challenges and ethical issues of gathering information face-to-face
and often in people’s homes or workplaces. Studying people in their own
environment creates challenges for the qualitative researcher that may not be
present in quantitative research when investigators mail out anonymous
questionnaires or bring individuals into the experimental laboratory.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH
Page
6

In quantitative research, the focus is on random sampling, selecting representative

individuals, and then generalizing from these individuals to a population. However,
in qualitative research, the intent is to develop an in-depth exploration of a central
phenomenon, not to generalize to a population. Thus, to best understand the
phenomenon, the qualitative researcher purposefully or intentionally selects
individuals and sites that can best help them understand the central phenomenon.
In purposeful sampling, researchers intentionally select individuals and sites to learn
or understand the central phenomenon. The standard used in choosing participants
and sites is whether they are “information rich” or not.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
7 When sampling occurs before the data collection

Maximal Variation Sampling

1 This strategy is used when the intent of data sampling is to develop many
perspectives. The researchers choose samples cases or individuals that has different
on some characteristic or trait. This procedure requires identifying the characteristic
and then finding sites or individuals that display different dimensions of that
characteristic.
For example, researchers might first identify the characteristic of racial composition
of high schools, and then purposefully sample three high schools that differ on this
characteristic, such as a primarily Hispanic high school, a predominantly white high
school, and a racially diverse high school.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
8

Extreme Case Sampling

2 This strategy is chosen when the intent is to describe particularly troublesome or
enlightening cases, or a case that is noticeable for its success or failure. This
strategy is a form of purposeful sampling in which the researchers study an outlier
case or one that displays extreme characteristics. Researchers identify these cases
by locating persons or organizations that others have cited for achievements or
distinguishing characteristics.
An autistic education program in elementary education that has received awards
may be an outstanding case to purposefully sample.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
9

Typical Sampling
When the researchers want to describe what is typical to those unfamiliar with the
3 case, typical sampling is the best choice. It is a form of purposeful sampling in
which the researcher studies a person or site that is “typical” to those unfamiliar
with the situation. What constitutes typical, of course, is open to interpretation.
However, persons might be asked at a research site or even a typical case can be
selected by collecting demographic data or survey data about all cases.
For example, a researcher could study a typical faculty member at a small liberal
arts college because that individual has worked at the institution for 20 years and
has embodied the cultural norms of the school.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
10
Theory or Concept Sampling
Researchers choose theory and concept sampling when they want to generate a
theory or explore a concept. The researchers might select individuals or sites
4
because they help them understand a concept or a theory. It is a purposeful
sampling strategy in which the researcher samples individuals or sites because they
can help the researcher generate or discover a theory or specific concepts within
the theory. To use this method, a clear understanding of the concept or larger
theory expected to emerge is needed during the research.
For example, in a study of five sites that have experienced distance education, the
researchers have chosen these sites because study of them can help generate a
theory of student attitudes toward distance learning.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
11
Homogeneous Sampling
Homogeneous sampling is chosen when the intent is to describe some subgroup
in depth. Researchers might select certain sites or people because they possess a
5
similar trait or characteristic. In homogeneous sampling the researcher purposefully
samples individuals or sites based on membership in a subgroup that has defining
characteristics. To use this procedure, the researchers need to identify the
characteristics and find individuals or sites that possess it.
For example, a case in a rural community, all parents who have children in school
participate in a parent program. The researchers choose members of this parent
program to study because they belong to a common subgroup in the community.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
12

Critical Sampling
6 This strategy has intent to describe a case that illustrates “dramatically” the
situasion. The sampling strategy here is to study a critical sample because it is an
exceptional case and the researcher can learn much about the phenomenon.
For example, researchers study teenage violence in a high school where a student
with a gun threatened a teacher. This situation represents a dramatic incident that
portrays the extent to which some adolescents may engage in school violence.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
13 When sampling occurs when data collection has started

Opportunistic Sampling
1 The first strategy has intent to take advantage of whatever case unfolds. After data
collection begins, researchers may find that they need to collect new information
to get the best answer to the research questions. This strategy will help researchers
to answer the research questions. In this process, the sample emerges during the
inquiry. Researchers need to be cautious about engaging in this form of sampling
because it might divert attention away from the original aims of the research.
However, it captures the developing or emerging nature of qualitative research
nicely and can lead to novel ideas and surprising findings.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
14

Snowball Sampling
2 Snowball sampling is a form of purposeful sampling that has intent to locate
people or sites to study. In certain research situations, researchers may not know
the best people to study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic or the complexity
of events. As in quantitative research, qualitative snowball sampling is a form of
purposeful sampling that typically proceeds after a study begins and occurs when
the researcher asks participants to recommend other individuals to be sampled.
Researchers may pose this request as a question during an interview or through
informal conversations with individuals at a research site.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

