Del Operator

Del Operator
• The del operator ()is a vector differential
operator. This operator is extremely used
in operations on vector calculus and is
primarily useful in defining:
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written as V
2. The divergence of a vector D,written as   D
3. The curl of a vector E , written as x E
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as  V
2
 Del Operator
• Del Operator in the different coordinate
systems:
• Cartesian:     
ax  ay  az
x y z
• Cylindrical:    1  
a  a  a z
   z
• Spherical:    a r  1  a  1  a 
r r  r sin  
 Gradient of a Scalar
• Suppose that T1(x,y,z) is the temperature
at point P1(x,y,z) in some region of space
and T2(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) is the
temperature at a near by point P2. the
differential distance dx, dy, and dz are the
components of the differential vector d l .

d l  dxa x  dya y  dza z

 Gradient of a Scalar
• The differential temperature dT = T2 – T1 is
given by: T T T
dT  dx  dy  dz
x y z
• We can rewrite the equation as:
T T T
dT  dl  a x  dl  a y  dl  a z
x y z
 T T T 
dT   ax  ay  a z   d l
 x y z 
 Gradient of a Scalar

Differential distance vector between P1 and P2.

 Gradient of a Scalar
• The vector inside the parenthesis defines
the change in temperature dT
corresponding to a vector change in
position d l . This vector is called the
gradient of T ( T or grad T)
 T T T 
T  gradT   ax  ay  a z   T  d l
 x y z 
 Gradient of a Scalar
• Note that the gradient operator has no
physical meaning in itself. It achieves
physical meaning once operated on a
scalar physical quantity. The result of this
operation is a vector whose magnitude is
equal to the maximum rate of change of
that physical quantity per unit distance and
whose direction is along the direction of
the maximum increase.
 Gradient of a Scalar
• With d l  dl a l , where al is the unit vector
of d l , the directional derivative of T along
the direction of al is:
dT
 T  a l
dl
 Gradient of a Scalar
• Gradient formula:

V V V
• Cartesian: V  ax  ay  az
x y z
V 1 V V
• Cylindrical: V  a  a  az
   z

• Spherical: V  V 1 V 1V 
ar  a  a
r r  r sin  
where: V is any scalar value.
 Example
• The electric field intensity is derivable as
the negative gradient of the electric
potential V, E  V . Let V = 2xy2z3 +
3ln(x2 + 2y2 + 3z2). At point P(3,2,-1),
evaluate: (a) |V| at P; (b) E
 Solution
a)
 
V  2(3)(22 )(1)3  3 ln 32  2(2) 2  3(1) 2   15
b)
  V  V  V  
E  V   ax ay a z 
 x y z 
V  2 xy z  3 ln x  2 y  3z
2 3 2 2 2


x x
V 6x
 2y z  2
2 3

x x  2 y  3z
2 2
 Solution
b) V  2 xy z  3 ln x  2 y  3z
2 3 2 2 2


y y
V 12 y
 4 xyz  2
3

y x  2 y 2  3z 2


 2 3

V  2 xy z  3 ln x  2 y  3z
2 2 2

z y
V 18 z
 6 xy z  2
2 2

z x  2 y  3z
2 2
 Solution
b)
 2 3 6x  
 2 y z  2 a
2  x 
 x  2 y  3z 
2

   12 y   
E     4 xyz 3  2 a 
2  y
  x  2 y  3z 
2

 
  6 xy 2 z 2   
18 z 

  a z
  x  2 y  3z  
2 2 2
 Solution
b)  6(3)  
 2(2) (1)  2 a
2 3
2  x 
 (3)  2(2)  3(1) 
2

   12(2)   
E     4(3)( 2)( 1)  2
3
a 
2  y
  (3)  2(2)  3(1)  
2

 
  6(3)( 2) 2 (1) 2  18(1)  

  a z
  (3)  2(2)  3(1)  
2 2 2

   
E  7.1 a x  22.8 a y  71.1 a z
 Example
• Determine the gradient of VOe-2ρsin3Φ at
(1, π/2, 3) in cylindrical coordinates.
 Solution
Let
2 
f  V0e sin 3

 f  1 f  f  
f   a  a   a z 
    z 
 V0 e sin 3 
2   1  V0 e sin 3  
2 
f  a  a
  
 V0 e sin 3  
2 
 az
z
 Solution

 
 1 
f  2 V0 e 2  sin 3 a   3V e 2 
cos 3 a   0

0

   
f  2(1)V0e  2(1) sin 3  a 
2
1      
  3V0 e 2(1) cos 3   a   0
(1)   2 

f  0.27V0 a 
 Example
• Given Φ = xy + yz + xz, determine the
gradient of Φ at point (1,2,3) and the
directional derivative of Φ at the same
point in the direction toward (3,4,4).
 Solution
       
grad   ax ay a z 
 x y z 
  xy  yz  xz    xy  yz  xz   
 ax ay 
 x y 
 
  xy  yz  xz   
 az 
 z 
  
   y  z  a x   x  z  a y   y  x  a z
 Solution
at point (1,2,3)
     
