Soil Bioeng Manual

SOIL BIOENGINEERING TRAINING MANUAL
Release 1 - April 2002

(amended January 2003)
ISSUED FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY
DURBAN CAPE TOWN JOHANNESBURG

P O Box 15777, Westmead, 3608 P O Box 22150, Fish Hoek, 7974 P O Box 133, Kya Sands, 2163
Tel: +27-31-700 8456 Tel: +27-21-702 1416 Tel: +27-11-704 0160
Fax: +27-31-700 8469 Fax: +27-21-702 2977 Fax: +27-11-704 0159
sales@africangabions.co.za cptsales@africangabions.co.za jhb@africangabions.co.za
Web Site: www.africangabions.co.za
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 8
2 SOIL BIOENGINEERING ....................................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Definitions......................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Bioengineering.................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Soil bioengineering ............................................................................................................. 9
2.1.3 Eco-engineering .................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.4 Other definitions ................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Combining Hard and Soft Engineering – A new way forward .......................................................... 9
2.3 Purpose of Soil Bioengineering......................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Benefits and features ....................................................................................................................... 10
2.5 Design considerations: .................................................................................................................... 11
2.6 Choosing the right solution ............................................................................................................. 12
2.6.1 The “Minimum Energy Level” Concept........................................................................... 12
2.6.2 Earth slopes....................................................................................................................... 14
2.6.3 River banks ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.7 Inert Materials For Soil Bioengineering.......................................................................................... 16
2.8 Soil .................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.9 Vegetation ....................................................................................................................................... 19
2.9.1 Root contribution to soil stability ..................................................................................... 19
2.9.2 Plant selection................................................................................................................... 20
2.10 Inspection and maintenance ............................................................................................................ 21
3 SOIL BIOENGINEERING PRODUCTS............................................................................................. 22

3.1 Coir Mats (BioMac™) .................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 23
3.1.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.4 Benefits and Features........................................................................................................ 23
3.1.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.6 Design considerations ....................................................................................................... 24
3.1.7 Installation guidelines ....................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Jute Netting (BioJute) ..................................................................................................................... 27
3.2.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 27
3.2.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 27
3.2.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 27
3.2.4 Benefits and features......................................................................................................... 27
3.2.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 28
3.3 Geomats (MacMat™) ..................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 30
3.3.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.4 MacMat-R™..................................................................................................................... 31
3.3.6 Applications...................................................................................................................... 31
3.4 EcoLog™ ........................................................................................................................................ 35
3.4.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 35
3.4.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 35
3.4.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 35
3.4.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 36
3.4.6 Design considerations:...................................................................................................... 37
3.5 Coir Roll.......................................................................................................................................... 38
3.5.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 38
3.5.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 38
3.5.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 38
3.5.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 39
3.6 EcoGabion....................................................................................................................................... 41
3.6.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 41
3.6.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 41
3.6.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 42
3.6.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 42
3.7 Green Terramesh™......................................................................................................................... 47
3.7.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 47
3.7.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 48
3.7.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 48
3.7.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 49
3.8 Greening Gabions and Reno Mattresses ......................................................................................... 52
3.8.1 Definitions ........................................................................................................................ 52
3.8.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 52
3.8.4 Design Considerations: ..................................................................................................... 54
3.9 GeoMac™ mattresses ..................................................................................................................... 58
3.9.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 58
3.9.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 58
3.9.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 58
3.9.5 Installation of GeoMac™ mattresses onto slopes ............................................................. 59
4 SOIL BIOENGINEERING TECHNIQUES .......................................................................................... 60

4.1 Brush Mattress ................................................................................................................................ 61
4.1.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 61
4.1.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 61
4.1.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 61
4.2 Brush Layering................................................................................................................................ 63
4.2.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 63
4.2.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 63
4.2.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 63
4.3 Joint Planting................................................................................................................................... 66
4.3.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 66
4.3.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 66
4.3.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 66
4.4 Live Cribwall .................................................................................................................................. 68
4.4.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 68
4.4.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 68
4.4.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 68
4.5 Live Fascine .................................................................................................................................... 70
4.5.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 70
4.5.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 70
4.5.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 70
4.5.5 Live fascine preparation.................................................................................................... 71
4.6 Live Staking .................................................................................................................................... 73
4.6.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 73
4.6.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 73
4.6.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 73
4.7 Eco Shutter...................................................................................................................................... 76
4.7.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 76
4.7.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 76
4.8 Pre-vegetated Blanket ..................................................................................................................... 77
4.8.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 77
4.8.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 77
4.8.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 77
4.9 Vegetated Reinforced Soil System (VRSS) .................................................................................... 79
4.9.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................... 79
4.9.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 79
4.9.3 Applications...................................................................................................................... 79
4.9.4 Design Considerations ...................................................................................................... 79
4.10 Vetiver Grass Technology (VGT)................................................................................................... 82
4.10.1 Definition ......................................................................................................................... 82
4.10.2 Purpose ......................................................................................................................... 82
4.10.3 Specifications.................................................................................................................... 83
4.10.5 Applications...................................................................................................................... 84
5 DESIGN SOFTWARE............................................................................................................................. 86
5.1 Maccaferri River Analysis (MACRA 1) Software.......................................................................... 86
5.2 Maccaferri Stability Analysis of Reinforced Slopes (MACSTARS) Software............................... 88
5.3 Maccaferri Analysis of the environmental quality of a river training works (MAQUA) software . 89
6 CONCLUSION – THE SOIL BIOENGINEERING CONCEPT...................................................... 90
7 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 91
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 2.6.1: Types of Intervention for Various Energy Levels .................................................................... 13

Figure 2.8.1: Soil “Crumb” Structure .................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3.1.1: Mat Anchor Detail........................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 3.1.2: Installing Coir Mats...................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.5.1: Cross Section of a Coir Roll...................................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.6.1: EcoGabion: Type 1 ........................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 3.6.2: EcoGabion: Type 2 ........................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 3.6.3: Cross-Section of an EcoGabion: Type 1 Structure.................................................................... 43
Figure 3.6.4: Cross Section of an EcoGabion: Type 2 Structure .................................................................... 43
Figure 3.6.5: EcoGabion: Type 1 Installation...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.6.6: EcoGabion: Type 2 Installation...................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.7.1: Green Terramesh™ System ......................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3.7.2: Cross Section of Green Terramesh™......................................................................................... 50
Figure 3.7.3: Installation Steps for Green Terramesh™ .................................................................................. 51
Figure 3.8.1: Systems Quality Lifecycle During Construction........................................................................ 53
Figure 3.8.2: Vegetating Within Gabion Structures ......................................................................................... 56
Figure 3.8.3: Cross Section of Vegetated Gabion Structure ........................................................................... 57
Figure 3.9.1: Geomac™ Mattress....................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.1.1: Cross Section of a Brush Mattress ............................................................................................ 62
Figure 4.2.1: Cross Section of Fill Brush Layering ........................................................................................ 64
Figure 4.3.1: Joint Planting Through a Gabion Mattress................................................................................ 66
Figure 4.4.1: Cross Section of a Live Cribwall .............................................................................................. 68
Figure 4.5.1: Live Fascine Illustration............................................................................................................... 70
Figure 4.6.1: Cross Section of Live Stakes...................................................................................................... 74
Figure 4.6.2: Live Cut Branches With Terramesh™ System ......................................................................... 74
Figure 4.9.1: Vegetated Reinforced Soil System.............................................................................................. 79
Figure 4.9.2: Cross Section of a Vegetated Reinforced Soil System............................................................ 80
Figure 4.9.3: Vegetated Reinforced Soil System Installation .......................................................................... 81
TABLE OF PHOTOS
Photo 3.1.1: Installing Coir Mats....................................................................................................................... 26

Photo 3.1.2: Biomac™ Embankment Before Vegetation Establishment............................................................. 26
Photo 3.1.3: Biomac™ Embankment After Vegetation Establishment ............................................................... 26
Photo 3.3.1: Vegetated Macmat™...................................................................................................................... 30
Photo 3.3.2: Hydraulic Application of a Geomat............................................................................................. 32
Photo 3.3.3: Installed Macmat™ Before Vegetation Establishment ............................................................... 34
Photo 3.3.4: Installed Macmat™ After Vegetation Establishment.................................................................. 34
Photo 3.4.1: Reinforced EcoLogs™ ................................................................................................................... 35
Photo 3.4.2: EcoLog™ Application ................................................................................................................... 36
Photo 3.5.1: Coir Roll......................................................................................................................................... 38
Photo 3.5.2: Coir Roll Application .................................................................................................................... 40
Photo 3.6.1: EcoGabions: Type 1 Before Vegetation Establishment ............................................................... 46
Photo 3.6.2: EcoGabions: Type 1 After Vegetation Establishment.................................................................. 46
Photo 3.6.3: EcoGabions: Type 2 Before Vegetation Establishment ............................................................... 46
Photo 3.6.4: EcoGabions: Type 2 After Vegetation Establishment.................................................................. 46
Photo 3.7.1: Green Terramesh™ Unit ............................................................................................................... 47
Photo 3.7.2: Green Terramesh™ Before Installation........................................................................................ 51
Photo 3.7.3: Green Terramesh™ After Installation .......................................................................................... 51
Photo 3.8.1: Vegetating Within Gabion Structures........................................................................................... 56
Photo 3.8.2: Vegetating Behind Gabion Structures .......................................................................................... 57
Photo 3.9.1: Vegetated Geomac™ Mattress...................................................................................................... 59
Photo 4.1.1: Installation of a Brush Mattress................................................................................................... 61
Photo 4.2.1: Brush Layering Before Vegetation Establishment ...................................................................... 65
Photo 4.2.2: Brush Layering After Vegetation Establishment......................................................................... 65
Photo 4.3.1: Joint Planting (Schiechtl, 1994) ................................................................................................... 67
Photo 4.4.1: Live Cribwall (Schiechtl, 1994) ...................................................................................................... 69
Photo 4.5.1: Installing Live Fascines on a Slope with Coir Netting .................................................................... 72
Photo 4.6.1: Live Staking Applications ............................................................................................................. 73
Photo 4.6.2: Green Terramesh™ Installed with Live Stakes......................................................................... 75
Photo 4.7.1: Eco Shutter ..................................................................................................................................... 76
Photo 4.7.2: Eco Shutter Application ................................................................................................................ 76
Photo 4.8.1: Pre-Vegetated Blanket Ready To Install ..................................................................................... 77
Photo 4.8.2: Pre-Vegetated Blankets .................................................................................................................. 78
Photo 4.10.1: Vetiver Root System ................................................................................................................... 82
Photo 4.10.2: Effective Trapping of Sediment by Vetiver.............................................................................. 83
A. June 2001 B. September 2001 ......................................................................................................... 85
Photo 4.10.3: Vetiver Planted on Landfill in Stanger ..................................................................................... 85
TABLE OF TABLES
Table 2.4.1: Benefits and Features of Soil Bioengineering ............................................................................ 10

Table 2.6.1: Designers Index: Selecting the most appropriate solution.............................................................. 14
Table 2.6.2: Soil Reinforcement Data ............................................................................................................... 15
Table 2.6.3: Causes of Instability and Possible Solutions .............................................................................. 15
Table 2.7.1: Inert Materials for Soil Bioengineering ....................................................................................... 16
Table 2.7.2: Biomaterials for Soil Bioengineering ........................................................................................... 17
Table 2.7.3: Inert Material Functions ................................................................................................................ 17
Table 2.7.4: Biomaterials Functions ................................................................................................................... 18
Table 2.9.1: Effects of Vegetation on Slope Stablity...................................................................................... 20
Table 2.9.2: Plant Selection Checklist ............................................................................................................... 21
Table 3.1.1: BioMac™ Specifications................................................................................................................ 23
Table 3.1.2: Benefits and Features of BioMac™............................................................................................. 23
Table 3.1.3: Slope Installation Guidelines for BioMac™................................................................................ 25
Table 3.1.4: Channel Installation Considerations for BioMac™..................................................................... 26
Table 3.2.1: BioJute Specifications .................................................................................................................... 27
Table 3.2.2: Benefits And Features of BioJute ................................................................................................ 27
Table 3.2.3: Slope Installation Guidelines for BioJute .................................................................................... 29
Table 3.3.1: MacMat™ Specifications ............................................................................................................... 30
Table 3.3.2: Benefits and Features of MacMat™ ............................................................................................ 31
Table 3.3.3: Additional Benefits and Features of MacMat-R™ ..................................................................... 31
Table 3.3.4: Slope Installation Guidelines For MacMat™ .............................................................................. 33
Table 3.3.5: Channel Installation Considerations For MacMat™ ................................................................... 34
Table 3.4.1: EcoLog™ Specifications ................................................................................................................ 35
Table 3.4.2: Benefits And Features Of EcoLogs™ ......................................................................................... 36
Table 3.4.3: Installation Guidelines For EcoLogs™ ........................................................................................ 37
Table 3.5.1: Coir Rolls Specifications ............................................................................................................... 38
Table 3.5.2: Benefits and Features of Coir Rolls............................................................................................ 39
Table 3.5.3: Installation Guidelines for Coir Rolls.......................................................................................... 40
Table 3.6.1: EcoGabion Specifications............................................................................................................... 42
Table 3.6.2: Benefits and Features of EcoGabions.......................................................................................... 42
Table 3.6.3: Installation Guidelines For EcoGabions ....................................................................................... 44
Table 3.7.1: Green Terramesh™ Specifications................................................................................................ 48
Table 3.7.2: Benefits and Features of Green Terramesh™............................................................................. 48
Table 3.7.3: Installation Guidelines for Green Terramesh™........................................................................... 50
Table 3.8.1: Benefits and Features of Greening Gabions ............................................................................... 53
Table 3.8.2: Vegetating within Gabion Structures............................................................................................. 55
Table 3.8.3: Vegetating behind Gabion Structures ........................................................................................... 56
Table 3.9.1: GeoMac™ Mattress Specifications ............................................................................................... 58
Table 3.9.2: Benefits and Features of GeoMac™............................................................................................ 58
Table 3.9.3: GeoMac™ Installation Guidelines ................................................................................................ 59
Table 4.1.1: Installation Guidelines for Brush Mattresses............................................................................... 62
Table 4.2.1: Recommended Brush Layer Spacing on Slopes .......................................................................... 64
Table 4.2.2: Installation Guidelines for Brush Layering ................................................................................. 64
Table 4.3.1: Installation Guidelines for Joint Planting .................................................................................... 67
Table 4.4.1: Installation Guidelines for Live Cribwalls................................................................................... 69
Table 4.5.1: Recommended Spacing for Live Fascines on Slopes ................................................................ 71
Table 4.5.2: Installation Guidelines for Live Fascines .................................................................................... 71
Table 4.6.1: Installation Guidelines for Live Stakes........................................................................................ 75
Table 4.8.1: Installation Guidelines for Pre-Vegetated Blankets..................................................................... 78
Table 4.9.1: Installation Guidelines for a VRSS.............................................................................................. 80
Table 4.10.1: Vetiver Specifications................................................................................................................... 83
Table 4.10.2: Benefits and Features of Vetiver ............................................................................................... 84
Table 4.10.3: Installation Guidelines for Vetiver ............................................................................................. 85
Table 5.1.1: Allowable Tractive Force and Roughness Values for Maccaferri Products .................................... 87
Table 5.1.2: Reference Values of the Allowable Tractive Force and Roughness for some Natural Materials
and for some Soil Bioengineering Techniques............................................................................................ 87
Table 5.1.3: Values of the Roughness Coefficient n in Natural Streams............................................................. 88
TABLE OF APPENDICES
Appendix A: Product Fixing Guide

Appendix B: Storage of Biodegradable Materials
Appendix C: Quality Control Procedure for Woven Jute
Appendix D: Soil Bioengineering AutoCAD Drawings
Soil Bioengineering Training Manual, Release 1 - April 2002 -8-
1 INTRODUCTION
This manual has been written for the benefit of engineers, landscape architects, biologists, soil
conservationists and anyone who is concerned and interested in the protection and mitigation of
ecosystems. It illustrates the compatibility of incorporating environmentally sound concepts into the
design of engineering solutions.
It must be stressed from the onset that any soil bioengineered technique adopted, must, primarily be
technically sound from an engineering aspect, and secondarily satisfy environmental requirements.
This manual not only gives a background into soil bioengineering and ecological systems and the
products and techniques which may be adopted, but also goes through the concept of greening
traditional gabion structures, and how to account for this in the engineering design.
Guidance to solutions that combine engineering practices and ecological principles is provided.
For further information, please contact your nearest African Gabions office.
PLEASE NOTE
The information in this manual reflects our best knowledge at the time of issue. This manual is
subject to changes arising from new developments and findings; the same applies to our products. It
should be viewed as a working document, which is subject to regular updates. We undertake no
liability for the results of usage of our products and information.
Soil bioengineering techniques, which have proven successful in North America and Europe, have
not, as yet, been thoroughly tested in Africa, and therefore should be used with caution.
African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

Soil Bioengineering Training Manual, Release 1 - April 2002 -9-
2 SOIL BIOENGINEERING
2.1 Definitions
The method of construction using living vegetation and non-living organic matter, often in
combination with structural elements and manufactured products, is referred to by a host of
terminology as shown below.
2.1.1 Bioengineering
Bioengineering is the use of biological, mechanical and ecological concepts to control erosion while
preserving ecological value. It relies on living and non-living plants, typically in combination with
traditional construction material, to stabilise soil and to provide good wildlife and fisheries habitat in
riparian systems (University of Minnesota, 1999). In its strictest definition, it refers to a plant-only
solution.
2.1.2 Soil bioengineering

Soil bioengineering is the combined application of engineering practices and ecological principles to
design and build systems of living plant material, frequently with inert material such as rock, wood,
geosynthetics, geocomposites and other manufactured products to repair past and / or control soil
erosion and shallow slope failures. (Sotir, 2001).
2.1.3 Eco-engineering
Ecological engineering (Eco-engineering) entails the use of mechanical elements (or structures) in
combination with biological elements (or plants) to arrest and prevent slope failures and erosion.
Both biological and mechanical elements must function together in an integrated and complementary
manner.
2.1.4 Other definitions

Biotechnical engineering has also been used to define this method of construction.
Irrespective of the terminology chosen, each technique refers to the integration of sound engineering
practices with ecological principles. It is a method of construction using living vegetation and non-
living organic matter, often in combination with structural elements and manufactured products.
For the purposes of this manual, this technique will be referred to as soil bioengineering.
2.2 Combining Hard and Soft Engineering – A new way forward

Essentially there is incompatibility between engineering requirements and creating a good ecological
environment. However with care, botanical understanding and an innovative approach to the detailing
of the face, it is possible to create conditions in a structure favourable to the greening process.
Soil bioengineering is often used in combination with conventional engineering, offering an enduring
alternative that increases permanence, effectiveness and aesthetic appeal.
2.3 Purpose of Soil Bioengineering

Vegetation is an excellent defence mechanism which nature has produced to protect soil against
erosion. Sometimes, however, erosive forces are too large or vegetation needs to be developed under

Soil Bioengineering Training Manual, Release 1 - April 2002 - 10 -
difficult conditions and nature needs a helping hand at erosion control. In this case, inert materials
need to be brought into the solution.
Soil bioengineering brings together biological, ecological, and engineering concepts to produce living,
functioning systems. The structural components initially protect the site mechanically and develop a
stable, healthy environment for the plants to establish.
Vegetation will have a protective function in waterside applications: The stems and leaves reduce the
hydraulic loads (active role of the vegetation) while the roots improve the stability of the subsoil
against erosion (passive role of the vegetation). In some cases the vegetation plays only an aesthetic
role. (Pilarczky, 1997).
Soil bioengineering is used for:

• Erosion and flood control;
• Wave protection in channels and coastal zones;
• Slope stabilisation;
• Habitat, and aesthetic enhancement; and,
• Water quality improvement.
The operating concepts of soil bioengineering are:

• Mechanical: Plant roots function as fibrous inclusions reinforcing the soil and increasing
the resistance to sliding or shear displacement. Stems and trunks can act as buttressing agents to
help prevent shallow slope failure. Slope instability and erosion are reduced by transpiration of
moisture and interception of rainfall.
• Hydrological: Improved internal drainage and reduced seepage, thereby increasing the
safety factor on slopes. Biomass increases surface roughness, which retards flow.
• Biological and ecological: At one with nature. Pioneer plants provide immediate habitat
improvements. Biodiversity and habitat value are increased as vegetative invasion and natural
succession occur, creating self-sustaining plant communities.
2.4 Benefits and features

The benefits and features of soil bioengineering practices are shown in Table 2.4.1
TABLE 2.4.1: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF SOIL BIOENGINEERING

BENEFIT FEATURE
Cost effective Soil bioengineering systems are often more cost effective than the use of vegetation or
structural solutions alone.
Minor site Soil bioengineering techniques generally require minimal access for equipment and
disturbance during workers, and cause relatively minor site disturbance during installation.
installation
Useful on sensitive or Soil bioengineering is useful on sensitive or steep sites where the use of machinery is
steep sites not feasible.
Appropriate for Soil bioengineering practices are appropriate for environmentally and aesthetically
environmentally and sensitive areas, such as parks, woodlands, rivers and transportation corridors, where
aesthetically sensitive recreation, wildlife habitat, water quality and similar values are critical.
areas
Immediate protection Soil bioengineering systems can be designed to withstand heavy events immediately
after installation. If the vegetation dies, the system’s structural elements continue to
play an important protective role.
Strong initially and Soil bioengineering systems are strong initially and grow stronger with time as the
grow stronger with vegetation becomes established.
time
Erosion control The vegetation traps sediment, which further promotes vegetation growth and erosion
control.