SAMPLING APPROACH STRATEGY

Page
15

Confirming/Disconfirming Sampling
3 This strategy is chosen if the researchers want to explore confirming or
disconfirming cases used after data collection has started to confirm or disconfirm
preliminary findings. Confirming and disconfirming sampling is a purposeful
strategy used during a study to follow up on specific cases to test or explore
further specific findings. Although this sampling serves to verify the accuracy of the
findings throughout a study, it also represents a sampling procedure used during a
study.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF PERMISSIONS TO GAIN ACCESS

Page
16

Gaining access to the site or individual(s) in qualitative research involves obtaining

permissions at different levels, such as the organization, the site, the individuals,
and the campus institutional review boards. Of special importance is negotiating
approval with campus review boards and locating individuals at a site who can
facilitate the collection of qualitative data.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF PERMISSIONS TO GAIN ACCESS

Page
17

Seek institutional reviews board approval

To gain access to participants and sites, researchers need permission to study
1 individuals in a qualitative project, and it must go through the approval process of
a campus institutional review board, include seeking permission from the board,
developing a description of the project, designing an informed consent form, and
having the project reviewed. Researchers need to provide a detailed description of
the procedures to the institutional review board. This detail is needed because the
board may not be familiar with the qualitative approach to educational research
and because the researchers will spend time in people’s homes, workplaces, or sites
in which they gather data.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF PERMISSIONS TO GAIN ACCESS

Page
18

Gatekeepers
In qualitative research, researchers often need to seek and obtain permissions from
2
individuals and sites at many levels. Because of the in-depth nature of extensive
and multiple interviews with participants, it might be helpful to identify and make
use of a gatekeeper.
A gatekeeper is an individual who has an official or unofficial role at the site,
provides entrance to a site, helps researchers locate people, and assists in the
identification of places to study. A gatekeeper may be a teacher, a principal, a
group leader, or the informal leader of a special program, and usually has “insider”
status at the site the researchers plan to study.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
19

Observations
Observations represent a frequently used form of data collection, with the
1
researcher able to assume different roles in the process. It is the process of
gathering open-ended, firsthand information by observing people and places at a
research site.
+ The opportunity to record information, study actual behavior, and study
individuals who have difficulty verbalizing their ideas.
− Researchers will be limited to those sites and situations where they can gain
access, and in those sites, researchers may have difficulty developing rapport with
individuals.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
20

Observation continues to be a well-accepted form of qualitative data collection.

Using it requires that researchers adopt a particular role as an observer. No one
1
role is suited for all situations, there are three popular roles that can be used:
1) Role of a participant observer, when the researchers take part in activities in
the setting they observe,
2) Role of a nonparticipant observer, when the researcher visits a site and records
notes without becoming involved in the activities, and
3) Changing observational roles, when the researchers adapt their role to the
situation.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
21

Interviews and questionnaires

Qualitative interview occurs when researchers ask one or more participants general,
2
open-ended questions and record their answers. The researcher then transcribes
and types the data into a computer file for analysis.
+ Provide useful information when the researchers cannot directly observe
participants, and they permit participants to describe detailed personal information,
the interviewer also has better control over the types of information received.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
22

− Interviews provide only information “filtered” through the views of the

interviewers, interview data may be deceptive and provide the perspective the
2
interviewee wants the researcher to hear, the presence of the researcher also may
affect how the interviewee responds, interviewee responses also may not be
articulate, perceptive, or clear, equipment issues may be a problem, and researcher
need to organize recording and transcribing equipment (if used) in advance of the
interview, and during the interview, researchers need to give some attention to the
conversation with the participants.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
23 Documents
Documents represent a good source for text (word) data for a qualitative study.
+ Being in the language and words of the participant, who have usually given
3
thoughtful attention to them, ready for analysis without the necessary transcription,
consist of public and private records that researchers obtain about a site or
participants in a study that provide valuable information in helping researchers
understand central phenomena in qualitative studies.
− Documents are sometimes difficult to locate and obtain, information may not be
available to the public and located in distant archives, requiring the researcher to
travel, which takes time and can be expensive, and the documents may be
incomplete, inauthentic, or inaccurate.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
23 Audiovisual materials
Audiovisual materials consist of images or sounds that researchers collect to help
them understand the central phenomenon under study. In this approach,
4
participants are shown pictures (their own or those taken by the researcher) and
asked to discuss the contents. These pictures might be personal photographs or
albums of historical photographs.
+ people easily relate to images. Images provide an opportunity for the participant
to share directly their perceptions of reality. It also provides extensive data about
real life as people visualize it.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA

Page
23

− Images are difficult to analyze because of the rich information. The researcher
4 may influence the data collected. In selecting the photo album to examine or
requesting that a certain type of drawing be sketched, researchers may impose the
meaning of the phenomenon on participants, rather than obtain the participants’
views. When videotaping, the researchers face the issues of what to tape, where to
place the camera, and the need to be sensitive with camera-shy individuals.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

PROCEDURES USED TO RECORD DATA

Page
24 This process involves recording information through research protocols, administering data
collection so that you can anticipate potential problems in data collection, and bringing
sensitivity to ethical issues that may affect the quality of the data.

1. Using Protocols
a. An Interview Protocol
An interview protocol is a form designed by the researcher that contains instructions for the process of the
interview, the questions to be asked, and space to take notes of responses from the interviewee.
b. An Observational Protocol
An observational protocol is a form designed by the researcher before data collection that is used for taking
fieldnotes during an observation. As with interview protocols, the design and development of observational
protocols will ensure that you have an organized means for recording and keeping observational fieldnotes.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

Page
25
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

FIELD AND ETHICAL ISSUES NEED TO BE ANTICIPATED

Page
26 When collecting data, researchers who engage in qualitative studies typically face issues that they need to
resolve. Also, because qualitative research involves going to the research sites of the participants,
staying a considerable time, and asking detailed questions, ethical issues are likely to arise that need to
be anticipated.
1. Field Issues
Access
Anticipate the amount of time it will take to recruit participants to your study and the difficulty of
recruitment. Some useful strategies include providing small financial incentive for individuals to
participate. Also, remind participants a day or two before data collection of the exact time and day you
will observe or interview them. Stage the data collection so that they will feel comfortable responding,
and schedule it at a time that is most convenient to them. Be realistic about the amount of time the
data collection will take, and convey this time to the participants.
Observing
You need to know your observational role (e.g., participant, nonparticipant) and clearly convey this role
to your participants. Try not to take in everything the first time you observe; form general impressions
first and then narrow your scope of observation (i.e., funnel approach). Take time to record your notes
immediately after you observe so that you do not forget important details (e.g., quotes).
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

FIELD AND ETHICAL ISSUES NEED TO BE ANTICIPATED

Page
27 Interviews
Prepare your equipment adequately. Check the functioning of your equipment prior to your interview.
During the actual interview, use icebreakers to open the conversation, keep your opinions to yourself, and
be prepared to keep the interviewee on track. Interviewees may not answer each question in order, but
make sure that they answer each of your questions. Schedule your time so that you cover all of the
questions on your interview protocol. Recognize that transcribing audiotape recordings takes substantial
time, and schedule for it in your research plan.
Documents
Anticipate the amount of time that may be required to locate, obtain permission for, and secure both
public and private documents for your research. Always maintain a critical eye toward the documents you
obtain. As much as possible, check them out to make sure they are credible and accurate. If you ask
participants to keep a journal, provide clear instructions about the topics to be included in their journals.
Recognize that younger children need more specific instructions than older children do. Ask participants
to write as legibly as possible in their journals.
Audiovisual Materials
When you videotape, plan ahead to keep the room as quiet as possible, place the camera where it will be
least obtrusive, and openly discuss with the participants whether they are comfortable being videotaped.
If you plan to collect photographs from participants, give clear instructions about what they need to
photograph or the nature of the photographs you will be collecting from them. Similar to documents, if
you collect artifacts, drawings, or relics, check their authenticity as a useful record for your qualitative
research.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

Page
28
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTING

FIELD AND ETHICAL ISSUES NEED TO BE ANTICIPATED

Page
29 2. Ethical Issues
In gathering data for a qualitative project, a researcher seeks an in-depth description of a phenomenon.
Participants may be asked to discuss private details of their life experiences over a period of time. This
process requires a sufficient level of trust based on a high level of participant disclosure. This discussion
advances some ethical issues to be anticipated when conducting qualitative research, and also offers
guidelines for conducting qualitative research. It begins with the identification of some guidelines for
ethical practices, and then reviews key issues likely to arise, such as informing participants of the
purpose of the study, refraining from deceptive practices, sharing information with participants
(including your role as a researcher), being respectful of the research site, reciprocity, using ethical
interview practices, maintaining confidentiality, and collaborating with participants. Research
methodologists and professional associations offer comprehensive but not exhaustive lists of ethical
principles that may guide researchers in conducting ethical studies.