  2  3 a x  1  3 a y  2  1 a z  5 a x  4 a y  3 a z
 Solution
directional derivative of Φ at the same point
in the direction toward (3,4,4)
d 
   a l
dl
      
l  (3  1) a x  (4  2) a y  (4  3) a z  2 a x  2 a y  a z
     
 2ax 2ay az 2ax 2ay az
al  
2  2 1
2 2 2 3
d 
 2  2 1
   a l  5   4   3   7
dl  3  3  3
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
•  D  d S = net flow of the flux D of around
a closed surface

• Definition: The divergence of D at a given

point P is the outward flux per unit volume
as the volume shrinks about P.

divD    D  lim
 D  dS
v 0 v
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• We may consider the divergence of a
vector field D at a given point as a
measure of how much the field diverges or
emanates from that point.

• We can obtain an expression for

divergence in Cartesian coordinates as
shown in the figure
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem

 
 D  d S
 D  d S 
 
          
 Front Back Left Right Top Bottom 
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• A three dimensional Taylor series
expansion of DX about P:

D Front  d S  DFront  yz a x  Dx , front yz

• Where we only have to approximate DX at

this front face. The front face is at a
distance Δx/2 from P. Hence,
• DX,front = DX0 + Δx/2 (rate of change of DX
with x)
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• DX,front = DX0 + (Δx/2)(Dx/ x)
• Where DX0 is the value of DX at P and
where a partial derivative must be used to
express the rate of change of DX with x, as
DX in general also varies with y and z. This
expression could be more formally
obtained by using the constant term and
the term involving the first derivative in the
Taylor’s series expansion of DX in the
neighborhood of P.
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• We now have:
x  D x 
 D Front  d S  Dx 0  2  x yz

• Consider now the integral over the back
surface:
D Back  d S  DBack   yz a x   Dx ,back yz
• and
x  D x 
D x ,back  Dx0   
2  x 
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• giving  x D x 
 D Back  d S   Dx 0   2 x yz
• Combining the two terms: D x

Front
 
Back

x
xyz

• Performing the same process, we may

determine that:
D y Dz

Right
  
Left
y
xyz    
z
xyz
Top Bottom
 D x D y D z 
 D Front  d S   x  y  z xyz
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• Returning to the definition of divergence
with Δv = Δx ΔyΔz
divD    D  lim
 D  d S  D
S
 x

D y
Dz
v 0 v x y z
• Divergence Formulas
• Cartesian: Dx D y Dz
divD    D   
x y z
• Cylindrical: 1  1 D Dz
divD    D  D   
    z
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• Spherical:
1  2  1 D
divD    D  2
r r

r Dr   1
r sin  
sin D  
r sin  
• Properties of the Divergence of a Vector
field
1. It produces a scalar field (since dot
product is involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar V makes no
sense.
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
• From the definition, one can also expect
that: D  d S    Ddv
S 
V

• This is called the divergence theorem or

the Gauss-Ostogradsky theorem.
• The divergence theorem states that the
total outward flux of a vector field through
a closed surface S is the same as the
volume integral of the divergence of D .
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Example:
Calculate the divergence at the point
specified if:
(a) D  ( 2 xyz  y 2
) a x  ( x 2
z  2 xy ) a y  x 2
ya z
at P(2,3,-1)
(b) D  2 z 2 sin 2 a   z 2 sin 2a  2  2 z sin 2 a z
at P(2,110O,-1)
(c) D  2r sin  cosa r  r cos cosa  r sin a
at P(1.5, 30O,50O)
 Solution
a) D  (2 xyz  y 2 )a x  ( x 2 z  2 xy )a y  x 2 ya z

Dx Dy Dz

divD    D   
x y z
 (2 xyz  y 2 )  ( x 2z  2 xy )  ( x 2 y )
D   
x y z
  D  2 yz  2 x; P(2,3,1)
  D  2(3)(1)  2(2)  10
 Solution
b) D  2 z 2 sin 2 a   z 2 sin 2a  2  2 z sin 2 a z
1  1 D Dz
divD    D  D   
    z
   )
1 
   
2 2 2
1 ( z sin 2 ) ( 2 z sin
D   2 z sin  
2 2

    z
 2 1 2 
1


  D  2 z sin 
2 2
  

  z

  
(sin 2 )