BENEFIT FEATURE
Natural plant Enhances conditions for the natural colonisation and establishment of plants from the
colonisation surrounding plant community.
Increase in soil Dries excessively wet sites through transpiration as the vegetation grows.
stability by reducing Provides for surface drainage and can positively affect the direction of seepage flow.
soil moisture
Increase soil stability
Reinforces the soil as roots develop, adding significant resistance to shallow sliding
due to plant growth and shear displacement for smaller slopes.
Soil temperature Plants provide protection from the extremes of heat and cold, which lead to a healthier
moderation environment for plant germination and growth.
Improves water The heavily vegetated banks filter and slow storm water runoff and trap sediment,
quality thereby improving water quality.
Air quality The removal of harmful airborne chemicals and dust offer air quality improvement and
improvement increased oxygen production.
Low maintenance The bioengineered structure becomes self-maintaining and self-repairing.
Noise reduction Absorption of sound waves by the soil and the vegetation.
Versatile Can be used in conjunction with conventional engineering systems.
Job creation Soil bioengineering applications are often labour intensive, due to difficult access to
sites and hand planting requirements for vegetation.
Environmental Supports indigenous plant species and wildlife habitat and speeds up ecological
benefits succession.
Positive impact on Vegetation provides:
wildlife * • Shelter and nesting sites – protection from predators and floods;
• Shade – keeping the water cooler in summer and slowing the growth of algae;
• A source of food.
Aesthetics Bioengineered structures support indigenous plant species and wildlife habitats, which
improve the aesthetic appeal of the structure.
Durable As the structure becomes filled with soil and plant roots, its durability is no longer
restricted to the life of the inert materials.
Shelter Plants find shelter from the inert materials in order for their roots to flourish.
Vandalism Vegetating the structure “removes” it from sight, assisting with the prevention of
vandalism.
Improved biological The filtering of water through the structure, the consequent siltation within the voids,
conditions and the growth of vegetation tend to improve the biological conditions thereby
restoring the natural ecosystem.
* Environment Agency, undated.
2.5 Design considerations:

• Stability: The bioengineered structure must be capable of supporting the loads, stabilising the
underlying soil and preventing erosion.
• Flexibility: The ability to absorb settlement deformations without impairment of its other
functions.
• Durability: The structure should remain effective for the duration of the required design life at
least.
• Maintenance: The design should allow for maintenance, including the repair of local damage and
the replacement of deteriorated materials.
• Safety: Consideration must be given to eliminating potential risks to the labour force and the
public. All factors relating to safety should be incorporated, including consideration of all
possible activities that may be taking place on and around the site, whether authorised or not.
• Cost: The project will need to fulfil all the functional requirements while staying within budget
for both construction and maintenance.

• The usefulness of soil bioengineering techniques may be limited by the following conditions:
o Lack of fertile soil or moisture to support the required plant growth;
o Soil-restrictive layers, such as igneous intrusions, may prevent required root growth;
o Banks exposed to high velocity water flow or constant inundation; and,
o Climatic constraints.
• Particularly in urban stream environments, vegetative techniques alone are often insufficient for
reversing channel instability due to constrained space and modifications in the hydrological and
sediment transport regime. Consequently a combination of hard and soft engineering is required
to restore the natural channel geometry.
• Soil bioengineering practices are most successful where the medium has sufficient fines,
nutrients, sunlight, and moisture to support plant growth.
• It is highly recommended to consult specific practitioners for specialised areas such as biological,
geotechnical and hydraulic assessment. A multidisciplinary approach allows the engineer to
conduct static and hydraulic checks, the landscape architect to take care of the environmental
impact of the river works, the botanist and the zoologist to choose grasses, trees and shrubs
suitable for the region and to indicate the need for maintaining / creating areas different in water
level in order to promote the settlement of species typical of that region.
• The design engineer must always recognise the possibility of complete failure of the vegetation
and consequent increased risk of slope instability. For this reason, vegetation would not normally
be allowed to be the prime factor governing slope stability where the consequences of failure
threaten life or property. (Greenwood, 2001).
Further design considerations regarding the soil and plant selection are found in Sections 2.8 (Soil)
and 2.9 (Vegetation) respectively.
2.6 Choosing the right solution
2.6.1 The “Minimum Energy Level” Concept

In choosing the most appropriate solution the following approach should be adopted:
1. Analysis of the problem (causes and effects).
2. Evaluation of the stability factors (numerical).
3. Use and knowledge of the performance limits, of the materials used.
4. Understanding of the performance of the combined use of these materials over time.
The most appropriate solution will be that defined by the “Minimum Energy Level”. This is
commonly defined as the minimum amount of intervention on the environment, which is required to
solve the problem. It is illustrated in Figure 2.6.1 and ranges from the lowest level of no intervention
through to the highest energy level, which may necessitate the construction of a massive retaining
structure, or a similar type of intervention.

FIGURE 2.6.1: TYPES OF INTERVENTION FOR VARIOUS ENERGY LEVELS
The right solution for the problem is dependent on:

• The ability of the solution to be effective immediately after installation, as well as in the long
term.
• Acceptable safety factors.
• The degree and size of the risk associated with the failure of the structure used.
There are three categories of solution that could be appropriate:

• Heavy systems. This category includes systems like articulated concrete blocks (ACBs), gabions
or rock mattresses, rip rap, etc.
• Light systems. This category includes erosion control blankets (ECBs), turf reinforcement mats
(TRMs), geocells, etc.
• Soil Bioengineering techniques. This category may include many sorts of vegetative species and
treatments (without the use of combined inert materials) ranging from herbaceous or woody
plants, to a wide variety of treatments and systems.
(Di Pietro and Brunet, 2000)
A design index, which will help for choosing the most appropriate solution, is shown in Table 2.6.1.

TABLE 2.6.1: DESIGNERS INDEX: SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE SOLUTION

Design Subject Materials Used
Greening Gabion Walls for wet and dry banks • Soil Blankets – BioMac™
• Organic Revetments – Ecoshutter
• EcoLogs™
• Coir rolls
• EcoGabions
Greening Reinforced soil walls for wet and dry banks • Soil Blankets – BioMac™ (in combination with a
reinforced soil structure e.g. Terramesh™
system).
• Green Terramesh™
Greening stable dry banks at more than 1:1 • Greened Reno mattresses GeoMac™ with soil
anchors
• Soil blankets – BioMac™
• 3D Geomats – MacMat™
Triple twist woven mesh placed on top of these
products will provide additional stability.
Greening stable dry banks between 1:1 and 1:2 • Soil blankets – BioMac™
• 3D Geomats – MacMat™
• Greened Reno mattress – GeoMac™
Greening stable dry banks less than 1:2 • Soil blankets – BioJute
Greening wet stable banks and water courses • Soil blankets – BioMac™
• 3D geomats – MacMat™
• Greened Reno mattress – GeoMac™
• Organic revetments – Coir rolls, ecoshutter
• Plants and seeds – Water margin plants
Added value • Floating islands
• Fish hides
• Fish passes
Bioengineering is typically suitable for light to moderate loads, which correspond to mean full flow
velocities below 2.5 m/s and wave heights less than 0.15m (Escarameia, 2001).
2.6.2 Earth slopes

The stability of slopes is governed by topographic, geologic and climatic variables. Slope movements
occur when shear stresses exceed the shear resistance offered by the materials forming the slope.
2.6.2.1 Soil reinforcement

Soil reinforcement is the term used to describe a well-established construction technique, which is
based on the simple principle that soil stability can be improved by sandwiching a material with a
tensile resistance, in layers, within a soil body.
The mechanism of soil reinforcement is straightforward. The inclusion of a reinforcement in the soil
serves to form a composite material whose shear strength is greater than that possessed by the soil
alone. The enhanced shear strength enables the soil reinforcement combination to carry loads
considerably greater than those that would be carried by the un-reinforced soil. For example, a slope
can be constructed at an angle greater than the natural angle of repose of the constituent soil by the
inclusion of appropriate horizontal reinforcement elements within the slope.
A comparison of reinforcement data for inert materials and biomaterials is shown in Table 2.6.2.
Biomaterials refer to both dead and living plants or their by-products. Examples range from
biodegradable soil blankets to deep-rooted planting systems.

TABLE 2.6.2: SOIL REINFORCEMENT DATA

Inert Materials Biomaterials
Tensile strength (kN/m) 10-1250 1-50
Tensile strain (%) 1-60% ?
Long term creep Exists ?
Durability UV, chemicals, hydrolysis Drought, fire, rotting,
biodegradation
Facing considerations • Rigidity is more significant • Aspect
• Connection strength to • Slope angle
reinforcement • Root structure
• Durability (chemicals, heat, • Establishment period
hydrolysis)
2.6.2.2 Slope stability analysis

A slope stability analysis using the available geotechnical data will indicate the significance of a
change in conditions and its effect on the stability of an earth slope or riverbank.
Slope instability often requires the evaluation of both hydraulic and soil geotechnical parameters.
Experience indicates that there are three main causes of instability (Di Pietro, 2000). The causes,
which influence the solutions are summarised in Table 2.6.3. This is a continuation of the “minimum
energy level concept”.
TABLE 2.6.3: CAUSES OF INSTABILITY AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Cause Progressive surface erosion Soil veneer sliding Deep sliding failures
(water run-off) (global instability)
Initial step Provide surface protection to An accurate analysis of the Detailed geotechnical
prevent the erosion from reasons for which instability analysis of slope stability.
spreading out along the slope occurred, and more
face. importantly, the depth of the
critical sliding plane is
needed.
Typical Depending on soil profile, Surface vegetative systems Larger structure
solution ranges from: combined with deeper (retaining wall or
• Simple seeding treatments drainage treatments mechanically stabilised
to encourage vegetation distributed at variable earth system) depending
re-establishment, to distances. on the geomorphology of
• A wide variety of erosion- the area.
control blankets and
geomats, to
• Heavy-duty linings such
as articulated concrete
blocks, rip rap, mattresses
or gabions.
Role of Improvement of surface Will eventually eliminate / Unique structural system,
vegetation stability through the vegetative decrease the soil veneer’s which offers a new
rooting system. dependence on the drainage habitat suitable for the
system. local fauna and flora,
thereby enhancing
environmental quality.
Please contact African Gabions should you require assistance with stability analysis of earth slopes.

2.6.3 River banks

The hydraulic force of the flowing water and the rapid change of water level, due to surcharge and
draw down, affect riverbank stability. See Section 5 (Design Software) for more information
regarding the use of Soil Bioengineering techniques in hydraulic applications.
2.7 Inert Materials For Soil Bioengineering

Inert materials are non-organic products, which are required for the construction of an engineered
structure. Inert materials must be suitable for the combination with and subsequent growth of plants,
to create a complex, unique building material. Biomaterials refer to both living and dead plants or
their by-products. Examples range from biodegradable erosion control blankets to deep-rooted
planting systems.
The bioengineered solution, which combines inert materials and biomaterials, must create (or
recreate) new habitats suitable for the life of animals and vegetal communities to improve the global
local environmental quality.
Table 2.7.1 outlines inert materials, whilst Table 2.7.2 outlines biomaterials, which can be used for
soil bioengineering. The information was partially taken from what has been established for the
International Geosynthetic Society (Italian directory of geosynthetics BE.MA (1998)). A summary of
the inert materials and biomaterials functions are given in Table 2.7.3 and Table 2.7.4 respectively.
TABLE 2.7.1: INERT MATERIALS FOR SOIL BIOENGINEERING

Material Type Description Use
Geotextiles Non-woven Flat structures made of synthetic Soil retaining and water
• Mechanical (needle- fibres “casually” arranged with draining lining, useful
punched) different systems for vegetation
o Continuous filament establishment.
o Short fibre (“staple”
type)
• Thermal (heat bonded)
Woven Flat and regular structures formed
Depending on the cross-section by the weaving of two or more
of the fibre and the type of series of synthetic fibre threads.
weaving: Types of weaving:
• Monofilaments • Warp yarns (parallel to the
• Tapes (flattened ribbons) direction of production)
• DOS (directionally oriented • Weft yarns (perpendicular to
structures) the warp yarns).
Geogrids • Extruded Flat structures in polymer The main function is soil
(usually high density reinforcement. The
polyethylene or polypropylene) fundamental working
that are extruded and then pulled mechanism is by friction
in either one direction (mono- for bonded grids and / or
oriented geogrids), or in the two confining effect over the
main directions (bi-oriented soil particles that lodge
geogrids). in the openings of the
• Woven Flat structures in the shape of a grid itself for woven and
net made of high module extruded grids.
synthetic fibres that may also be
coated with a further protection
layer (usually PVC or other
polymer).
They are used in soil and road
paving reinforcement.

Material Type Description Use

• Bonded Flat structures with two or more
series of fibres or other synthetic
elements made of polyester
coated with polyethylene are
linked at regular intervals by
means of bonding.
Geomats Made of synthetic material Superficial erosion
filaments (high density protection caused by the
polyethylene, polyamide, impact of raindrops and
polypropylene or other), tangled rills, or the flood action
together to form a highly of rivers and channels.
deformable layer
10-20 mm thick featured by a
very high porosity (>90% on
average).
Geocells Juxtaposed cells either assembled • To hold soil or other
or produced with strips of loose material in
extruded synthetic materials, place
geotextile or biotextiles, to form, • To prevent the
a honeycomb structure, or superficial soil from
similar. slipping down
slopes.
Hexagonal Double twisted wire mesh Used for the
wire mesh products (hexagonal wire mesh, construction of:
products gabions, mattresses and • Slope revetments.
(HWM) reinforced soil structures) made • Soil retaining
with galvanised steel wire, and in structures.
some cases a PVC coating • River training
works (bank
protection, weirs,
groynes).
• Rockfall netting
TABLE 2.7.2: BIOMATERIALS FOR SOIL BIOENGINEERING

Material Description Use
Biotextiles Flat, open structure, which is relatively deformable Temporary solution for superficial lining
and made of natural woven fibres (jute and / or coir). and erosion protection during vegetation
establishment.
Biomats Made of natural fibres (straw, coconut etc) assembled Temporary solution for superficial lining
to form a flat structure, open and relatively and erosion protection during vegetation
deformable, usually confined within two nets of establishment.
synthetic material (polypropylene or polyamide) or
natural jute.
TABLE 2.7.3: INERT MATERIAL FUNCTIONS

PRODUCT Filtration Drainage Separation Erosion Soil Soil Rockfall
Control Reinforcement Retaining Protection
Geomats: ! ! "
Geotextiles (Woven
! ! ! !
and Non-woven)
Geocells ! " !
Geogrids !
Gabions ! ! ! ! ! "
Reno mattresses " ! !
Double twist wire
!
mesh


Hexagonal wire ! !
!
mesh (HWM) E.g. EcoLogs™
E.g. Green E.g. Catch
products Terramesh™ Fences
! main use
" possible use
TABLE 2.7.4: BIOMATERIALS FUNCTIONS

Biotextiles ! !
(temporary)
Biomats ! !
(temporary)
! main use
" possible use
2.8 Soil
(Ellis, 2001)
When establishing plants, most failures are due to lack of appreciation of the meaning of the term
topsoil. What is well understood by geotechnical engineers are the properties of compacted soils.
Topsoil, however, must be consolidated – never compacted, as this will limit root growth in the soil.
Roots have two main functions:
• Deep roots penetrate the subsoil for “passive” anchorage.

• “Dynamic” roots are in the surface topsoil. The dynamic roots can function in topsoil because it
has an aggregate structure, which is derived from the activity of soil microbes and worms. This
biological activity can only happen where there is sufficient oxygen in the soil profile near the
surface.
Breaking down dead plant and animal matter by microbes results in a sticky material, humus. Around
which mineral particles adhere to form aggregates. These aggregates are irregular in shape, but are
generally 2–7 mm in diameter. Consequently, soil made of aggregates will have air spaces in its
profile.
Aggregates are referred to as crumbs by horticulturists. The humus of the crumbs provides the
nutrient resource and also absorbs moisture infiltrating through the soil. (See Figure 2.8.1).
The features of topsoil that are significant to successful plant growth and therefore soil bioengineering
are:
• Air in the soil profile is important as roots derive air for biochemical activity from the soil and not
from the leaves.
• Aerated soils will also regulate the soil temperature, making it suitable for plant growth.
• Moisture retained by the humus is constantly available to be drawn on by the root system while
plants are actively growing.
• Nutrients are maintained in the humus, and are available over an extended period.
The quality of the soil will directly determine the growth of surface vegetation.

1. The organic ‘Humus’ core that contains the nutrients and absorbs and holds moisture available to plant roots
2. The inorganic mineral particles that adhere to the irregular shaped ‘humus’
3. Spaces between ‘crumbs’ that allow excess water to drain away and then become the air spaces vital for root activity.
FIGURE 2.8.1: SOIL “CRUMB” STRUCTURE
A soil analysis will identify any shortcomings in the suitability of topsoil for vegetating. Fertiliser
and compost requirements for “fixing” the soil should be specified.
Where reference is made to the use of soil in vegetating a structure, incorporation of local seed
varieties into the topsoil may help to promote the vegetation process.
2.9 Vegetation
It is recommended to consult a local plant specialist when determining which vegetation to use for
a project.
2.9.1 Root contribution to soil stability

The most obvious way in which vegetation stabilises soils is by root reinforcement. The intermingled,
lateral roots of plants tend to bind the soil together in a monolithic mass. The vertical root system can
penetrate through the soil mantle into firmer strata below, thus anchoring the soil to the slope and
increasing resistance to sliding.
Increased shear strength of root permeation is a function mainly of the tensile strength of the roots and
the cross sectional area occupied by root fibres; the roots must be long and frictional enough to resist
pullout.
Another important positive effect of the vegetation is soil moisture depletion and interception, thus
increasing soil strength by mitigating or delaying the onset of saturated conditions in the soil.
Trees, together with grasses and shrubs, have been use to control erosion on slopes and to stabilise
landslides for many years. In a review on vegetation and slope stability Greenway (1987) indicated
that the majority of studies concluded that vegetation had a net stabilising effect on most slopes. He
did point out, however, that a few researches found the opposite to be the case. A summary of the
findings is shown in Table 2.9.1.

The study of tree roots and slope stability has received considerable attention in the last few decades.
Various models now exist to describe how tree roots contribute to slope stability, although many of
these models have yet to be validated by field data. Quantification of various aspects of tree roots is
not easy because of the difficulties of exhuming the root networks. Thus many models on slope
stability have been tested with little or no field data.
TABLE 2.9.1: EFFECTS OF VEGETATION ON SLOPE STABLITY

MECHANISM Effect
Hydrological
1 Foliage intercepts rainfall, causing absorptive and evaporative losses that reduce rainfall for !
infiltration.
2 Roots and stems increase the roughness of the ground surface and the permeability of the soil, "
leading to increased infiltration capacity.
3 Roots extract moisture from the soil, which is lost to the atmosphere via transpiration, leading to !
lower pore-water pressure.
4 Depletion of soil moisture may accentuate desiccation cracking in the soil, resulting in higher "
infiltration capacity.
Mechanical
5 Roots reinforce the soil, increasing soil shear strength. !
6 Tree roots may anchor into firm strata, providing support to the upslope soil mantle through !
buttressing and arching.
7 Weight of trees surcharge the slope, increasing normal and downhill force components. !"
8 Vegetation exposed to the wind transmits dynamic forces via the tree stem into the slope. "
9 Roots bind soil particles at the ground surface, reducing their susceptibility to erosion. !
! Beneficial to stability
" Adverse to stability
2.9.2 Plant selection

The success of a soil bioengineering solution is dependent on plant stem density and length, root
penetration, rooting habits, uniformity of vegetation, soil erodability, and physical and chemical
characteristics of the soil.
There are five biological limiting factors for plant growth:

1. Temperature
2. Moisture
3. Nutrients
4. Oxygen
5. Light
Choosing the most appropriate solution requires consideration of a number of factors, which are
summarised in the form of a checklist in Table 2.9.2.
A bio diverse application will give the best results. This type of application usually incorporates a
nursing (pioneer) species, which establishes easily, is fast growing and gives immediate protection.
The pioneer species are often dependent on a lot of nutrients, so their initial growth rate starts slowing
and they start to die off as initially high nutrient contents in the soil are depleted. At this stage, the
main vegetation, which is more sustainable and does not need as many nutrients, but grows slowly,
takes off.
Another important consideration is what the end function of the plant will be, for example:
• Woody vegetation has stronger and deeper root systems than herbaceous plants; therefore they are
better suited for shallow mass stability applications, where the roots can penetrate the subsoil for
“passive” anchorage.

• Herbaceous plants, such as grasses, legumes, and emergent aquatics provide a dense groundcover
that is well suited for preventing surface erosion and intercepting rainfall. This provides “active”
anchorage.
• Emergent aquatic plants may be tolerant to submerged conditions.
TABLE 2.9.2: PLANT SELECTION CHECKLIST

#
Season: Soil bioengineering systems are usually installed in late autumn / early spring
Aspect – North vs. South facing
Sun / Shade
Irrigation requirements – particularly during start-up.
Tolerance to dry periods / drought
Local site conditions: e.g. permanently inundated in water; in flood zone; on permanently dry bank
Inundation tolerance for wet applications
Water quality improvement characteristics (for hydraulic applications)
Tolerance to water quality e.g. marine applications
Soil characteristics: Physical and chemical (e.g. texture and nutrient content)
Indigenous vs. exotic
Site reconnaissance to match vegetated sites nearby.
Plant form: Seeds vs. rooted cuttings
Aesthetic appearance of vegetation
Bio-diversity: Combining short- and long-term varieties
Competitiveness with other species
Natural succession
Plant rooting system. E.g. deep rooting vs. laterally spreading
Sensitivity of plant material to site conditions and handling by construction personnel
Availability of desired species and construction time frame
Ease and success of establishment
Plant growth rate
Maintenance requirements
End function of the plant
Habitat value
Cost / m²
Sustainability
2.10 Inspection and maintenance

Regular inspection and maintenance of soil bioengineering installations should be conducted,
particularly during the first year. Prompt correction of any failures is essential to prevent major
problems from developing.
Plant establishment is the most critical phase. Adequate watering requirements must be met at this
stage of the plant life cycle. Care must be taken not to over-water the site, as this could lead to failure
of the structure due to slope instability.
• Plants and material should be monitored for three to four weeks after installation to ensure the
success and survival of the plants and integrity of the material.
• The plant roots need to be covered and kept moist.
• All material should be checked periodically or after storms to ensure they remain properly
secured. Make necessary repairs promptly.
• All temporary and permanent erosion control practises shall be maintained and repaired as needed
to ensure continued performance of their intended use.

3 SOIL BIOENGINEERING PRODUCTS

Coir Mats (BioMac™): BioMac™ is a biodegradable coir mat manufactured from randomly
arranged coconut husk fibres layered between photosensitive polypropylene netting.
Jute Netting (BioJute): BioJute is a coarse, biodegradable fabric woven into an open mesh from
rugged heavy jute yarn.
Geomats (MacMat™): MacMat™ is a three-dimensional geomat consisting of entangled

polypropylene monofilaments that are heat bonded at the contact points to provide a dimensionally
stable matrix for soil erosion protection from wind, rainfall, run-off or flooding. It is a permanent
erosion control product composed of UV stabilised, non- degradable synthetic fibres.
EcoLog™: An EcoLog™ is a cylindrical biodegradable roll, lined with BioMac™ coir blanket and
bound together with twine. The EcoLog™ can be pre-filled with organic matter and/or a combination
of rocks and soil.
Coir Roll: Coir rolls are cylindrical, biodegradable rolls manufactured from a high-density coconut
husk fibre with an exterior netting of 100% coir mesh. The coir material is natural, long lasting and
has high a tensile strength.
EcoGabion: The EcoGabion is a PVC coated gabion that has been modified to facilitate greening.
Type 1 is a trapezoidal gabion made with an inclined front face of 70 degrees. Type 2 is a rectangular
gabion and is also referred to as an EnviroLog.
Green Terramesh™: Green Terramesh™ is an environmentally friendly modular system used for
soil reinforcement in mechanically stabilised earth slopes and embankments.
Gabions and Reno mattresses: Gabions and Reno mattress units are made from hexagonally woven
double twist wire mesh. They are filled with stones to form monolithic flexible structures that are free
draining.
GeoMac™ mattresses: A GeoMac™ mattress is a Reno Mattress that has been modified to facilitate
greening of steep and impermeable slopes.

3.1 Coir Mats (BioMac™)
3.1.1 Definition
BioMac™ is a biodegradable coir mat manufactured from randomly arranged coconut husk fibres
layered between photosensitive polypropylene netting.
3.1.2 Purpose
BioMac™ is an Erosion Control Blanket (ECB).
BioMac™’s three-ply composite provides immediate erosion control and a stable medium to support
healthy plant growth. The closely arranged fibres intercept the energies of impacting raindrops and
water scour, keeping the underlying soil in place. The dense mat acts as mulch, creating a localised
water reservoir for the soil below.
With time the coir material biodegrades, enhancing the soil fertilisation and the cohesive strength of
the root systems. At this point the flexible nature of the plants becomes the primary stabilising and
protecting element. Depending on climate conditions, the biodegradation period is typically 2-3
years.
BioMac™ provides nature with a helping hand at erosion control and vegetation generation.
3.1.3 Specifications
BioMac™ specifications are listed in Table3.1.1.
TABLE 3.1.1: BIOMAC™ SPECIFICATIONS
BIOMAC™
Mass (g/m²) 450

Matt matrix Untreated 100% coconut fibres
Netting UV stabilised polypropylene
Average Roll Weight (kg) 25
Roll Supply Size (m) 25 x 2 (50 m²)
3.1.4 Benefits and Features

The benefits and features of BioMac™ are shown in Table 3.1.2.
TABLE 3.1.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF BIOMAC™

BENEFIT FEATURE
Complete cover Underlying soil and seeds are completely protected from the elements.
Greening gabions Soil is kept in place until the roots become the primary stabilising force.
Immediate erosion control and At the most vulnerable stage un-vegetated surfaces are protected from
ground protection water and wind erosion preventing gullying and loss of topsoil.
The closely, but randomly arranged fine fibres intercept the energies of
impacting raindrops and water scour. The mat resists water scour of ±2m/s
for several days.

BENEFIT FEATURE
Easily vegetated With the use of seeds, hydroseeding or rooted plants.

Seed protection Newly planted seeds are protected against wind, rain and birds.
Soil and root insulation The blanket insulates the soil and seed against extremes of temperature,
thus ensuring higher germination rate and less dieback.
Moisture retention BioMac™ acts as a mulch. Rainwater run-off is minimised and soaks
through the blanket, permitting soaking of the underlying soil. Prolonged
capillary storage improves seed germination.
Soil fertiliser Decomposition of the natural fibres within the blanket improves the soil
organic content, permeability and moisture retention ability.
Sediment accretion The velocity of water flowing over the mat is decreased, thus increasing
sediment deposition.
Ease of installation BioMac™ rolls are lightweight and easy to install on sites with difficult
access. It is easily cut and shaped by unskilled labour to accommodate
existing topographical conditions.
Environmentally friendly The core of the BioMac™ biodegrades completely within 2-3 years. With
time (3-4 years) the polypropylene netting becomes brittle and also
degrades.
3.1.5 Applications
Areas of application include:
• Greening of engineered structures such as Gabions, Reno mattresses and retaining structures e.g.
Terramesh™.
• Embankments and slopes.
• Sound barriers.
• Protection and restoration of wetlands.
• Streams, rivers, canal banks and drainage channels.
• Beach and sand dune stabilisation.
• Quarry, landfill and spoil heap restoration.
• Mulch mats.
• Golf courses, amenity areas, parks and sports fields.
• Manufacture of other soil bioengineering products e.g. Ecologs™.
The most appropriate use of BioMac™ is for:
• Greening of engineered structures (see section on greening gabions).

• Greening stable dry banks with steep slopes (1:1 to 1:2).
• Greening stable wet banks and watercourses.
• On a fairly smooth underlying surface, as good product contact with the underlying soil is
essential.
• For sites where plants will form the primary stabilising and erosion control mechanism after 2-3
years (corresponding to BioMac™ degradation period).
3.1.6 Design considerations

• Suitable for slopes between 1:1 and 1:2.
• Coir mats have high moisture retention properties and generally last 2-3 years. The fibre strength,
longevity and ability to retain moisture depend on the climate.
• Construct a bund or other diversion control measure to ensure that upstream surface water does
not run over the newly laid slope.
• Anchor the ends of the mat in a 300 mm x 300 mm anchor trench.

• Pegs, whether they are steel, wooden or live stakes should be used to secure the mat. (Refer to
Appendix A for fixing guideline).
• Vegetation such as rooted seedlings can be planted through the coir mats.
• Coir mats can also be vegetated by seeding the slope. Seeding can be done before or after
installation of the mat, using either seeded topsoil or hydroseeding.
• Put topsoil above BioMac™ before pinning it down to ensure better contact with the underlying
soil, thereby preventing the plants from lifting the mat. This will also help to prevent tearing of
the mat.
3.1.7 Installation guidelines

During transportation and prior to use on site BioMac™ should be kept out of sunlight in dry,
ventilated conditions. Refer to Appendix B for storage guidelines.
BioMac™ ECB installation guidelines for slope installation are shown in Table 3.1.3 and Figures
3.1.1 and 3.1.2. Channel installation considerations are listed in Table 3.1.4.
TABLE 3.1.3: SLOPE INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR BIOMAC™

Prepare the site as outlined in COLTO Section 5804: preparing the areas for plants. In summary:
• Remove large rocks, stumps and any other obstructions.
• Scarify the surface to a minimum depth of 150 mm.
• If the soil is organically unsuitable for plant establishment, topsoil should be imported and spread on to
surface at an approximate thickness of 150 mm (No less than 100 mm).
• Analyse the soil to determine type and quantity of soil improvement material (e.g. lime) required to ensure
adequate fertility for successful establishment of good vegetative cover.
• Soil improvement materials should be evenly applied and mixed with the soil to a depth of 150 mm. Seeds
should also be mixed with the soil at this time.
Anchor the ECB at the top of the slope in a 300 mm x 300 mm trench. Backfill and compact the trench as
shown in Figure 3.1.1.
Unroll the ECB down the slope, taking care not to stretch the mat.
Overlap parallel rolls by 100 mm.
Sprinkling a layer (10-20 mm) of topsoil onto the ECB surface will weigh it down and facilitate close contact
with the underlying soil layer.
Fix the ECB in position in accordance with the product fixing guide (Appendix A). IT IS CRITICAL TO
ENSURE GOOD CONTACT WITH THE UNDERLYING SOIL. Pegs on overlaps should be spaced 0.5 m
apart and placed up and down the joint.
Anchor the ECB at the bottom of the slope.
Vegetate the ECB as per the design with grasses, aquatic plants, rooted cuttings, seeded topsoil or
hydroseeding.
The site should be watered within 24 hours and thereafter at regular intervals, as required until such time as
acceptable vegetation cover has been established. Keep animal stock off until this time.
FIGURE 3.1.1: MAT ANCHOR DETAIL

TABLE 3.1.4: CHANNEL INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR BIOMAC™

Anchor the ECB in the trench, backfill and compact, as shown in Figure 3.1.1.
Ensure upstream rolls overlap downstream rolls, by a minimum of 150 mm.
The ECB must be held in position by a sufficient number of pegs to ensure proper contact with the underlying
material.
Note: For larger channels with steeper slopes, it is preferable to place the mats perpendicular to the direction of
flow.
Standard roll size

is 2 m x 25 m
FIGURE 3.1.2: INSTALLING COIR MATS
PHOTO 3.1.1: INSTALLING COIR MATS
PHOTO 3.1.2: BIOMAC™ EMBANKMENT BEFORE VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

PHOTO 3.1.3: BIOMAC™ EMBANKMENT AFTER VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

3.2 Jute Netting (BioJute)
3.2.1 Definition
BioJute is a coarse, biodegradable fabric woven into an open mesh from rugged heavy jute yarn.
3.2.2 Purpose
BioJute is an Erosion Control Blanket (ECB).
BioJute’s woven mesh provides immediate erosion control and a stable medium to support healthy
plant growth.
Approximately 60% of the area is open, allowing light, water and nutrients to pass through easily to
the underlying soil. The open mesh provides a “trap” for soil, seeds, water and nutrients. The jute
retains water, creating a localised water reservoir for the soil below.
With time the jute material biodegrades, enhancing the soil fertilisation and the cohesive strength of
the root systems. At this point the flexible nature of the plants becomes the primary stabilising and
protecting element. Depending on climate conditions, the biodegradation period is typically 1-2 years.
BioJute provides nature with a helping hand at erosion control and vegetation generation.
BioJute specifications are listed in Table 3.2.1
TABLE 3.2.1: BIOJUTE SPECIFICATIONS
BIOJUTE
BJ250 BJ500
Mass (g/m²) 250 500
Max. water retention (l/m²) 1.25 2.5
Yarn Diameter (mm) 2-4 4-7
% open area 70 60
Supply Size Bales: 10 pieces (1.22m x 50m) = 610 m² *
*Mini-packs are available on request i.e. One piece (1.22m x 50m) = 61m²
3.2.4 Benefits and features
The benefits and features of BioJute are shown in Table 3.2.2.
TABLE 3.2.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF BIOJUTE

BENEFIT FEATURE
Nutrient trap The open mesh provides a “trap” for soil, seeds, water and nutrients.
Superior drapability Allows close contact to the ground surface.
Moisture retention Jute can absorb up to five times its own weight of water. The retained
water firstly attenuates the rainfall run-off and is then released gradually to
soak into the adjacent soil to nourish the vegetation, so aiding growth.
Easily vegetated Readily accepts hydroseeding. Rooted plants are easily planted in the jute
apertures. The open weave allows over seeding after installation.

BENEFIT FEATURE
Growth promotion The open mesh structure allows light, water and nutrients to easily pass
through to the underlying soil.
Ideal for soil bioengineering Useful with the use of vegetation for erosion control.
applications
Environmentally friendly The BioJute biodegrades completely within 1-2 years.
Soil fertiliser Decomposition of the natural fibres within the net improves the soil
organic content, permeability and moisture retention ability.
Cost effective Lower costs compared to synthetic geotextiles.
Ease of installation BioJute is lightweight and easy to install on sites with difficult access. It is
easily cut and shaped by unskilled labour to accommodate existing
topographical conditions.
Successful technical performance Studies have been conducted by the “Institut fur Geotechnik und
Grundbau” of the University GH Siegen, Germany.
3.2.5 Applications
BioJute is used where soil surfaces require protection from erosion prior to the establishment of
vegetation cover. It is ideally suited for the protection of slopes.
Areas of application include:

• Golf course construction and maintenance.
• Embankments and slopes.
• Civic beautification.
• Landfills.
• Highway construction.
• Landscape improvement.
• Sod stabilisation.
• Lakes and stream banks.
• Mining reclamation.
• Nurseries.
• Military bases.
• Industrial and commercial development.
• Farm and agricultural.
• Hydroseeding.
• Ski slopes.
• Beach and sand dune stabilisation.
• Pipeline construction.
• Wetland reclamation.
• Drainage ditches.
The most appropriate use of BioJute is for:

• Greening stable dry banks with not too steep slopes (<1:2).
• May be used on a fairly uneven underlying surface as the superior drapability of BioJute ensures
good contact with the underlying soil.
• For sites where plants will form the primary stabilising and erosion control mechanism after 1-2
years (corresponding to BioJute degradation period).


• Suitable for slopes <1:2.
• BioJute has high moisture retention properties and generally lasts 1-2 years. The fibre strength,
longevity and ability to retain moisture depend on the climate.
• Anchor the ends of the mat in a 300mmx300mm anchor trench.
• Pegs, whether they are steel, wooden or live stakes should be used to secure the mat. (Refer to
Appendix A for fixing guideline).
• Live fascines can be used with BioJute to secure the netting and prevent formation of rills and
gullies.
• Vegetation, such as pre-grown container seedlings or bare root plants can be installed through the
mesh apertures.
• BioJute can also be vegetated by seeding the slope. Seeding can be done before or after
installation of the mat, using either seeded topsoil or hydroseeding.
• Placing a layer of topsoil on top of the BioJute after installation, will help to anchor it down, and
protect it from damage.

During transportation and prior to use on site BioJute should be kept dry and retained in its original
wrapping out of sunlight in dry, ventilated conditions. Refer to Appendix B for storage guidelines.
Slope installation guidelines for BioJute ECB are shown in table 3.2.3.
TABLE 3.2.3: SLOPE INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR BIOJUTE

Unfold the ECB down the slope, taking care not to stretch the mat.
hydroseeding.

3.3 Geomats (MacMat™)
3.3.1 Definition
MacMat™ is a three-dimensional geomat consisting of entangled polypropylene monofilaments that
are heat bonded at the contact points to provide a dimensionally stable matrix for soil erosion
protection from wind, rainfall, run-off or flooding. It is a permanent erosion control product
composed of UV stabilised, non- degradable synthetic fibres.
3.3.2 Purpose
MacMat™ provides permanent erosion protection on upland slopes, stream banks, wetland
boundaries, and shorelines. The mats provide a stable medium to encourage natural colonisation and
support healthy plant growth.
Initially the geomat blanket works to shield the soil slope form the effects of wind and rainfall,
preventing the soil from washing out before the vegetation has a chance to become established. Then,
as the vegetation matures, the roots anchor the mat to the soil to provide superior soil reinforcement
strength, capable of handling steeper embankment slopes and higher run-off flow velocities.
PHOTO 3.3.1: VEGETATED MACMAT™
MacMat™ specifications are listed in Table 3.3.1.
TABLE 3.3.1: MACMAT™ SPECIFICATIONS
MACMAT™
Unit weight (g/m²) 650

Thickness (mm) 10
Tensile strength (kN/m) >1.6
Void space 90%
Supply Size (m) Rolls 2x25 (32 kg)
Polymer Type Polypropylene
Density (g/m³) 900
Melting Point (oC) 150
Colour Black
UV Resistance Stabilised

3.3.4 MacMat-R™
MacMat-R™ is a unique composite material of MacMat™ and African Gabions’ double twisted
hexagonal mesh reinforcement.
This unique combination marries the excellent anti-erosion properties of the three-dimensional
MacMat™ geomat and the well-known strength properties of the African Gabions mesh, thus
extending the range of applications and diversity of MacMat™.

The benefits and features of MacMat™ are shown in Table 3.3.2. Additional benefits of MacMat-
R™ are shown in Table 3.3.3.
TABLE 3.3.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF MACMAT™

Benefit Feature
Permanent erosion control MacMat™ is made of non-degradable polypropylene.
Soil protection MacMat™ protects the underlying soil from the direct impact
of raindrops and wind. It prevents the underlying soil from
washing out before vegetation is established.
Seed protection MacMat™ protects the underlying seeds from the direct
impact of raindrops, wind and feeding birds. It prevents the
underlying seeds from washing out before vegetation is
established.
Enhanced deposition and retention rates The relatively high roughness and permeability of MacMat™
allows for natural deposition of sediment in flowing water and
offers a good retention to a pre-seeded / hydroseeded
environment.
Soil trapping and vegetation growing medium 3-D open matrix with 90% voids volume.
Ease of installation Flexible and easily cut to shape by unskilled labour to
accommodate existing topographical conditions.
Immediate erosion control and ground At the most vulnerable stage un-vegetated surfaces are
protection protected from water and wind erosion preventing gullying
and loss of topsoil.
TABLE 3.3.3: ADDITIONAL BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF MACMAT-R™

Benefit Feature
High tensile strength African Gabions double twist, hexagonal, wire mesh.
Continuity Continuity of the lining is easily achieved by lacing the edges
together with binding wire or metal rings.
Minimal wastage No overlap is required, thus minimising geomat wastage.
Fewer anchor pins Normally, fewer pins are required to achieve and maintain
similar ground contact.
Improved shear stress resistance Tensile strength of mesh combined with geomat.
Positive connection to other structures; fewer The wire mesh allows for positive connection to other
anchor pins. structures such as Gabions, Reno mattresses, concrete inverts,
timber pole walls etc. This results in fewer anchor pins being
required.
3.3.6 Applications
MacMat™ is used primarily in three areas:
• Erosion protection along watercourses.
• Erosion prevention on steep slopes and embankments.
• Vegetation support on steep slopes that are difficult to vegetate.
More specifically:

• Slope stabilisation in highway and railway cuts and fills.

• Riverbanks, channels and irrigation canals.
• Reservoir embankments and lagoons.
• Grassed spillways.
• Culvert inlet and outfalls.
• Sand dune stabilisation.
• High stress areas in sports fields or park reserves.
• Golf courses and lawns.
• Permanent root zone reinforcement as a surface treatment for weak soils.
• Lids for Reno Mattresses.
• Hold soil in place under tension.
• Reinforcement and anchoring for vegetation.
• Erosion protection for steep slopes, channels, stream banks and shorelines.
• Favourable environment for plant establishment.
• Erosion control revetments on transportation and transmission corridors.
• Provides a matrix for spray concrete, or hydroseeding.
Due to the extra strength, MacMat-R™ can be used in more critical applications and in applications
complementary to other existing African Gabions products, including:
• Steep Slopes and embankments.
• Combination rockfall netting /slope-vegetation.
• Liner cappings to hold a topsoil cover.
• Lids to Reno Mattresses (GeoMac).
• Green Terramesh™ - ‘Water’ Type
PHOTO 3.3.2: HYDRAULIC APPLICATION OF A GEOMAT

• When MacMat™ is applied on slopes, geotechnical aspects must be taken into account. Although
MacMat™ contributes to the stability of slopes by reducing erosion, the sub-base itself may not be
geotechnically sound, and subject to large deformations. Calculation of the slope stability must be
done.
• Various vegetation techniques can be used with this system, including; live stakes, brush layers,
rooted woody plants, herbaceous planting and seeding. Seeding can be done in conjunction with

topsoiling, or as hydroseeding. Vegetation techniques can be incorporated before, during or after

the installation of MacMat™.
• As vegetation is a fundamental part of the erosion control function performed by MacMat™ the
establishment of a good vegetative cover is an important factor that should not be underestimated.
For this reason the following points should be considered:
o Soil conditions under the MacMat™ should be capable of sustaining good growth.
o Seed mixtures should be chosen to suit the particular soil, climatic conditions and
land use.
o The use of fertilisers and hydrophilic materials can prove beneficial in establishing
vegetation.
• The stability of the structure can be verified using the allowable shear stress of the mat.
• Verify the allowable shear stress of the mat with and without vegetation establishment.
• MacMat™ is not intended to be used as a reinforcement to unstable slopes. It is an erosion
control material.
• Research at Utah State Water Research Laboratory found Manning’s ‘n’ roughness values of
0.027 for MacMat™ and MacMat-R™ and 0.033 for the vegetated geomats.
• It is advisable, particularly during the summer months, to place a layer of sand or topsoil on top of
the seeded MacMat™ to prevent any heat absorption from damaging the seed.
• Once plants are established, erosion resistance is increased – up to 5 m/s in flowing water as the
plants are better anchored than in soil alone (cf. Utah University report).
The Utah Water Research Laboratory (UWRL) performed a research project on MacMat™ at the
Utah State University. MacMat™’s performance in a high velocity, erodable-bed flume was tested
and compared to bare soil control conditions. The tests were conducted between August 1995 and
March 1996. Contact African Gabions for a copy of the test results.

Slope installation guidelines for MacMat™ ECB are shown in Table 3.3.4. Channel installation
considerations are given in Table 3.3.5.
TABLE 3.3.4: SLOPE INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR MACMAT™


hydroseeding.
TABLE 3.3.5: CHANNEL INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR MACMAT™

Anchor the ECB in the trench, backfill and compact, as shown in Figure 3.1.1.
Ensure upstream rolls overlap downstream rolls, by a minimum of 150 mm.
The ECB must be held in position by a sufficient number of pegs to ensure proper contact with the underlying
material.
Note: For larger channels with steeper slopes, it is preferable to place the mats perpendicular to the direction of
flow.
PHOTO 3.3.3: INSTALLED MACMAT™ BEFORE VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

PHOTO 3.3.4: INSTALLED MACMAT™ AFTER VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

3.4 EcoLog™
3.4.1 Definition
An EcoLog™ is a cylindrical biodegradable roll, lined with BioMac™ coir blanket and bound
together with twine. The EcoLog™ can be pre-filled with organic matter and / or a combination of
rocks and soil.
An empty EcoLog™ is referred to as an Ecosleeve.
Reinforced EcoLogs™ are lined with a mesh reinforcement made of galvanised PVC coated wire, for
heavy-duty applications (Photo 3.4.1.)
PHOTO 3.4.1: REINFORCED ECOLOGS™
3.4.2 Purpose
The EcoLogs™ are designed to reduce erosion and assist in the germination, establishment and / or
anchorage of vegetation by trapping sediments and provide a biodegradable medium for plant
nutrition.
EcoLog™ specifications are shown in Table 3.4.1.
TABLE 3.4.1: ECOLOG™ SPECIFICATIONS
ECOLOG™
BioMac™ Unit Weight (g/m²) 450

Connection method Staples at 100mm intervals longitudinally and closed
at one end
Standard length (m) 2
Standard diameter (m) 0.3
Mesh reinforcement Galvanised and PVC coated 60x80mm wire mesh,
nominal internal diameter 2.2 mm, nominal external
diameter 3.2 mm


The benefits and features of EcoLogs™ are shown in Table 3.4.2.
TABLE 3.4.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF ECOLOGS™

Benefit Feature
Soil and seed trap EcoLogs™ trap seed and soil from overland flow,
creating suitable habitat for vegetation establishment.
Reduce overland flow velocity EcoLogs™ placed perpendicular to the direction of
overland flow will help to reduce overland flow
velocity.
Indigenous seed bank EcoLogs™ filled with locally harvested seeds and
branches form a valuable seed bank for vegetation
establishment.
Soil fertiliser Decomposition of the natural fibres within the blanket
improves the soil organic content, permeability and
moisture retention ability.
Flexibility EcoLogs™ are not rigid. Their flexibility allows
moulding to ground contours.
Greening gabions EcoLogs™ can be used to soften gabion faces.
Immediate erosion control and ground protection At the most vulnerable stage un-vegetated surfaces are
protected from water and wind erosion preventing
gullying and loss of topsoil.
Moisture retention BioMac™ acts as a mulch.
3.4.5 Applications
• Immediate and long-term erosion control protection for embankments.
• Prevention of gully formation.
• Aids the establishment of vegetative cover by creating hospitable conditions.
• EcoLogs™ help to slow water velocities and trap sediment down embankments – intercept sheet
flow.
• Greening of gabion structures.
• Used in conjunction with other bioengineering techniques, e.g. Vetiver Grass technology.
PHOTO 3.4.2: ECOLOG™ APPLICATION

3.4.6 Design considerations:

• EcoLogs™ have high moisture retention properties. The fibre strength, longevity and ability to
retain moisture depend on the climate and fill material.
• Various vegetation techniques can be used with this system, including live stakes, brush layers
and herbaceous emergent aquatic plants. Some vegetative techniques can be incorporated after
the installation of the structure.
• Use site reconnaissance to identify plant species, growth form, soil and site conditions on adjacent
sites and compare their conditions to the construction site. Planting will be more successful as
soil, site and species selected match stable, vegetated nearby sites.
• The diameter of an EcoLog™ is typically 300 mm, the length is 2 m.
• The coconut fibre blanket has a life span of approximately 2-3 years. After this time the
vegetation must be the primary stabilising force.

Installation guidelines for EcoLogs™ are given in Table 3.4.3.
TABLE 3.4.3: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR ECOLOGS™

Work site disturbance should be minimised. Protect any existing plants, where possible and avoid additional
disturbance that can lead to erosion and sedimentation.
Determine where the installation will begin and end.
Prepare the site for installation of EcoLogs™ by removing any large rocks, obstructions or materials that may
prevent the coir from making direct and firm contact with the soil.
Regrade bank as per the design. Topsoil should be stockpiled and used for rehabilitation once construction is
complete.
Fill unfilled EcoLogs™ (ecosleeves) with a combination of organic matter and soil. Stone may be incorporated
for structural support within the EcoLog™ and to help weigh it down.
Place EcoLog™ parallel to the stream bank or shoreline, perpendicular to the direction of overland flow.
Use untreated wooden stakes made from strong, durable wood species that does not have knots or flaws to
secure the EcoLog™. The stakes should be pointed at one end, not wedge shaped.
Stakes should be ± 40 mm in diameter, unless otherwise specified. Stake length should be specified on the plan,
dependent upon the type of substrate on the site.
Join adjacent EcoLogs™ together, end to end, securely. Reinforced EcoLogs™ should be joined using binding
wire.
Key-in the end units by 1-2 m.

3.5 Coir Roll
3.5.1 Definition
Coir rolls are cylindrical, biodegradable rolls manufactured from a high-density coconut husk fibre
with an exterior netting of 100% coir mesh. The coir material is natural, long lasting and has high a
tensile strength.
Sometimes coir rolls are referred to as coir rolls.
PHOTO 3.5.1: COIR ROLL
3.5.2 Purpose
Coir rolls are commonly used for stream bank stabilisation and shoreline protection on low energy
flows. These components provide immediate erosion control and a stable medium to support healthy
herbaceous plant growth. Eventually (4–8 years), the coir material biodegrades and the cohesive
strength of the root systems and flexible nature of the plants become the primary stabilising element.
Coir Roll specifications are listed in Table 3.5.1
TABLE 3.5.1: COIR ROLLS SPECIFICATIONS
COIR ROLL
Length (m) 2 to 6
Diameter (m) 0.2 0.3 0.4
Weight (kg/m) 4 8 14
Material 100% coir fibre
Netting Coir fibre netting of 50 mm squares; immovable, knotted coir yarn.


The benefits and features of coir rolls are given in Table 3.5.2.
TABLE 3.5.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF COIR ROLLS

Benefit Feature
Long term erosion protection Water margin plants rooted in temporary (±5 years) coir rolls provide long
term erosion protection
Immediate, mature protection Coir rolls may be pre-cultivated in a nursery, providing a mature solution,
with vegetation already established, on installation.
Indigenous plant establishment Longevity of the coir fibre allows time for original plants to invade the
surrounding environment. Coir's high lignin content provides a long
degradation period when densely packed, but ultimately totally degrades.
3.5.5 Applications
• To provide stabilisation along low energy stream and wetland boundary, and along shoreline
systems.
• Provides immediate erosion control and creates favourable conditions for healthy plant
establishment.
• Protection and mitigation of wetlands.

• Coir rolls have high moisture retention properties and generally last 4 to 8 years. The fibre
strength, longevity and ability to retain moisture depend on the surrounding conditions.
• The diameter of a coir roll is typically 300 mm.
NOTE: Rooted/ leafed condition of the plant material is not representative at the time of installation.
FIGURE 3.5.1: CROSS SECTION OF A COIR ROLL


Installation guidelines for coir rolls are given in Table 3.5.3
TABLE 3.5.3: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR COIR ROLLS

Work site disturbance should be minimised. Protect any existing plants, where possible and avoid additional
disturbance that can lead to erosion and sedimentation.
Determine mean water elevation. Mark the mean water level on a stake driven into the substrate 0.3-0.6 m
offshore. Installing the materials and plants at the correct elevation is the most important aspect to assure
success of the installation.
Determine, on site, where the installation will begin and end. Begin installation at the downstream end. Ensure
that each end is well keyed into the bank (1 – 2 m).
Prepare the site by removing large rocks, obstructions or material that may prevent the coir rolls from making
direct, firm contact with the soil.
Regrade the site as per the design. Gradual slopes, (<1:2) are preferred. Topsoil should be stockpiled and used
for rehabilitation once construction is complete.
Place the coir rolls parallel to the stream bank or shoreline. They should be level, installed along a horizontal
contour. Install the water logs such that 50 mm extends above the mean water elevation.
Coir rolls should be placed along the stream bank at a height sufficient to protect the shore from flows or waves.
Additional logs may be placed above the lower logs, to protect the upper shore or stream bank.
Join adjacent coir rolls together, end-to-end, tightly and securely.
Select and use wooden stakes made from strong, durable wood species that does not have knots or flaws, to
anchor the rolls in place.
Stakes should be ± 40 mm in diameter, unless otherwise specified. Stake length should be specified on the plan,
dependent upon the type of substrate on the site.
For typical applications at the waters edge, coir rolls are held in place with a single row of stakes 300mm apart.
Stakes may be driven through the netting on the outer edge of the roll.
For typical offshore application of coir rolls, drive stakes 300mm apart on both sides of the roll, in parallel rows.
Lacing across the stakes is used to hold the coir rolls in place. Weave lacing back and forth across the roll and
attach the lacing to each stake.
Plant materials, such as container grown, pre-rooted plant plugs should be planted into the water logs as
specified in the design.
Plant plugs should be installed at a density of 2, 3 and 4 plants per 300mm for 300, 400 and 500 mm diameter
rolls respectively.
To install plant plugs, use a planting iron or pilot bar wedged back and forth in the log to create a hole for each
plant. It is extremely important that the root system of the plant be placed below the water level.
Plant maintenance should be carried out until the plants are well established.
PHOTO 3.5.2: COIR ROLL APPLICATION

3.6 EcoGabion
3.6.1 Definition
The EcoGabion is a PVC coated gabion that has been modified to facilitate greening. Type 1 is a
trapezoidal gabion made with an inclined front face of 70 degrees (Figure 3.6.1.). Type 2 is a
rectangular gabion and is also referred to as an EnviroLog (Figure 3.6.2). Both types of EcoGabions
are lined with a coconut fibre blanket (BioMac™). BioMac™ is used to contain soil and act as a
substrate for insertion of rooted plants. The unit is filled with a combination of stone and soil.
3.6.2 Purpose
EcoGabions are used as revetments for erosion control or for stream bank and shoreline protection.
They provide immediate erosion protection and create hospitable conditions for healthy plant growth
on steep embankments.
The inclined front face of the Type 1 EcoGabion facilitates the deposition of sediment and growth of
plants.
FIGURE 3.6.1: ECOGABION: TYPE 1
FIGURE 3.6.2: ECOGABION: TYPE 2

Specifications for EcoGabions are shown in Table 3.6.1.
TABLE 3.6.1: ECOGABION SPECIFICATIONS

Type 1 Type 2
BioMac™ Unit Weight (g/m²) 450 450
Matt matrix Untreated 100% coconut fibres Untreated 100% coconut fibres
Netting UV stabilised polypropylene UV stabilised polypropylene
Standard length (m) 2 2
Standard width (m) 1 0.5
Standard height (m) 0.5 0.5
Angle of the front face (0) 70 90
Mesh reinforcement 80x100mm hexagonal PVC coated 80x100mm hexagonal PVC coated
wire mesh, with nominal 2.7mm wire mesh, with nominal 2.7mm
internal, and 3.7mm external wire internal, and 3.7mm external wire
diameter diameter

Benefits and features of EcoGabions are shown in Table 3.6.2.
TABLE 3.6.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF ECOGABIONS

BENEFIT FEATURE
Immediate, long-term erosion protection The EcoGabion itself gives immediate structural stability,
which grows stronger with time as the vegetation is
established.
Easily greened, eco-friendly Modifications to the design, when compared to traditional
gabions, aid the establishment of vegetative cover by creating
hospitable conditions for plant growth.
Ecological protection Provides aquatic and riparian cover and wildlife habitat
value.
Aesthetically pleasing Provides a wide variety of aesthetic “looks” ranging from
very natural using indigenous plants to tailored using exotics.
Traps sediment Helps to slow water velocities near banks and trap sediment.
This further enhances the greening process.
3.6.5 Applications
• Immediate and long-term erosion protection revetments for rivers, stream banks and shorelines.
• Aquatic and riparian cover to increase wildlife habitat value.
• Can be used as a deflector in a stream if properly designed for the river flow as a groyne structure.

• EcoGabions are not a retaining wall system. They are not intended to withstand large lateral earth
stresses, but rather to function as a revetment.
• The stability of the EcoGabion structure is verified by comparing the tractive force and the
allowable shear stresses.
• EcoGabions Type 1 have a 70o inclining face.
• The structure can be constructed during the dry season and the planting can be done at a more
suitable time.
• The coconut fibre blanket has a typical life span of 2 - 3 years. This protects the slope from
surface erosion until vegetation becomes the primary stabilising force.

• Various vegetation techniques can be used with this system, including: live stakes, brush layers,
rooted woody plants, herbaceous emergent aquatics and grasses. Vegetation techniques can be
incorporated during or after installation.
sites and compare their conditions to the construction site. Planting will be more successful as
soil, site and species selected match stable, vegetated nearby sites.
• The system provides increased strength and function once the vegetation is established.
• The toe of the slope and structure will be protected from undermining by installing the units into
the bed below the scour depth. These units are typically filled with stone.
Typical cross-sections of Type 1 and Type 2 EcoGabion structures are shown in Figure 3.6.3 and
Figure 3.6.4.
EcoGabions
FIGURE 3.6.3: CROSS-SECTION OF AN ECOGABION: TYPE 1 STRUCTURE
Note: Rooted / leafed condition of the plant material is not representative at the time of installation.
FIGURE 3.6.4: CROSS SECTION OF AN ECOGABION: TYPE 2 STRUCTURE


Installation guidelines for EcoGabions are given in Table 3.6.3 and shown in Figure 3.6.5 and Figure
3.6.6.
TABLE 3.6.3: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR ECOGABIONS

Type 1 Type 2
Installation begins at the base of the slope and possibly below the channel bed, to protect against scour.
Unfold the units and place the coconut fibre blanket on the Unfold the units, erect corners and connect them to
inside of the front face. Be sure to overlap the coconut the side panels. EnviroLogs can be connected
blanket 300 mm on the top and bottom of the face unit. together using lacing wire or spenax clips.
Secure the coconut fibre blanket to the woven wire mesh
with lacing wire.
Erect the corners of the EcoGabions and connect them to Place a few empty units in their final location.
the side panels with lacing wire. The front panel of the Connect adjacent units together using lacing
EcoGabions should only be connected to half its height. techniques.
Finish connecting the front face after the EcoGabion has
been filled half way.
Connect the EcoGabions together by lacing the edges of Line inside of the unit with BioMac™ coconut
the adjacent units together using the proper technique. fibre blanket as specified in the design.
Fill units above the water level with stone (50- 70 % per volume) and vegetative soil. Ensure that all corners are
filled. Totally submerged units should be filled with stone only. Use more stone in the lower elevations (70%)
and less above (50%).
Fasten the lid down and ensure that the coconut fibre blanket covers the entire exposed surface of the
EcoGabions.
When live cut branches or rooted plants are being used to establish vegetation, place the branches between each
layer of EcoGabions, above or at the low water level. See the brush layering section for more details. Rooted
plants can be planted through holes made in the BioMac™ blanket.
Place the next unit on top, stepping it back from the front of the unit below by 150 - 500 mm and continue with
the preceding steps. When a wider low riparian zone is desired, for example, to establish a herbaceous
vegetation zone at the base the units should be stepped back 500mm. This may be important for wildlife.
Plant per the design specifications.

Note: Rooted / leafed condition of the plant material may not be representative at the time of installation.
FIGURE 3.6.5: ECOGABION: TYPE 1 INSTALLATION
FIGURE 3.6.6: ECOGABION: TYPE 2 INSTALLATION

PHOTO 3.6.1: ECOGABIONS: TYPE 1 BEFORE VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

PHOTO 3.6.2: ECOGABIONS: TYPE 1 AFTER VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT
PHOTO 3.6.3: ECOGABIONS: TYPE 2 BEFORE VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

PHOTO 3.6.4: ECOGABIONS: TYPE 2 AFTER VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

3.7 Green Terramesh™
3.7.1 Definition
Green Terramesh™ is an environmentally friendly modular system used for soil reinforcement in
mechanically stabilised earth slopes and embankments.
5
1: Green
1: Green Terramesh
Terramesh™ unit
units H
2: Filling fill
2: Structural material
3: ECB
3: Geosynthetic blanket (ECB or TRM)
4: Vegetative
4: Vegetativecovercover
5: Vegetative soil fill
FIGURE 3.7.1: GREEN TERRAMESH™ SYSTEM

Units are placed in horizontal layers during the filling and compaction of a structural embankment.
The main unit is fabricated from continuous, heavily galvanised and PVC coated steel wire, which is
woven into a double twisted hexagonal mesh configuration. Attached to the inside facing is a
geosynthetic or a biodegradable erosion control blanket (ECB), a welded steel panel, and two steel
brackets; pre-formed to a 700 slope angle.
Top Tail
Coconut Fibre Blanket
Steel Bracket
Welded Steel Panel
Anchor
PHOTO 3.7.1: GREEN TERRAMESH™ UNIT

The ECB retains the backfill soil and permits a vegetative cover to establish rapidly. It may consist of
a permanent geosynthetic three-dimensional geomat (MacMat™) (hydraulic application) or a
biodegradable 100% coconut fibre biomat (BioMac™) (dry application).
MacMat™ is generally recommended for applications where the slope will be in contact with running
water at a moderately low velocity (< 3 m/s), such as on riverbanks. It is also suitable for applications
where vegetation will take a long time to establish. BioMac™ is recommended in all other cases.
The welded steel panel placed behind the erosion blanket adds strength and provides support to the
facing while holding the blanket in place during the construction.

The top section of the main wire mesh unit is used to anchor and connect the unit to the one above.
3.7.2 Purpose
Green Terramesh™ systems are used as soil reinforcement in slope stability applications. This system
prevents erosion and integrates well into natural surrounding environments.
Specifications for Green Terramesh™ are shown in Table 3.7.1.
TABLE 3.7.1: GREEN TERRAMESH™ SPECIFICATIONS
BioMac™ Unit Weight (g/m²) 450

Standard reinforcing tail length (m) As calculated in the stability analysis.
Standard width (m) 2
Tail length (m) 2-6 (depending on design requirements)
Standard height (m) 0.6
Angle of the front face (0) 70
Mesh reinforcement 80x100mm hexagonal PVC coated wire mesh, with
nominal 2.7mm internal, and 3.7mm external wire
diameter

Benefits and features of Green Terramesh™ are shown in Table 3.7.2.
TABLE 3.7.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF GREEN TERRAMESH™

BENEFITS FEATURES
Engineered solution African Gabions has design software, which analyses
the stability of the structure.
Structurally sound The wire mesh reinforcement is continuous along the
reinforcement plane, the sloped facing and the top
return section. This eliminates the risk of connection
failures between the reinforcement and the facing
section. In addition, the hexagonal pattern of the
double twisted wire mesh provides efficient
interlocking with the soil and will not unravel
throughout the reinforcement sheet should accidental
damage occur during construction.
In-situ materials Besides the 0.3 m deep wedge behind the front face, in
situ material can be used to backfill the structure.
Sand-only solution Useful when soil is the only material available for
construction. No rocks required.
Cost effective Green Terramesh™ structures can be built with
suitable fill materials available on-site. The modularity
of the unit makes the construction time cost effective.
Immediate, long-term erosion protection The Green Terramesh™ itself gives immediate
structural stability, which grows stronger with time as
the vegetation is established.
Easily greened More conducive to greening due to the sloped front
face
Ecological protection Provides aquatic and riparian cover and wildlife
habitat value.

BENEFITS FEATURES
Aesthetically pleasing Provides a wide variety of aesthetic “looks” ranging
from very natural using indigenous plants to tailored
using exotics.
Traps sediment Helps to slow water velocities near banks and trap
sediment.
Eco-friendly Aids in the establishment of a vegetative covering by
creating hospitable conditions for plant establishment.
3.7.5 Applications
• Green Terramesh™ is an alternative to near vertical retaining structures.
• Provides protection for rivers, stream banks and shorelines.
• Green Terramesh™ is ideal for land development projects on steepened landscape sites.
• Provides aquatic and riparian cover and wildlife habitat benefits.
• Provides a wide variety of aesthetic “looks” ranging from very natural using indigenous plants to
tailored using exotics.
• Provides immediate and long-term protection from surface erosion and geotechnical failures.

• The units have a 700 inclined face, to enhance vegetative growth.
• Using a continuous mesh panel ensures rigidity of the front face.
• Various vegetation techniques can be used with this system, including; live stakes, rooted plants,
seeds and hydroseeding. Vegetation techniques (with the exception of seeded topsoil) are
incorporated after the installation of the structure.
• Use site reconnaissance to identify plant species and soil conditions on adjacent sites and compare
their conditions to the construction site. Planting will be more successful if the species selected is
similar to plants found on nearby sites.
• Install drainage at the back of the reinforcement if seepage is a factor.
• The system is a mechanically stabilised earth structure. It is important to verify the stability of the
slope prior to construction. Slope stability analysis programs are available and should be used.
• Green Terramesh™ units are supplied cut to the specified measurements, as determined by the
design. Therefore no cutting is required on site.
• It is recommended to step the units back 100-150 mm to reduce the velocity of the water flowing
down the front face and to create a self-watering feature for the front face.
African Gabions provides computer software and technical support to assist in the design of Green
Terramesh™ structures. The MACSTARS program performs internal and external stability checks of the
reinforced structure and provides a detailed calculation report, cross sections, and stability analysis.
A typical cross section of a Green Terramesh™ structure is shown in Figure 3.7.2. Figure 3.7.3
shows Green Terramesh™ installation.

FIGURE 3.7.2: CROSS SECTION OF GREEN TERRAMESH™

Installation guidelines for Green Terramesh™ units are given in Table 3.7.3.
TABLE 3.7.3: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR GREEN TERRAMESH™

Prepare the foundation as specified in the design
Unfold the Green Terramesh™ units and place at the bottom of the slope or stream bank. In a channel situation,
the structure needs to start below the scour depth.
The units are pre-cut to the length specified in the design; therefore no cutting needs to be done on the site.
Raise the front face of the units, unfold the steel brackets and connect them to the anchor panel with some lacing
wire. The steel brackets ensure the 700 angle of the front face.
Place the units side by side and secure them together using lacing wire or stainless steel rings.
Horticultural soil (see Section 2.8: Soil) should be placed behind the front face (minimum of 0.3 m deep in
0.3 m lifts). Compact lightly either by hand or by using a small machine such as a skid compactor.
Place backfill on the anchor panel in 0.3m lifts and compact. Compaction of the backfill should be done as
specified in the design (usually 95% Standard Proctor Density).
Once backfilling of the units is complete, place the next unit on top and connect it to the units below.
Continue with the preceding steps until desired height of the structure is reached.
Vegetate as per the design. When live stakes or rooted plants are used to establish vegetation, install them in the
face.
For detailed instructions refer to the Green Terramesh™ product installation guide.

FIGURE 3.7.3: INSTALLATION STEPS FOR GREEN TERRAMESH™
PHOTO 3.7.2: GREEN TERRAMESH™ BEFORE INSTALLATION

PHOTO 3.7.3: GREEN TERRAMESH™ AFTER INSTALLATION

3.8 Greening Gabions and Reno Mattresses
3.8.1 Definitions
Gabions and Reno mattress units are made from hexagonally woven double twist wire mesh. They
are filled with stones to form monolithic flexible structures that are free draining.
3.8.2 Purpose
Gabion structures provide immediate and long-term protection from erosion and geotechnical failure.
They can be used for retaining walls, revetments, weirs and channel linings.
Vegetation and gabions / Reno mattresses have shown us their ability to co-exist by providing one
another with favourable conditions to develop. Once gabions and Reno mattresses are covered with
soil and roots, their durability, no longer restricted to the life of the wire, increases. Meanwhile,
plants find shelter for their roots in the structure and are able to flourish.
The growth of natural vegetation on a gabion structure is well documented by a long list of
photographic comparisons and technical literature. In 1994 research was conducted to analyse several
river’s reaches protected by gabion / mattress structures from a global environmental approach and to
compare them to unaltered reaches of the same rivers.
These investigations proved that gabions and Reno mattresses enhance the growth of indigenous plant
life, showing the product’s potential ability to help the natural recovery of destroyed or partially
damaged surrounding environment.
Wind and water passing through and over the stone fill will deposit soil and seeds into the voids
between the rocks. After ±5-10 and ±10–20 years for wet and dry applications respectively, the
structure will be naturally vegetated.
In spite of evidence of these structures’ “natural greening” ability, a new design process, which
accelerates the natural greening process, is now spreading out. It consists of using double twist
hexagonal mesh structures along with living materials (plants) through the application of
environmental engineering techniques to speed up the process of consolidation.
Consolidation is the process whereby a stable state is reached within the structure. An ecosystem has
become established, which is no longer dependent on the inert materials that were used to create it.

FIGURE 3.8.1: SYSTEMS QUALITY LIFECYCLE DURING CONSTRUCTION

The benefits and features of greening gabions are shown in Table 3.8.1
TABLE 3.8.1: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF GREENING GABIONS

BENEFIT FEATURE
Durability As vegetation establishes itself amongst the stones and soil, the durability of the
structure is no longer limited by the durability of the wire.
Friction angle Vegetation does not interfere with the friction angle of rocks.
Compaction free The rocks ensure that there will always be compaction free voids in the structure,
voids which are critical for active plant growth.
Appropriate for Greening gabions is appropriate for environmentally and aesthetically sensitive areas,
environmentally and such as parks, woodlands, rivers and transportation corridors, where recreation, wildlife
aesthetically sensitive habitat, water quality and similar values are critical.
areas
Immediate protection The gabion structure is designed to withstand heavy events immediately after
installation. Even if the vegetation dies, the system’s structural elements continue to
play an important protective role.
Strong initially and The system is strong initially and grows stronger with time as the vegetation becomes
grow stronger with established.
time
Erosion control The vegetation traps sediment, which further promotes vegetation growth and erosion
control.
Natural plant Enhances conditions for the natural colonisation and establishment of plants from the
colonisation surrounding plant community.

BENEFIT FEATURE
Increase in soil Dries excessively wet sites through transpiration as the vegetation grows.
stability by reducing Provides for surface drainage and can positively affect the direction of seepage flow.
soil moisture
Increase soil stability
Reinforces the soil as roots develop, adding significant resistance to shallow sliding and
due to plant growth shear displacement for smaller slopes.
Improves water The heavily vegetated banks filter and slow storm water runoff and trap sediment,
quality thereby improving water quality.
Air quality The removal of harmful airborne chemicals and dust offer air quality improvement.
improvement Increased oxygen production.
Low maintenance The structure becomes self-maintaining and self-repairing.
Noise reduction Absorption of sound waves by the rocks, soil and vegetation.
Versatile Can be used in conjunction with conventional engineering systems.
Job creation Greening gabions is often labour intensive, due to hand planting requirements for
vegetation.
Environmental Supports indigenous plant species and wildlife habitat and speeds up ecological
benefits succession
Positive impact on Vegetation provides:
wildlife * • Shelter and nesting sites – protection from predators and floods;
• Shade – keeping the water cooler in summer and slowing the growth of algae;
• A source of food.
Aesthetics Indigenous plant species and wildlife habitats, improve the aesthetic appeal of the
structure.
Shelter Plants find shelter from the gabion materials in order for their roots to flourish.
Vandalism Vegetating the structure “removes” it from sight, assisting with the prevention of
vandalism.
Improved biological The filtering of water through the structure, and the consequent siltation within the
conditions voids and the growth of vegetation tend to improve the biological conditions, restoring
the natural ecosystem.
*Environment Agency, undated
3.8.4 Design Considerations:

• The stability of the structure should always be verified using a stability analysis program. For
example, African Gabions’ in-house software, GAWAC.
• The system can have a number of profiles. Vertical faces should be avoided where possible as
they inhibit the growth of vegetation. An inclined facing is a more suitable environment for plant
establishment. If space allows, the units may be “stepped back” allowing the creation of planter
boxes as shown in Photograph 3.8.1.
• When gabions are used on streams, shorelines, and wetlands, the wire should be PVC coated.
Similarly retaining structures exposed to polluted runoff should also have PVC coated wire.
• For hydraulic applications the design of the structure should be verified by comparing the tractive
force and the allowable shear stress of the gabion mattress.
AutoCAD drawings for various greening options are shown in Appendix D.
The following points should be noted:

• External inclination of structure should be ±600 (700 maximum) to allow for increased runoff
interception, sedimentation and subsequent plant growth.
• A soil vegetative layer must be incorporated into the structure. This includes soil brushed into the
voids of the gabion / Reno mattress structure, and an additional 0.15-0.3 m layer of soil above the
structure.
• To avoid soil permeating through the structure, a layer of biomat / geotextile should be
incorporated into the structure at a pre-determined level.

• Greening is project specific. Refer to section 2.9 (Vegetation) for further information. Options
include:
o Seeded topsoil
o Hydroseeding
o Plant plugs
o Rooted cuttings
o Bulbs
o Grass / shrubs / creepers / trees
o Water margin plants – Provide bank erosion protection against water scour, wave
action, rainfall and animal traffic. Provide a natural habitat for eco-restoration.
o Grass sods (e.g. instant lawn)

There are two ways to vegetate a gabion structure:
1. Within the gabion; and

2. Behind the gabion
3.8.5.1 Vegetating within gabion structures

Installation instructions are outlined in Table 3.8.2 and illustrated in Figure 3.8.2 and Photograph
3.8.1.
TABLE 3.8.2: VEGETATING WITHIN GABION STRUCTURES

1 Assemble units as outlined in “Guidelines for the Installation of Gabions and Reno Mattresses”.
2 Line the units with BioMac™ biodegradable soil blanket. Lining should be along all gabion / air interfaces
and along the base of the units, if there is no geotextile present. According to the installation guidelines,
geotextile should be present between all the gabion / soil interfaces.
3 Fill the gabions with rock as specified in the design / installation manual. Whilst placing the rock, brush
horticultural topsoil* into the voids. This is facilitated by “washing in” the soil. DO NOT COMPROMISE
ON THE VOLUME OF ROCK REQUIRED.
4 Place 150 mm layer of soil above final rock layer.
Assume 30% voids in 1 m³ gabion = 0.3m³ topsoil. Allowing for 150 mm over-fill, approximately 0.45 m³ of
topsoil is required per 1 m³ gabion.
5 Overlap BioMac™ and close the unit as specified in the installation guidelines
6 Insert rooted plant cuttings into the voids through holes made in the BioMac™
For Reno Mattresses, an alternative to steps 5 and 6 is to place pre-grown sods on top of the rock and soil
fill prior to lacing the units (see Photo 2)
7 Conduct a plant maintenance plan until the vegetation is established
*See Section 2.8: Soil

Gabion Unit
Geotextile
BioMac™
See soils section for fill

detail
Rooted plants
FIGURE 3.8.2: VEGETATING WITHIN GABION STRUCTURES
PHOTO 3.8.1: VEGETATING WITHIN GABION STRUCTURES
3.8.5.2 Vegetating behind gabion structures

Installation instructions are outlined in Table 3.8.3 and illustrated in Photograph 3.8.2.
TABLE 3.8.3: VEGETATING BEHIND GABION STRUCTURES

1 Assemble units as outlined in “Guidelines for the Installation of Gabions and Reno Mattresses”.
2 Create a planting pocket behind the unit with the use of geotextile.
3 Fill the planting pocket with horticultural soil* to a height of 300mm.
4 Compact the backfill as specified in the design to a height of 300mm.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 in 300 mm lifts until the top of the unit is reached.
6 During the final fill of the planting pocket, plant the vegetation at the correct planting depth.
* See Section 2.8: Soil

PHOTO 3.8.2: VEGETATING BEHIND GABION STRUCTURES
Note: Leafed condition of the plant material is not representative at the time of installation
FIGURE 3.8.3: CROSS SECTION OF VEGETATED GABION STRUCTURE
If space constraints do not allow for the installation of planter boxes, then rooted plants may be
planted into the backfill as shown in Figure 3.8.3.

3.9 GeoMac™ mattresses
3.9.1 Definition
A GeoMac™ mattress is a Reno Mattress that has been modified to facilitate greening of steep and
impermeable slopes.
A GeoMac™ mattress is lined with geotextile, filled with a combination of rock and soil and then
vegetated. It provides a long-term stable soil layer. Erosion of the soil fill can be controlled by
protection with either BioMac™ or MacMat™ below the mattress lids.
3.9.2 Purpose
GeoMac™ mattresses allow impermeable liners and rock-underlain slopes to be greened. With
appropriate rock or earth anchors, slopes of up to 700 may be greened.
FIGURE 3.9.1: GEOMAC™ MATTRESS
GeoMac™ specifications are shown in Table 3.9.1.
TABLE 3.9.1: GEOMAC™ MATTRESS SPECIFICATIONS

Wire mesh 60x80mm hexagonal PVC coated wire mesh, with nominal 2.2mm
internal, and 3.2mm external wire diameter
Width (m) 2
Length (m) 3 or 6
Thickness (m) 0.3
Capacity (m³) 1.8 and 3.6 for 3 and 6 m long mattresses, respectively
Geotextile Non-woven, continuous filament

The benefits and features of GeoMac™ are listed in Table 3.9.2.
TABLE 3.9.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF GEOMAC™

BENEFIT FEATURE
Greening of steep slopes With appropriate rock and earth anchors, slopes of up to
700 may be greened.
GeoMac permits soil to be held long term on Soil is held in place within the GeoMac™ allowing
hostile surfaces like pond liners or rock slopes. vegetation to be planted within the mattress, thereby
providing a “green solution”.
Easily secured onto steep slopes to provide a The GeoMac™ system is attached to soil nails if present

BENEFIT FEATURE
wet or dry slope solution or by other fixings. All units are laced together to
provide a single flexible protection system.
Combining hard and soft engineering Hard engineering requirements for stabilising a bank
revetment are combined with the use of soil and
vegetation to produce a soft engineering approach
3.9.5 Installation of GeoMac™ mattresses onto slopes

Each installation will be unique, but the guidelines shown in Table 3.9.3 will be of assistance.
TABLE 3.9.3: GEOMAC™ INSTALLATION GUIDELINES

The slope is to be structurally stable prior to the installation of the GeoMac™ mattress. The heads of the
anchorages are to be left protruding by approximately 200mm. The slope face is to be generally planar, with any
vegetation and protrusions removed.
The GeoMac™ mattresses are to be unfolded and fastened together on a level surface, ensuring that all the joints
are tight, particularly those between the base panel and the internal diaphragms. The lid is to be left off the
mattress base at this stage.
Geotextile should be placed inside the mattress, running up and over each diaphragm and end panel to prevent
the migration of topsoil between compartments.
The empty mattress base is lifted into position over the soil nail/ ground anchorage heads and the basal unit toed
into the ground by 300mm. Light tension should be applied along the slope (horizontally) to the GeoMac™
units to remove creases from them before being bolted back to the slope surface. A number of GeoMac™ units
could be laced together as a multiple unit and tensioned along the slope face.
The base panel of the GeoMac™ is to be fastened to the slope using anchor plates with hemispherical nuts to
ensure the plate has a good contact with the slope face. The anchor plates are likely to be 300-450 mm
square/diameter.
The orientation of the mattress on the slope is to be such that the diaphragms in the mattresses are horizontal, i.e.
1m between the diaphragms up the slope. Internal ties between the lid and rear panel in the mesh will be
required to secure the face of the GeoMac™ mattress.
Stone is placed by hand into the GeoMac™ mattress, working from the bottom of the unit upwards. Care
should be taken to ensure that stone is packed in a ‘coursed’ arrangement, making sure that the unit is packed
tightly, particularly into the corners. Topsoil is worked in amongst the stone to fill the void volume. Seeds can
also be introduced with the soil. Ties should be installed between the front and back panels at 500mm centres,
to secure the face of the unit. These are to be made from the tying wire supplied with the units, and engage at
least two mesh widths (160mm) on each of the front and back panels. The lid is fastened to the base unit as the
GeoMac™ mattress is progressively filled.
The lid is to be attached to all the diaphragms of the base unit. Light tension, applied to the lid, pulling it
towards the diaphragm, will assist in this operation. FOR GREENING OPTION: Line the lid with the specified
biotextile to prevent soil escape and permit subsequent plant growth.
Where necessary, the units can be folded and cut to form shapes to suit site conditions. Any exposed edges of
mesh should be laced together neatly to maintain the integrity and aesthetics of the unit.
PHOTO 3.9.1: VEGETATED GEOMAC™ MATTRESS

4 SOIL BIOENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Brush Mattress: A combination of live stakes and cuttings or branches layered on the ground and
soil fill, forming a protective ground cover mattress.
Brush Layering: Cuttings or branches of easily rooted shrub and tree species are layered between
successive lifts of soil fill to reconstruct a slope or embankment to its natural angle of repose.
Joint Planting: Joint planting is a system that installs live stakes between the joints of previously
placed riprap rock or gabion mattresses.
Live Cribwall: A vegetated cribwall consists of a hollow, interlocking arrangement of logs or

timbers, soil, rocks and live cut branches.
Live Fascine: Live fascines are linear bundles of live cut branches tied together with twine and
anchored in a trench with wooden stakes. The trenches are typically excavated by hand and follow
the contour of the slope or stream bank. Once the bundle has been secured in the trench, the trench is
back-filled with soil to a point where just the top of the bundle is exposed.
Live Staking: Live stake planting involves the insertion and tamping of live, vegetative, woody
cuttings into the ground in a manner that allows the live stake to take root and grow.
Eco Shutter: An Eco Shutter is an organic revetment made from woven plant materials. The shoots
are only partially trimmed, leaving a rough finish, which is more effective in trapping silt. Live plant
material can be introduced between the woven elements to facilitate the long-term stability of the
structure.
Pre-vegetated Blanket: Pre-vegetated blankets are erosion control blankets that have been
established with rooted vegetation prior to installation.
Vegetated Reinforced Soil System (VRSS): Vegetated reinforced soil systems can be constructed
using geogrids. Geogrids are high tensile strength polymeric panels formed by intersecting ribs joined
at the junctions. The reinforcing panels are wrapped around layers of soil with live cut branches,
rooted or herbaceous plants installed between the layers. The front face of the vegetated reinforced
soil system is lined with a coconut fibre or geosynthetic blanket.
Vetiver Grass Technology (VGT): Vetiver Grass Technology is an erosion control technology that
uses vegetative barriers (also referred to as grass hedges) made out of Vetiver (Vetiver zizanioides).
VGT is a low-cost, simple technology employing the vetiver grass for soil and water conservation and
environmental protection

4.1 Brush Mattress
4.1.1 Definition
A brush mattress is a combination of live stakes and cuttings or branches layered on the ground and
soil fill, forming a protective ground cover mattress.
4.1.2 Purpose
A brush mattress forms an immediate protective surface cover using a combination of living units. It
is useful for reducing local velocities and capturing debris and sediment.
A brush mattress system is used to stabilise the soil on a cut stream bank slope face, and is useful as a
buffer around wetlands.
A brush mattress made from thorn tree branches may be used to prevent animals from accessing an
area that you are trying to protect from livestock trampling.
PHOTO 4.1.1: INSTALLATION OF A BRUSH MATTRESS
4.1.3 Applications
• Provides immediate surface protection.
• Brush mattresses capture sediment during flooding, which assists in rebuilding the bank and the
establishment of both the installed vegetation and the capturing of new seeds for germination.
• Provides surface stability for the natural colonisation of plants from the surrounding plant
community.
• Enhances opportunities to restore wildlife corridors, food sources, nesting and protection.
• The heavily vegetated banks filter and slow storm water runoff, thereby improving water quality.

• Should not be used on slopes subject to slope instability.
• Typically the toe of the slope will need to be protected. This can be done using EcoLogs,
EcoGabions, rock, live fascines etc. A careful site assessment will be required to determine the
best toe protection solution.
• Drains are required if there is significant subsurface seepage.
• The slope should be graded to the friction angle of the native soil or natural angle of repose or
less, especially on outside meander bends of stream systems.

• A single brush mattress is typically 3 m in face measurement. They may be doubled on the slope
face, but if the slope is wet or excessively dry, it is not advisable to go higher than 3 m on the
slope face.
EcoGabion to
FIGURE 4.1.1: CROSS SECTION OF A BRUSH MATTRESS

Installation guidelines for brush mattresses are given in Table 4.1.1.
TABLE 4.1.1: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR BRUSH MATTRESSES

Prepare the slope surface by grading to a uniform, smooth surface.
Install the stakes in a square pattern 300- 400 mm apart on the prepared slope face.
The live cut branches are 2 to 3 m long, and should be young and flexible.
Place the live cut branches, 50-75 mm thick, up against the cut slope face. The basal ends are inserted into a
trench at the toe of the slope. Gabions may be used at the toe to help secure the live cut branches placed against
the slope.
To hold the brush mattress in place, secure the live cut branches against the slope using strong twine, weaving
back and forth between the stakes over the live cut branches.
Earth moving equipment must not travel over the cuttings.
Lightly cover the area with soil immediately and ensure good contact between the branches and the soil. About
75 % of the brush mattress should be covered with soil. The exposed areas will allow for sprouting of stems and
leaves.

4.2 Brush Layering
4.2.1 Definition
Cuttings or branches of easily rooted shrub and tree species are layered between successive lifts of
soil fill to reconstruct a slope or embankment to its natural angle of repose.
Brush layering is also used with vegetated reinforced soil systems and other bioengineering
applications, when constructing steepened slopes or embankments.
4.2.2 Purpose
This technique is used to stabilise cut and fill slopes, particularly road slopes where construction
disturbance has or will result in unstable soil conditions. Brush layering places live branches
approximately horizontal in successive layers up the face of the slope at its natural angle of repose.
The brush layer live cut branches, especially after rooting, add reinforcement to slopes by serving as
tensile inclusions, which provide a measure of frictional resistance to shallow sliding or other types of
surficial displacement. The protruding brush retards runoff and reduces surface erosion, by offering
direct overhanging surface protection.
Brush layering is best used concurrently with the construction of cut or fill slopes or embankments.
Cuttings are placed by hand while appropriate equipment is used to fill and compact each successive
lift of soil backfill. This practice is also a good remedial action to repair gullies on existing slopes.
4.2.3 Applications
• On cut slopes the live cut branches are placed on formed terraces that are dug into the slope face.
They are useful when deeper reinforcement is needed, beyond that which can be provided by the
live fascine method (see Section 4.5: Live fascines).
• The brush layer method is often combined with live fascines on slopes composed of low cohesive
soils.
• On fill slopes, the live cut branches are placed on formed terraces that are constructed during the
conventional backfill operations that form the new slope. These are useful when much deeper
reinforcement in needed.
• Brush layering breaks up a long slope into a series of shorter slopes separated by rows of
protruding branches.
• May be used on a slope with a steeper angle than the natural soil friction angle, by including
reinforcing materials for additional strength.
• Reinforces the soil surface initially with the branches and over time the roots develop, adding
resistance to shallow sliding and shear displacement for smaller slopes.
• Reinforce or protect the facing element using brush layering in combination with geogrids, wire
mesh reinforcement or coir netting.
• Useful for trapping debris on the slope and aids infiltration on cut sites. They are more useful on
dry cut slopes because of their deeper installation.
• Dries excessively wet sites through transpiration as the vegetation grows.
• Adjusts the site's microclimate, thus aiding seed germination and natural regeneration.
• Promotes natural invasion of plants from the surrounding plant community.
• Enhances the development of wildlife corridors, food sources, nesting and cover protection for
wildlife.


• When using brush-layering techniques without a reinforced soil system, such as geogrids or
woven gabion mesh, the slope angle should be at the natural angle of repose or less.
• Spacing between the brush layers is determined by the erosion potential of the slope (i.e., soil
type, rainfall, and length and steepness of the slope). For recommended spacing see Table 4.2.1.
On long slopes, brush layer spacing should be closer at the bottom and may increase near the top
of the slope.
• On cut slopes the dug terraces are typically 0.75 to 1 m deep.
• On fill slopes the formed terraces may be 2 to 3 m or wider.
• When used in combination with woven gabion mesh or geogrids, the layers need to be installed
between each layer of the reinforced soil system layers.
TABLE 4.2.1: RECOMMENDED BRUSH LAYER SPACING ON SLOPES

(Gray, Sotir 1994)
Approximate Slope Distance Between Brush layer Rows (m)

Slope Steepness On Angle On Contour
(H: V) Wet Slopes Dry Slopes
1.5: 1 to 2: 1 0. 9 - 1.2 1. 2 - 1.5
2: 1 to 2.5: 1 0. 9 - 1.2 1. 5 - 1.8
2.5: 1 to 3: 1 1. 2 - 1.5 1. 8 - 2.5
3: 1 to 4: 1 1. 5 - 1.8 2. 0 - 3.0
FIGURE 4.2.1: CROSS SECTION OF FILL BRUSH LAYERING

Installation guidelines for brush layering are given in Table 4.2.2.
TABLE 4.2.2: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR BRUSH LAYERING

Slope the surface of the excavated or constructed bench so the outside front edge is higher than the inside or
back. The basal ends of the live cut branches angle down into the slope at 10 to 20 degrees when placed on the
bench.
Live cut branches must be kept moist and cool at all times between harvesting and installation. Live cut
branches need to be covered with tarps before being transported. Live cut branches should be installed within 48
hours of harvesting.

Place the live cut branches, 75- 150 mm thick, in a crisscross or overlapping configuration. The growing tips
should protrude 150- 300 mm from the slope face.
Immediately cover the brush layer branches with 150 mm of fill soil and compact lightly to ensure topsoil is
consolidated. Compact according to the construction specification.
Earth moving equipment should not travel directly over the cuttings. There must be at least 150 mm or more soil
between the brush layer branches and equipment at all times.
Fill and compact the soil placed above the brush layer in successive lifts, maximum 150- 200 mm in depth.
Install the next brush layer 0.75- 2.5 m (face measurement) above the previously installed row.
Seed and mulch slope using one half the normal seed weight. Slopes are generally seeded and mulched by hand.
Do not seed over the brush layer installation. Steeper slopes are seeded by hand with coir netting installed
between and beneath the layers of live cut branches.
PHOTO 4.2.1: BRUSH LAYERING BEFORE VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

PHOTO 4.2.2: BRUSH LAYERING AFTER VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT
(Sotir, 1989)

4.3 Joint Planting
4.3.1 Definition
Joint planting is a system that installs live stakes between the joints of previously placed riprap rock
or gabion mattresses.
4.3.2 Purpose
Joint planting increases the effectiveness of riprap rock or gabion mattresses by forming a living root
mat and water filtering system in the base upon which the riprap or gabion mattress have been placed.
Joint planting also increases sediment deposition, improves water quality, habitat value and aesthetics.
4.3.3 Applications
• Can be used on upland slopes, stream banks, riparian zones and wetland areas.
• Vegetation establishment improves aesthetics and provides cover by developing wildlife corridors
for movement, nesting, rearing, feeding, and resting areas.
• Joint planting enhances conditions for natural invasion and the establishment of other plants from
the surrounding plant community.
• Joint planting assists in protecting steep gradient stream banks from high flows.
• Acts as an energy dissipater on the stream bank.
• Through consolidation of the soil particles it helps to prevent the washout of fines.

• The riprap rock or gabion mattresses can have a maximum thickness of 0.50 m.
• The percentage of survival is somewhat lower than live staking, considering the damage during
installation and drying out due to depth requirements. Increasing the planting density may
compensate for this.
• On small systems, plantings can adversely affect water hydraulics and cause blocking or current
deflection.
• Live stakes for joint planting are 20- 50 mm in diameter and 1- 1.25 m long.
FIGURE 4.3.1: JOINT PLANTING THROUGH A GABION MATTRESS


Installation guidelines for joint planting are given in Table 4.3.1.
TABLE 4.3.1: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR JOINT PLANTING

Install the joint plantings with basal ends in the ground, leaf bud scars or emerging buds oriented up.
Live stakes must not be allowed to dry out. Live cuttings may be stored in water before installation. Cuttings
installed the same day they are harvested are typically highly successful.
Install the joint plantings 0.3- 1.0 m apart.
Set the live stake as deep as possible into the soil, preferably with 50 to 75 % of its length into the soil below the
rock or mattress, and if possible, in contact with midsummer water table.
It is essential to have good soil contact along the length of the live stake for roots to develop fully along its
length.
Use an iron stake or bar with a smaller diameter than the live stake, to make a pilot hole in firm soil. Carefully
extract the iron stake or bar. Do not rotate it to enlarge the hole.
Do not damage the buds, strip the bark, or split the live stake during installation.
Remove and replace split or damaged live stakes.
This system typically has a lower survival rate than live staking.
PHOTO 4.3.1: JOINT PLANTING (Schiechtl, 1994)

4.4 Live Cribwall
4.4.1 Definition
A vegetated cribwall consists of a hollow, interlocking arrangement of logs or timbers, soil, rocks and
live cut branches.
4.4.2 Purpose
Live crib walls are used for slope stabilisation, usually at the toe of slopes, or for stream bank
protection applications. Vegetation improves the strength of the wall and improves the overall
aesthetics by screening the structural components.
FIGURE 4.4.1: CROSS SECTION OF A LIVE CRIBWALL
4.4.3 Applications
• Stabilises the toe of a slope, protecting it against scouring and undermining.
• Useful where space is limited because it is a vertical or near vertical structure.
• Useful where a less intrusive more natural appearance is desired in a highly steepened area.
• The upper area may be used as a walking trail.

• Vegetated cribwalls typically use untreated timbers; therefore they are not resistant to large lateral
earth stresses.
• Live cribwalls need to be placed below the channel bed in a stream setting below the scour depth
and on a competent foundation.
• Can be complex and expensive.
• Should, where appropriate, be used with soil bioengineering systems and vegetative plantings to
stabilise the upper bank and ensure a regenerative source of stream bank vegetation.
• With time the wood may rot and decay and require replacing.


Installation guidelines for live cribwalls are given in Table 4.4.1.
TABLE 4.4.1: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR LIVE CRIBWALLS

The logs or timbers for a live cribwall have a diameter of 100- 200 mm.
Installation begins at the base of the slope, typically below the bed and scour depth in a stream environment.
The live cribwall must be constructed on a stable competent foundation.
Place the first course of parallel logs or timbers at the front and back of the excavated foundation. The logs
should be 1.5- 2.0 m apart and parallel to the slope contour; with the back log or timber 150- 200 mm lower than
the front one.
Place the second course of logs or timbers perpendicular to the first course. These logs or timbers overhang the
front and back of the first course by 75- 150 mm. Secure the second course to the first course with nails or
reinforcing bars.
Install filter fabric in the bottom, up the back and front, ensuring enough material is available to cover the top of
the rock.
Fill the bottom of the crib structure with rock and compact. This is done below the stream bank channel and
approximately 300- 750 mm above the flow elevation.
Above the rock, fill and compact with soil.
Place live cut branches on the soil cribfill perpendicular to the slope, and then cover branches with soil fill and
compact. The growing tips of the branches extend 150- 300 mm beyond the front face of the cribwall.
Incline the live cribwall 10 to 20 degrees from the vertical or step it back.
Repeat the preceding steps until cribwall reaches the desired height.
Ensure that the ends are well keyed into the bank 1 to 3 meters.
PHOTO 4.4.1: LIVE CRIBWALL (Schiechtl, 1994)

4.5 Live Fascine
4.5.1 Definition
Live fascines are linear bundles of live cut branches tied together with twine and anchored in a trench
with wooden stakes. The trenches are typically excavated by hand and follow the contour of the slope
or stream bank. Once the bundle has been secured in the trench, the trench is back-filled with soil to a
point where just the top of the bundle is exposed.
4.5.2 Purpose
Live fascines are used to provide erosion and sedimentation control by increasing infiltration, slowing
or redirecting runoff, and trapping seed and sediments. The method provides immediate mechanical
surface slope stabilisation and shallow soil reinforcement through the development of the roots and
the subsequent vegetative growth. The ability of live fascines to function properly depends on the
quality and suitability of the materials used to construct the live fascine, the means and methods of
installation and the proper consideration of the site characteristics. For the live fascine to function
completely, it is important that the live fascine develops suitable growth. (ASTM, 2000)
The terraces formed by a series of live fascines trap sediment and debris. Infiltration is increased as
runoff is somewhat slowed. On dry sites this increases the available water for the initial establishment
of vegetation. On moist slopes the live fascines may be installed on angle to collect and direct water
across and down the slope.
FIGURE 4.5.1: LIVE FASCINE ILLUSTRATION
4.5.3 Applications
• Live fascines may be used for road cuts, gullies or slumped areas, surface erosion sites on upland
slopes, shorelines, stream banks and along riparian and wetland buffers.
• Useful for the repair of small earth slips or to protect slopes from shallow slides that are
0.2- 0.3 m deep.
• Live fascines are useful on slopes requiring other planting materials such as container plants, live
stakes, grasses and legumes. Live fascines enhance conditions for natural colonisation and
improve the establishment of plants from the surrounding plant community.
• Live fascines are useful in the repair and prevention of rills and gullies by reducing the effective
slope length and thereby dissipating the energy of water moving down slope.
• Live fascines control surface erosion immediately after installation.
• Dries excessively wet sites through transpiration as the vegetation grows.
• Can trap and hold soil on stream bank by creating small dam-like structures and reducing the
slope length into a series of shorter slopes.
• Facilitates drainage when installed at an angle on the slope.


• Not appropriate for treatment of slopes undergoing mass movement.
• For best results, harvest and install plant material during its dormant season.
• Plantings on small stream systems can adversely affect water hydraulics by partially blocking or
deflecting currents. Take stream size and elevation of the installation into account.
• BioMac™ and BioJute can be used under and between each row of live fascines to enhance
surface protection.
• For spacing of live fascines see Table 4.5.1.
TABLE 4.5.1: RECOMMENDED SPACING FOR LIVE FASCINES ON SLOPES

(Gray, Sotir 1994)
Slope Steepness Slope Distance Between Trenches (m)

(H: V) On Contour On Angle
1: 1 to 1.5: 1 0.9 - 1.2 0.6 - 0.9
1.5: 1 to 2: 1 1.2 - 1.5 0.9 - 1.5
2: 1 to 2.5: 1 1.5 - 1.8 0.9 - 1.5
2.5: 1 to 3: 1 1.8 - 2.5 1.2 - 1.5
3.5: 1 to 4: 1 2.5 - 2.75 1.5 - 2.1
4.5: 1 to 5: 1 2.75 – 3.0 1.8 - 2.5
4.5.5 Live fascine preparation

• Choose plant materials that are adapted to the site conditions from species that root easily from
cuttings. Typically, plants are harvested near the project site within the same climatic zone.
• Use long, straight and flexible branches that are 1.25 to 3.0 m long and 25 mm in diameter.
• Tie cuttings together to form bundles, 3- 10 m in length, depending on site conditions and
handling capabilities.
• The completed bundles are typically 150- 200 mm in diameter, but may be as large as 300 mm,
when used for specific drainage purposes.
• Stagger the cuttings in the bundles so that the tips and basal ends are evenly distributed
throughout the length of the bundle.
• Compress the live fascine bundles and tie tightly with twine of sufficient strength and durability.
• Tie the live fascine bundles 0.3 m apart.
• For optimum success, install the units on the same day they are harvested and prepared. Live
fascines must be stored in the shade in water. Live fascine bundles may be soaked overnight.

Installation guidelines for live fascines are given in Table 4.5.2.
TABLE 4.5.2: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR LIVE FASCINES

Work progresses from the bottom to the top of the slope.
Perform any slope repairs, such as gully repair, slope scaling, diversion dike, or toe wall construction, prior to
live fascine installation.
Starting at the base of a dry slope, dig a trench on contour. Starting at one end of a moist slope dig a trench
which angles from the base up the face of the slope at an angle. The trench depth is about 7/ 8ths of the diameter
of the live fascine and the same width or a little wider, when used alone. Dig it deeper when fabrics are
embedded in the trench.
Place the live fascines into the trench immediately after digging to reduce desiccation of the soil, and the loss of
micro-organisms.

Firmly install the live fascines with one row of wooden stakes driven directly through the bundle and flush on
the top exposed side of the live fascine bundle every metre. Install a live stake 0. 75 m long 1.0 m apart in
between the previously installed wooden stakes along the down slope side of the bundle, leaving 50- 70 mm
exposed above the ground elevation.
Overlap the tapered growing tips of adjacent live fascines on top of the basal ends and stake down. Use two
stakes at each bundle overlap.
Live stakes are typically 0.75 m long in most soils. Wooden stakes are typically 1 m long in unconsolidated soils
and 0.75 m long in cohesive soils.
Proper backfilling is essential to the successful mechanical function and growth of the live fascines. Backfill live
fascines with soil from the trench. Work the moist backfill into the live fascine bundle between the branches and
at each dead stout stake. A practical method to compact behind and below the bundle is by walking on it.
Ameliorate the excavated/ backfill soil as necessary to promote plant growth.
Repeat the proceeding steps to the top of the slope in the slope face.
The top of the bundle should be slightly visible when the installation is completed.
Seed and mulch slope as specified by hand in between the live fascine bundles. Erosion control blankets are
typically used to protect the slope in between the live fascine bundles from erosion until the vegetation is
established. Do not seed on top of the live fascine bundles as the competition with the grass may cause the live
fascines to perform poorly from the living aspects.
PHOTO 4.5.1: INSTALLING LIVE FASCINES ON A SLOPE WITH COIR NETTING

(Sotir, 1992)

4.6 Live Staking
4.6.1 Definition
Live stake planting involves the insertion and tamping of live, vegetative, woody cuttings into the
ground in a manner that allows the live stake to take root and grow.
Live stakes are approximately 0.25-0.4 m in diameter and 0.6-0.75 m in length, with one end
sharpened to a point or a steep angular cut. (ASTM, 2000).
4.6.2 Purpose
A system of live stakes creates a root mat that stabilises the soil by reinforcing and binding soil
particles together and by extracting excess soil moisture. Over time top growth forms to protect the
soil surface and further enhance the system.
Live staking is a relatively simple procedure that is economical and fast to install. Live stakes may be
used as a primary anchoring mechanism in conjunction with other soil bioengineering practices, e.g.
coir mats and EcoLogs™. Live stakes are also used for stabilising stream banks near the waterline,
for small earth slips and for slump areas created by groundwater seepage.
PHOTO 4.6.1: LIVE STAKING APPLICATIONS
4.6.3 Applications
• Repair of small, simple, shallow, local earth slips and slumps.
• Areas best suited for live staking are the bottoms and banks of small incipient gullies; sediment
fills behind check dams and bare gully banks.
• Live stakes can be tamped through interstices or openings in green gabions, Green Terramesh™,
or riprap, over time offering additional environmental, mechanical and aesthetic benefits.
• Live stakes can be used to anchor and enhance the effectiveness of live fascines, EcoLogs™,
erosion control blankets and other erosion control materials.
• Live staking improves conditions for the natural colonisation of the surrounding plant community.
• As a temporary measure, live staking performs an important function in stabilising and modifying
the soil, serving as a pioneer species until other plants become established.
• It is useful when a quick, simple and inexpensive repair is appropriate.


• On small systems, plantings can adversely affect water hydraulics and cause blocking or current
deflection.
• Live cut stakes should be 0.75– 1.0 m long and 20- 50 mm in diameter. They should be straight
for easy insertion into the ground, and be long enough to reach the midsummer water table.
• Live stakes should be collected in the dormant season.
• All leaves and extra branches should be removed to prevent excessive loss of water.
• Live cut branches should have one or two terminal buds exposed above the ground level.
FIGURE 4.6.1: CROSS SECTION OF LIVE STAKES

• When live stakes or live cut branches are used with a structural element like gabions or the
Terramesh™ system, plantings should be selected with caution because the structure is free
draining.
• The cut end must be put into the soil at an oblique angle. At least 0.5m should be sticking into the
soil behind.
• No more than 30-40 mm of the vegetation should stick out of the structure. Any excess should be
cut off to reduce the surface in contact with the air, which will lead to excess moisture loss.
FIGURE 4.6.2: LIVE CUT BRANCHES WITH TERRAMESH™ SYSTEM


Installation guidelines for live stakes are shown in Table 4.6.1.
TABLE 4.6.1: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR LIVE STAKES

Install live stakes with basal ends in the ground. Leaf bud scars or emerging buds are oriented up.
Live stakes must not be allowed to dry out. Live cuttings may be stored in water before installation. Cuttings
installed the same day are typically highly successful.
Install live stakes 0. 5- 1.5 m apart in moist areas and 0.15 to 0.25 m apart on dry sites.
Set the live stake as deep as possible into the soil, preferably with 75% of its length in the soil and if possible, in
contact with midsummer water table.
Live cut stakes should have one to two terminal buds exposed above the ground after installation is complete.
Use an iron stake or bar to make a pilot hole in firm soil by driving it into the ground and carefully extracting it.
Do not rotate the bar to enlarge the hole.
It is essential to have good soil contact along the length of the stake for roots to develop. Tamp the soil around
the cutting after it has been installed.
Do not damage the buds, strip the bark or split the live stake during installation.
Cut, remove and replace split or damaged stakes.
PHOTO 4.6.2: GREEN TERRAMESH™ INSTALLED WITH LIVE STAKES

4.7 Eco Shutter
4.7.1 Definition
An Eco Shutter is an organic revetment made from woven plant materials. The shoots are only
partially trimmed, leaving a rough finish, which is more effective in trapping silt. Live plant material
can be introduced between the woven elements to facilitate the long-term stability of the structure.
4.7.2 Purpose
Eco Shutters provide soil protection and stability, which is required for the regeneration of a bank.
Eco Shutters can either be attached to vertical stakes and used as a bank revetment or placed on top of
gabions to function as planter boxes. Alternatively they may be pegged out flat on a sloping bank to
encourage silt deposition.
PHOTO 4.7.1: ECO SHUTTER
PHOTO 4.7.2: ECO SHUTTER APPLICATION

4.8 Pre-vegetated Blanket
4.8.1 Definition
Pre-vegetated blankets are erosion control blankets that have been established with rooted vegetation
prior to installation.
4.8.2 Purpose
Pre-vegetated blankets provide immediate and long-term erosion protection on embankments,
shorelines, wetland boundaries and stream banks. The blankets provide a stable medium to support
the healthy growth and development of plants.
PHOTO 4.8.1: PRE-VEGETATED BLANKET READY TO INSTALL
4.8.3 Applications
• Aids in the establishment of rapid vegetative cover.
• Protects stream banks, wetland boundaries and shorelines from erosion.
• Can be used on existing structural elements, such as gabion revetments, when the gabions are
filled with stone and soil.
• Useful when an instant vegetative cover is needed.

• Allow a few months for the vegetation to become established in the blanket in a nursery before
installing the blanket on the site.
• Various plant species can be used. However, in selecting the plant species, be sure to consider the
surrounding environment including the flood and drought periods and elevations.
• Because the plants are established before installation on site, the plants are not stressed when the
blankets are installed. Therefore the plants develop quickly on site and success rates are typically
high.
• Filling the voids in the gabion mattress with topsoil allows pre-vegetated blankets to be used on
top of an existing gabion mattress structure.
• This type of structure works best on a silt or silty clay soil.
• On riverbanks, ensure that the pre-vegetated blanket is anchored securely so that floodwater will
not carry the blanket and vegetation away

Installation guidelines for pre-vegetated blankets are given in Table 4.8.1.

TABLE 4.8.1: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR PRE-VEGETATED BLANKETS

Prepare the site for installation of pre-vegetated blankets by removing any large rocks, obstructions or materials
that may prevent the blanket from making direct and firm contact with the soil surface.
Cut the blanket to the desired size and secure with steel rods, wooden stakes or live stakes.
Ensure that the entire blanket including the corners and edges of the blanket are securely anchored.
Ensure that the pre-vegetated blanket is along the water’s edge so that there is adequate moisture for the
herbaceous emergent aquatic plants to grow.
Inspection of the site should be done a few weeks after the installation to ensure that the blanket is securely
anchored and is developing in a healthy manner.
Always inspect a new installation after a flood event.
a. Immediately after installation

b. Once healthy vegetation established
PHOTO 4.8.2: PRE-VEGETATED BLANKETS

4.9 Vegetated Reinforced Soil System (VRSS)
4.9.1 Definition
Vegetated reinforced soil systems can be constructed using geogrids. Geogrids are high tensile
strength polymeric panels formed by intersecting ribs joined at the junctions. The reinforcing panels
are wrapped around layers of soil with live cut branches, rooted or herbaceous plants installed in
between the layers. The front face of the vegetated reinforced soil system is lined with a coconut fibre
or geosynthetic blanket.
4.9.2 Purpose
Vegetated reinforced soil systems are used to stabilise slopes, particularly fill slopes. The reinforcing
anchors interact by friction and interlocking with the soil to achieve the desired stability. This system
integrates well into natural surrounding environments.
FIGURE 4.9.1: VEGETATED REINFORCED SOIL SYSTEM
4.9.3 Applications
• Can be used for upland slopes, stream banks and shoreline areas.
• Provides immediate and long-term protection from surface erosion and geotechnical failures.
• Provides a wide range of aquatic and riparian cover and wildlife habitat benefits.
• Provides a wide variety of aesthetic “looks” ranging from very natural using indigenous plants to
tailored using exotics.
• Helps to slow near bank water velocities and trap sediment.
4.9.4 Design Considerations

• The system can be inclined up to 60 degrees from the horizontal.
• If seepage is a concern incorporate a drain into the back of the reinforcement, or use a product
that has a drain incorporated into the grid.
• The system is a mechanically stabilised earth system. The stability of the slope should be verified
using a slope stability analysis program.
sites and compare their conditions to the construction site. Planting will be more successful if soil,
site and species selected match stable, vegetated nearby sites.
• Grass is not recommended as a vegetation treatment on the VRSS.

• Various vegetation techniques can be used with this system, including brush layering, live stakes
and rooted woody plants. Vegetation techniques are incorporated during installation of the
structure.
• VRSS’s can be complex and expensive.
• VRSS’s should, where appropriate, be used with soil bioengineering systems and vegetative
plantings to stabilise the upper bank and ensure a regenerative source of stream bank vegetation.
• A stable foundation is required.
Note: Leafed condition of the plant material is not representative at the time of installation.
FIGURE 4.9.2: CROSS SECTION OF A VEGETATED REINFORCED SOIL SYSTEM

Installation guidelines for vegetated reinforced soil systems are given in Table 4.9.1.
TABLE 4.9.1: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR A VRSS

Installation begins at the base of the slope and below the scour limit.
Install batter boards at the front, the height of the wrapped lift.
Cut the reinforced panel to the exact length as specified in the design.
Lay the panel flat at the required level and position with the wrap-over portion extending beyond the front
profile line of the slope, up and over the batter boards.
Approved backfill should be placed on the reinforced panel in layers as specified in the design; typically 100-
150 mm lifts. Compact using a small machine as specified in the design. The bottom wrap that will be
submerged in water should be filled with a 50/ 50 mix by volume of rock and approved backfill. For all other
wraps above the water use backfill only.
Approved backfill should be placed on the back of the facing element (minimum of 300 mm).
Wrap the extended portion of the panel back over the top and secure by staking it down.
If live cut branches or rooted plants are being used to establish vegetation, place these materials between each
layer of reinforcing panels. See the brush layering specification for more details.
Repeat the preceding steps until the desired height is reached.

FIGURE 4.9.3: VEGETATED REINFORCED SOIL SYSTEM INSTALLATION

4.10 Vetiver Grass Technology (VGT)
4.10.1 Definition
Vetiver Grass Technology (VGT) is an erosion control technology that uses vegetative barriers (also
referred to as grass hedges) made out of Vetiver (Vetiver zizanioides). VGT is a low-cost, simple
technology employing the vetiver grass for soil and water conservation and environmental protection.
4.10.2 Purpose
VGT is a practical, inexpensive, low maintenance, effective means of soil erosion and sediment
control, water conservation, land stabilisation and rehabilitation. Being vegetative, it is also
environmentally friendly.
When planted in rows vetiver plants will form a dense hedge, a living porous barrier that slows and
spreads runoff water and traps sediment. As water flow is slowed down, its erosive power is reduced.
This allows more time for water to infiltrate the soil, and for eroded material to be trapped by the
hedges. Therefore an effective hedge will reduce soil erosion and act as a filter, conserving soil
moisture and trapping sediment on site.
Due to its special morphological characteristics such as stiff and erect stems, extensive and deep root
systems (Figure 4.10.1), vetiver has provided a very effective means of trapping sediment (Figure
4.10.2) flood erosion control and steep slope stabilisation.
Vetiver is a tool for economic empowerment as it enables the combination of environmental

conservation with business development.
PHOTO 4.10.1: VETIVER ROOT SYSTEM

PHOTO 4.10.2: EFFECTIVE TRAPPING OF SEDIMENT BY VETIVER
Vetiver specifications are shown in Table 4.10.1.
TABLE 4.10.1: VETIVER SPECIFICATIONS

Name Vetiver grass
Family Graminae: Vetivaria zizanioides, V. nigratana, V. nemoralis.
Origin V. zizanioides Asia – subcontinent; V. nigratana Southern Africa; V. nemoralis South
East Asia
Description Perennial grass, up to 2m high, with stiff upright culms and a strong, dense and mainly
vertical root system often measuring more than 3m. A tropical plant, which also thrives in
subtropical conditions.
Climate Temperature:
Mean: 18 - 25 C
Mean coldest month: 5 C
Absolute minimum: -15 C
When ground freezes the grass usually dies.
Growth normally starts above 12 C.
Hot summer temperatures (25 C+) required for rapid growth.
Rainfall:
As low as 300mm, but above 700mm preferable.
Will survive total drought, but normally requires a wet season of at least three months.
The ideal is well spread rainfall.
Humidity
Grows better under humid conditions, but does well under low humidity.
Sunshine
Vetiver should not be planted in shade. Once established it will withstand shade levels of
up to 50%. It will also recover rapidly following the removal of shade.
Soil Grows best on deep sandy loam soils. However it will grow on most soil types ranging
from black cracking vertisols through to red alfisols. It will grow on rubble, and both acid
(pH3) and alkali (pH11) soils. It is tolerant of high levels of mineral toxicity - aluminium,
manganese (550 ppm). It will survive complete submergence in water for up to three
months. It grows in both shallow and deep soils.
Altitude It is constrained by low temperatures at higher altitudes (>2000m).
Rooting Pattern Massive root system that is generally vertical and non-invasive to adjoining habitat. Root
mass will penetrate more than 3m deep in good conditions, and as a mass creates a
significant mat barrier below ground. Roots will penetrate weathering "C" horizon rock
material, and will follow cracks in otherwise unweathered rock material. Roots are very
strong and have the capacity to bind strata together.
Pests and Diseases Vetiver is generally resistant to most pests and diseases. Vetiver appears to be more
susceptible to disease when it is weak and not growing well, particularly on very shallow
soils in association with drought conditions. Under the latter conditions, root fungus
attacks can be serious. Termites will only attack dead or dying parts of vetiver. If the
attack is serious the termite "hills" created can smother living vetiver. Under such

conditions annual burning of vetiver hedges will greatly reduce the incidence of termite
damage due to burn out of dead plant material.
Longevity Vetiver is known to live for a long time. The longest recorded period is about 60 years (at
Msamfu Research Station in Zambia). It normally survives ±40 years.

The benefits and features of Vetiver are shown in Table 4.10.2.
TABLE 4.10.2: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF VETIVER

BENEFIT FEATURE
Easy to use The technology is simple to communicate and implement.
Soil stabilisation Deep, strong fibrous root system. This massive finely structured
root system, which can grow very fast (1-3 m in the first year).
Will not overpower other crops / vegetation Vetiveria zizanioides can only reproduce vegetatively
(asexually). It sometimes produces seeds, which are sterile. The
vetiver hedge will thicken over time through tillering, but will
not spread beyond the integrity of a discreet hedge. The deep
roots do not compete significantly with neighbouring plants for
water, obtaining water from deeper in the soil profile.
Tolerant to livestock Only new, growing shoots are palatable to cattle. New shoots
(tillers) emerging from the base help it withstand heavy grazing
pressure and heavy traffic (Note: Cattle in SA eat anything!)
Durable It is perennial and will last as a hedge, not requiring maintenance
for years.
Tolerant to adverse effects It can withstand fires, droughts, inundation and floods.
Pest repellent The essential oils in the roots and leaves act as a deterrent to
pests.
Soil loss reduction Records from most sites where data has been collected indicate
that erosion levels can be reduced to less than 3 tons per ha of
soil loss per annum.
Runoff reduction Records indicate that runoff can be reduced by as much as 60 -
70% of recorded rainfall. Variation is quite high, and depends on
slope, rainfall event intensity, potential infiltration rates and
water holding capacity of the soils at site.
Ground water recharge Not many investigations have been undertaken, but it appears
that recharge rates of 30% over unprotected areas are being
achieved where vetiver is used.
Crop yield increases Research and on-farm data confirms that in the majority of cases
there are quite significant yield increases associated with the use
of vetiver grass hedges, varying from 15 - 60%. Yield increases
are variable and are associated with rainfall pattern and soil
types. Risk of crop failure is reduced. It should be noted that in
most instances vetiver does not compete for moisture and
nutrients with adjoining crops.
Controls sheet erosion Dense hedges are formed when planted close together and form
a very effective water spreader, diversion barrier and sediment
filter.
4.10.5 Applications
• Soil and water conservation:
o Contour hedging;
o Terraced landscape support;
o Erosion gully interception;
o River bank protection e.g. wing walls;
o Dam wall protection;

o Siltation prevention in dams;

o Land and embankment stabilisation (mining and civil construction).
• Aromatic oil from roots for perfume industry and as pest repellent.
• Thatching and mat/basket weaving.
• Fodder (when properly managed).
• Rotational crop (to rest fields e.g. in coffee plantations).
• Mulch.
• Paper making.
• Medicinal/aromatherapy.

Installation guidelines for Vetiver are given in Table 4.10.3.
TABLE 4.10.3: INSTALLATION GUIDELINES FOR VETIVER

Mark out the contours or lines where the vetiver is to be planted. If possible, plough a furrow to mark the
contour for vetiver planting.
Remove a “clump” of Vetiver grass from the nursery by digging out the root system with a spade, using the
spade to slice through the matted root system.
Split the clump into individual slips (tillers) – the clump may have to be chopped into halves or quarters using a
panga initially.
Cut the tops off the slip ± 0.2 m from the base and trim the roots to ±0.05m length. This limits transpiration
during the initial growth stages. It is best to trim the tops before splitting the clump as it makes splitting more
manageable.
Make a hole in the furrow, and push 2-3 slips bunched together into this, ensuring that the roots do not bend
upwards, and firm the slips into the soil. Repeat at 0.1 to 0.15m intervals along the furrow. If one slip is used,
you often get large gaps in the hedge as not all slips survive. Only a single row is necessary. If ample planting
material is available, more rows may be planted to increase the hedge effect.
Vetiver requires water for two months after establishment. The general rule is twice a week in the first month
and once week in the second month. If irrigation is not available, recommend establishing vetiver at the
beginning of the wet season. Weeds also need to be kept under control during establishment. Vetiver does not
establish well in cold and frosty conditions.
For detailed planting guidelines please contact the South African Vetiver Network (SAVN) or refer to the green
book, which may be found on the SAVN website: (WWW.INR.UNP.AC.ZA/VETIVER).
a. June 2001 b. September 2001

PHOTO 4.10.3: VETIVER PLANTED ON LANDFILL IN STANGER

5 DESIGN SOFTWARE
5.1 Maccaferri River Analysis (MACRA 1) Software

In planning river training, the designer may use three fundamental classes of training and hydraulic
protection structures:
• Longitudinal works, defined as structures parallel to the river flow. They are used to:
o Provide bank protection due to excessive erosion resulting in slope instability;
o Provide adequate flow conveyance during the flood event;
o Provide sediment control and stabilisation of the streambed.
• Transverse works (weirs, spillways, dams), to provide longitudinal stabilisation to the
watercourse.
• Groynes, to convey the flow direction towards the central part of the channel, when the banks
may be subject to excessive erosion.
Macra 1 (2002) allows the user to verify the channel section using different longitudinal protection
works.
The MACRA1/Bank Protection software was developed to provide engineers with a rapid and
efficient tool with which to conduct the stability analysis of watercourse cross-sections with respect to
both water flow and wave motion. This program allows the user to check a large number of hydraulic
conditions of watercourse sections lined with Maccaferri (African Gabions) products, such as gabions,
Reno mattresses and MacMat™, as well as with the most widespread soil bioengineering techniques.
The software, working in an AutoCAD format, allows the engineer to design the river training works
in a stretch of river under the conditions of steady flow, taking into account the river geometry,
roughness, structure dimensions and flow.
It is generally advised to approach a river training design by allowing streams to maintain the most
natural geometry, and combining experience and best management practices to establish the most
environmentally friendly protective system.
Designing river training works using an environmentally friendly approach will often require you to
take account of the vegetation establishment over time. This will most likely have an effect on the
flow conveyance and on the material’s allowable shear resistance. It is recommended in this case to
verify the channel section under two scenarios:
End of installation, where the river section will provide the maximum flow conveyance (due to the
low roughness), and the protective system the lowest allowable shear resistance. This condition will
normally be critical to the protection used and is dependent on the inert materials only.
Vegetation completely grown, where the resistance to erosion will be higher due to the consolidating
effect of the roots. Vegetation will most likely reduce the river conveyance section due to the
increased roughness and reduced cross sectional flow area. Design flow capacity with the vegetation
completely grown (minimum 3 years after end of installation) needs to be verified.
The software gives the user the roughness and shear resistance values for the situation at the end of
installation: the user must execute the checks for the situation with vegetation completely grown.
The following tables give the fundamental parameters (τc, τl, n) taken into account in the bank
protection calculation where:
τc critical shear stress
τl limit shear stress
n Manning’s n roughness coefficient

TABLE 5.1.1: ALLOWABLE TRACTIVE FORCE AND ROUGHNESS VALUES FOR

MACCAFERRI PRODUCTS
END OF INSTALLATION VEGETATION COMPLETELY
GROWN
MACCAFERRI
Roughness n Allowable Roughness n Allowable shear
PRODUCTS
(s/m1/3) tractive force τl (s/m1/3) stress τc
(N/m²) (N/m²)
Rip-rap 0.0400(b) 300.8(c) 0.10(d) 350.0
Gabions 0.5 m 0.0301 470.4 0.10(d) 500.0
Reno Mattress 0.15-0.17 m 0.0277 224.0 0.12(d) 400.0
Reno Mattress 0.23-0.25 m 0.0277 268.8 0.12(d) 450.0
Reno Mattress 0.30 m 0.0277 336.0 0.12(d) 450.0
Mastic grouted Reno 0.0158 324.0 0.12(d) 450.0
Mattress 0.23-0.25 m
MacMat-R 0.0303 171.6(a) 0.10(d) 332.3
(a) = Function of the flood duration
(b) = The coefficient shall be computed on the basis of the real typology of the work, taking into account
shape and dimensions of the stones
(c) = The actual resistant shear stress depends on the stone dimensions and may be computed
(d) = Depends on the vegetation growth
TABLE 5.1.2: REFERENCE VALUES OF THE ALLOWABLE TRACTIVE FORCE AND

ROUGHNESS FOR SOME NATURAL MATERIALS AND FOR SOME SOIL
BIOENGINEERING TECHNIQUES
(After Chow, 1958 and Fischenich, 1997).
END OF INSTALLATION VEGETATION COMPLETELY

GROWN
SOIL BIOENGINEERING
Roughness n Allowable Roughness n Allowable shear
TECHNIQUE
(s/m1/3) tractive force τc (s/m1/3) stress τc
(N/m²) (N/m²)
Fine sand (< 0.2 mm) 0.02 3.5 0.02(d) >2.0(d)
(d)
Gravel (<20 mm) 0.02 15.0 0.02 >11.5(d)
(d)
Sand and gravel 0.03 15.3 0.03 >30.0(d)
(d)
Cobbles and shingles 0.035 52.6 0.035 >50.0(d)
(d)
Grass mats 0.04 10.0 0.08 30.0
Cutting – Shrubs 0.04 10.0 0.12(d) 60.0
Brush mattress with willow 0.04 50.0 0.15(d) 300.0
Riparian wattle fences 0.04 10.0 0.11(d) 50.0
Willow protection 0.04 20.0 0.14(d) 100.0
Vegetated rock wall 0.04-0.07(b) (c)
(b) = The coefficient shall be computed on the basis of the real typology of the work, taking into account
shape and dimensions of the stones using equation n=0.0385d901/6
(c) = The actual resistant shear stress depends on the stone dimensions and may be computed using
equation τc = C*(γs- γw)dm
(d) = Depends on the vegetation growth.

TABLE 5.1.3: VALUES OF THE ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT n IN NATURAL STREAMS

(after Chow, 1959)
MINOR STREAMS (top width at flood stage < 30m) Minimum Normal Maximum
n n n
Streams on plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lover stages, more ineffective slopes and sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8. Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways with heavy stand of 0.075 0.100 0.150
timber and underbrush
Mountain stream, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees
and brush along banks submerged at high stages
9. Bottom: gravels, cobbles and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
10. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
FLOOD PLAINS
Pasture, no brush
11. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
12. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
Cultivated areas
13. No Crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
14. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
15. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
Brush
16. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
17. Light brush and trees, in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
18. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
19. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
20. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
Trees
21. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
22. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
23. Same as above, but with heavy growth of sprouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
23. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little undergrowth, flood 0.080 0.100 0.120
stage below branches
25. Same as above, but with flood stage reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
MAJOR STREAMS (top width at flood stage > 30 m)
The n value is less than that for minor streams of similar description,
because banks offer less effective resistance.
26. Regular section with no boulders or brush 0.025 0.060
27. Irregular and rough section 0.035 0.100
5.2 Maccaferri Stability Analysis of Reinforced Slopes (MACSTARS) Software

The MacStars program, version 2000, has been developed to check the stability of reinforced soil
structures, that is structures which provide the slope stability using reinforcing units that are able to
absorb the tensile stress. This program allows the user to conduct the stability checks using the Limit
Equilibrium Method.
Engineered designs of Green Terramesh™ structures may be verified using this programme.

5.3 Maccaferri Analysis of the environmental quality of a river training works

(MAQUA) software
Any restoration work aimed at safeguarding hydraulic resources has to adopt new solutions, which
will satisfy safety requirements and preserve the ecosystem.
An eco-compatible design approach requires analytical instruments, which assess the environmental
impact induced by river training works. The MAQUA program, which is being developed by
Maccaferri in Italy, provides the required support in choosing between different design solutions,
selecting the one with the minimum environmental impact to the existing ecosystem, while preserving
biodiversity.
Developed in a Windows format, the software enables the operator to design river training works and
watercourse management. It is based on the methodologies already used for environmental impact
assessments, such as the US Army Corps and Engineers’ habitat evaluation system and the Italian
National Institute for Energy and Environment’s MIVEC (Modello Interpretativo Valutazione Eco-
sistemi) interpretative model for the definition and assessment of ecosystems.

6 CONCLUSION – THE SOIL BIOENGINEERING CONCEPT

Any kind of solution must be used only in relationship with its function, without introducing
simplifications.
Vegetation can ameliorate many of the factors and conditions causing earth slope and riverbank
instability. But we cannot ask the plant, or better their roots, to provide us something they will never
be able to give us in the causes – effects – solution chronological scale.
If the problem is a lack of internal geotechnical equilibrium, we cannot take into account the soil
shear strength increase offered from the vegetation roots, because at the moment of the intervention,
after the failure, they do not exist, or demonstrate to be sufficient: the solution is the use of a
retaining structure (mass gravity or reinforced soil structure) that can solve the problem immediately.
If the problem is erosion control, we can use the widest range of solutions, from simple seeding
through the widest range of geosynthetics up to the heaviest stone revetment.
Today the global infrastructural solution must create (or re-create) new habitats suitable for the life of
animals and plant communities, whose aim is the improvement of the global local environmental
quality.
Combining these two concepts gives way to the soil bioengineering concept, where the most
appropriate inert material to provide an immediate solution, can be combined with plants to ultimately
create a complex, unique building block which is living as it is functioning in its restoration of a
natural ecosystem.

7 REFERENCES
African Gabions (Maccaferri). MAC.R.A 1 – Bank Protection Reference Manual.
Agostini, R., Cesario, L., Ferraiolo, F., Papetti, A., 1988. Flexible gabion and Reno mattress
structures in river and stream training works, Section two: Longitudinal structures, Officine
Maccaferri S.p.A. – Bologna, Italy.
ASTM, 2000. Standard Practice for Construction of Live Fascines on Slopes, Draft No. 2, April 4
2000.
Ciarla, M., Ferraiolo, F. and Malcevschi, S., 1995. New Design Criteria Respectful of the Needs of
the Environment, XXVI International Erosion Control Association Conference, March 1993, Atlanta,
Georgia, USA.
Chow, V.T., 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw – Hill Book Co., New York, Toronto,
London.
Di Pietro, P. and Brunet, G., 2000. Design Considerations Related to the Performance of Erosion
Control Products Combined with Soil Bioengineering Techniques. ASTM Workshop: Testing and
Performance of Flexible Erosion Control Materials.
Di Pietro, P., 2000. Soil Bioengineering and Ecological Systems: Erosion problems in natural and
altered habitats can be controlled through the use of geosynthetics. In: Geotechnical Fabrics Report,
September 2000, Volume 18. Number 7.
Di Pietro, P. and Scotto, M., 1999. Grids And Steel Mesh Combine For Cost Savings, GFR,
September 1999, Volume 17, P 34-38.
DWAF, 1998. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Soil and Water Conservation: An Audit
of South African Approaches and Activities, Learning from South African Experience in Sustainable
Land Management.
Ellis, H., 2001. Natural Progression. In: Soil Bioengineering: Integrating Ecology with Engineering
Practice, Ground Engineering, March 2001.
Environment Agency, undated. Understanding Riverbank Erosion: An Information Booklet.
Escarameia, M., 2001. The Right Choice for Erosion. In: Soil Bioengineering: Integrating Ecology
with Engineering Practice, Ground Engineering, March 2001.
Fischenich, J.C., 1997. Hydraulic Impacts of Riparian Vegetation – Summary of literature U.S.
Army of engineers – W.E.S.
Ferraiolo, F, 1999. Application of Inert Materials in Bioengineering, Officine Maccaferri SpA,

Bologna (Italy). In: Proceedings of the First Conference on Groundwater bioengineering for
Erosion Control and Slope Stabilization, April 1999, Manila, The Philippines.
Greenway, D.R., 1987. Vegetation and slope stability pp187-230 In: Anderson, M G, Richards, K S
(Eds) Slope stability Chichester, Wiley.
Greenwood, J., 2001. Rooting for Research. In: Soil Bioengineering: Integrating Ecology with
Engineering Practice, Ground Engineering, March 2001.
Maccaferri, 2000. Designs On The Market, Soil Nailing and Reinforced Soil. Ground Engineering,
February 2000.

Maccaferri, 1998. Hexagonal Double Twist Wire Mesh Product Training Guide.
Maccaferri, 1997. Hexagonal Double Twist Mesh Products applications Training Guide.
Maccaferri, 1997. For The Restoration And Training Of Fluvial Environments. Edition 1997: With
the results of a research on the environmental implication of gabions and Reno mattresses and new
bioengineering techniques.
Maccaferri, undated. Guide to Environmental Materials, Maccaferri UK.
Pilarczyk, K., 1997. Revetments in Hydraulic Engineering using Geosynthetics, Geosynthetics News
3, Akzo Nobel, 1997.
Schiechtl, H.M and Stern, R., 1994. Water Bioengineering Techniques.
Sotir, 2001. The Value of Vegetation. In: Soil Bioengineering: Integrating Ecology with Engineering
Practice, Ground Engineering, March 2001.
Staten, P., 2001. Training up on Design. In: Soil Bioengineering: Integrating Ecology with
Engineering Practice, Ground Engineering, March 2001.
Truong, Dr. P. Asia-Pacific Conference and Exhibition on Ground and Water Bioengineering.
Vetiver Grass Technology for Erosion and Sediment Control, Slope Stabilisation and Environmental
Protection. SESSION 1: Introduction to Vetiver Grass Technology.
Truong, Dr. P., Vetiver System Resources, compiled by Paul Truong.
University of Minnesota, 1999. Minnesota Bioengineering Network,

http://gaia.bae.umn.edu/nmbn/descript/inded.html.
Varma, C.V.J., 1995. Management of Sediment – Philosophy, Aims and Techniques. Sixth
International Symposium of River Sedimentation, New Delhi.

APPENDIX A
PRODUCT FIXING GUIDE

PRODUCT FIXING GUIDE
Erosion Control Blanket (ECB) fixing patterns will vary depending on application type, slope length,
slope grade, soil type and annual rainfall. The fixing patterns shown above are based on slope length
and slope grade. Increased fixing rates may be necessary depending on site conditions.
Peg types include steel pegs, wooden stakes or live stakes. Steel pegs, 200 mm long (4 mm Ø) are
available from African Gabions.
For technical specifications or any other information on ECB’s, please contact your nearest African
Gabions’ Technical Department.
APPENDIX B
STORAGE OF BIODEGRADEABLE MATERIALS

STORAGE OF BIODEGRADEABLE MATERIALS
1. Biodegradable materials should never be stored for long periods in a building when wet as this
will lead to microbial action, decay and loss of strength.
2. If the material has to be stored outside prior to installation, it should be protected against rainfall
and kept clear of the ground to allow air circulation.
3. If the materials become wet they should be thoroughly dried if they are to be stored inside prior to
being used at a later date.
4. Storage for prolonged periods requires attention to temperature, humidity, air circulation and
stacking to minimise risk of moisture gain.
5. At site where the material is to be used within a short period, no special measures are required.
However, it should be noted that the biodegradable materials absorb water, and therefore should
be protected against rain. This will reduce problems in handling when the product is installed.
APPENDIX C
QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURE FOR WOVEN JUTE

WOVEN JUTE LIGHT EROSION CONTROL BIOTEXTILE
QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURE
To ensure the correct ‘woven cloth’ is produced the Processing Quality Control Department of the
Factory unit carries out the following checks:
1. Check for correct weight of yarn supplied by batching department where the yarn is produced and
prepared.
2. Prior to spinning the yarn is checked for yarn diameter, moisture content and oil content of the
warp and weft threads.
3. A number of warp and weft threads are checked for compliance with the batch specification
during weaving process.
4. A check is carried out on the woven product for weaving faults and irregularities. Any rejected
cloth is recycled in the batching department.
5. Regular checks are carried out on the length and width of woven product pieces.
6. Only when all the above checks are satisfied as complying with the specification for the
production batch will the material be released.
The mill has an excellent quality control record and has been approved according to ISO 9002/1994,
certificate no. QSC/L 004111.
APPENDIX D
SOIL BIOENGINEERING AUTOCAD DRAWINGS

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SOIL BIOENGINEERING TRAINING MANUAL

Release 1 - April 2002

ISSUED FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY

DURBAN CAPE TOWN JOHANNESBURG

2 SOIL BIOENGINEERING ....................................................................................................................... 9

3 SOIL BIOENGINEERING PRODUCTS............................................................................................. 22

4 SOIL BIOENGINEERING TECHNIQUES .......................................................................................... 60

6 CONCLUSION – THE SOIL BIOENGINEERING CONCEPT...................................................... 90

Figure 2.6.1: Types of Intervention for Various Energy Levels .................................................................... 13

Photo 3.1.1: Installing Coir Mats....................................................................................................................... 26

Table 2.4.1: Benefits and Features of Soil Bioengineering ............................................................................ 10

Appendix A: Product Fixing Guide

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

2.1.2 Soil bioengineering

2.1.4 Other definitions

2.2 Combining Hard and Soft Engineering – A new way forward

2.3 Purpose of Soil Bioengineering

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

Soil bioengineering is used for:

The operating concepts of soil bioengineering are:

2.4 Benefits and features

TABLE 2.4.1: BENEFITS AND FEATURES OF SOIL BIOENGINEERING

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

2.5 Design considerations:

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

2.6 Choosing the right solution

2.6.1 The “Minimum Energy Level” Concept

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

FIGURE 2.6.1: TYPES OF INTERVENTION FOR VARIOUS ENERGY LEVELS

The right solution for the problem is dependent on:

There are three categories of solution that could be appropriate:

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

TABLE 2.6.1: DESIGNERS INDEX: SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE SOLUTION

2.6.2 Earth slopes

2.6.2.1 Soil reinforcement

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

TABLE 2.6.2: SOIL REINFORCEMENT DATA

2.6.2.2 Slope stability analysis

TABLE 2.6.3: CAUSES OF INSTABILITY AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

2.6.3 River banks

2.7 Inert Materials For Soil Bioengineering

TABLE 2.7.1: INERT MATERIALS FOR SOIL BIOENGINEERING

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

Material Type Description Use

TABLE 2.7.2: BIOMATERIALS FOR SOIL BIOENGINEERING

TABLE 2.7.3: INERT MATERIAL FUNCTIONS

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

PRODUCT Filtration Drainage Separation Erosion Soil Soil Rockfall

TABLE 2.7.4: BIOMATERIALS FUNCTIONS

Roots have two main functions:

• Deep roots penetrate the subsoil for “passive” anchorage.

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

FIGURE 2.8.1: SOIL “CRUMB” STRUCTURE

2.9.1 Root contribution to soil stability

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

TABLE 2.9.1: EFFECTS OF VEGETATION ON SLOPE STABLITY

2.9.2 Plant selection

There are five biological limiting factors for plant growth:

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

TABLE 2.9.2: PLANT SELECTION CHECKLIST

2.10 Inspection and maintenance

African Gabions (Pty) Ltd / Maccaferri 12-Jan-05

3 SOIL BIOENGINEERING PRODUCTS