( z )
 2  sin 
2 2

z
 Solution
b)
D 
1

2z 2 2

sin  2   
1

z (2 cos 2 )  2 
2 2
sin 2 

 
  D  4 z 2 sin 2   (2 z 2 cos 2 )  2  2 sin 2 
  D  2 sin  2 z     2 z cos 2 ;
2 2 2 2
P(2,110 0 ,1)
  D  2 sin 110 2(1)  (2)   2(1)
2 0 2 2 2

cos 2(110 0 )  9.064
 Solution
c)
D  2r sin  cosar  r cos cosa  r sin a
1  2  1 D
D  2
r r
 
r Dr 
1
r sin  
sin D  
r sin  
 3 
1
  D  2 (2 sin  cos )
r r
 
r 
1
r sin 
(r cos )

sin  cos 


1
 r  sin  
r sin  
 Solution
c)

r
1
 
  D  2 (2 sin  cos ) 3r  2 1
r sin 
(r cos ) 

1
[sin  ( sin  )  cos (cos )]  cos 
sin 
cos cos
  D  6 sin  cos  (cos   sin  ) 
2 2

sin  sin 
at P(1.5,30 0 ,50 0 )
0
cos 50
  D  6 sin 30 0 cos 50 0  0
(cos 2(30 0
)  1)  1.2855
sin 30
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Example:
Evaluate both sides of the divergence
theorem for the field
D  4 xya x  2( x 2  z 2 )a y  4 yza z
in the region. 0 < x < 2, 0 < y < 3, 0 < z <
5.
Solution
 Solution
Divergence Theorem:
  

 D d S     D dv
S V

Left side of the equation:

    
       D d S
SD d S 
       
 Front Back Left Right Top Bottom 
Solution
 Solution
Front
  

D
S
Front  d S : at front : x  2, d S  dydzax

 

 Front      )a y  4 yza z ) dydzax

2 2
D d S ( 4 xya x 2( x z
S S
  3 5
D
S
Front  d S   4 xydydz  4(2)  ydy  dz
S
0 0

 y2  5
 
3
 z  8  (5  0)  180

  2 2
 3 0
S Front
D  d S  8
 2  0 2 2
 
 0
 Solution
Back
  

D
S
Back  d S : at back : x  0, d S  dydz(a x )

 

 Back      )a y  4 yza z ) dydz(a x )

2 2
D d S ( 4 xya x 2( x z
S S
  3 5
D
S
Back  d S    4 xydydz  4(0)  ydy  dz  0
S
0 0
 Solution
Left
  

D
S
Left  d S : at left : y  0, d S  dxdz(a y )

 

 Left      )a y  4 yza z ) dxdz(a y )

2 2
D d S ( 4 xya x 2 ( x z
S S
 
 2 5 5 2

S Left   S    
 0
 0 0 0 

2 2 2 2
D d S 2( x z )dxdz 2 x dx dz z dz dx
 Solution
Left
 x 3  5  z3 5  2 
   
2
 
  z  x
S Left
D  d S  2 
 3  0 3  0


 0  0 
   23 03   53 03   580
S DLeft  d S  2 3  3 (5  0)   3  3 (2  0)   3
 Solution
Right
  

D
S
Right  d S : at right : y  3, d S  dxdzay

 

 Right      )a y  4 yza z ) dxdzay

2 2
D d S ( 4 xya x 2( x z
S S
 
 2 5 5 2

S Right   S  
 0
 0 0 0 

2 2 2 2
D d S 2( x z )dydz 2 x dx dz z dz dx
 Solution
Right
 x 3  5  z3 5  2 
   
2
 
  z  x
S Right
D  d S  2 
 3  0 3  0


 0  0 
   23 03   53 03   580
S DRight d S  2 3  3 (5  0)   3  3 (2  0)  3
 Solution
Top
  

D
S
Top  d S : at top : z  5, d S  dxdyaz

 

 Top      )a y  4 yza z ) dxdyaz

2 2
D d S ( 4 xya x 2( x z
S S
  3 2
D
S
Top  d S   4 yzdxdy  4(5)  ydy  dx
S
0 0

 y2  2
 
3
 x  20  (2  0)  180

  2 2
 3 0
S Top
D  d S  20
 2  0 2 2
 
 0
 Solution
Bottom
  

D
S
Bottom  d S : at back : z  0, d S  dxdy(a z )

 

 Bottom      )a y  4 yza z ) dxdy(a z )

2 2
D d S ( 4 xya x 2( x z
S S
  3 2
D
S
Bottom  d S    4 yzdxdy  4(0)  ydy  dx  0
S
0 0
 Solution
  580 580
SD d S  180  0  3  3  180  0  360
 Solution
Divergence Theorem:
  

 D d S     D dv
S V

Right side of the equation:

 Dx Dy Dz
 D   
x y z
 Solution

D  

 (4 xy )  2 x 2  z 2


 (4 yz )
x y z

  D  4y  0  4y  8y

 
V V  0 0 0 
2 3 5
  D dv  8 ydxdydz  8  dx ydy dz

 2 3

     
2 2
2  y  3 0
V  D dv  8 x 0  2  z 0  8(2  0) 2  2 (5  0)  360
5

 0
 Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Example
Evaluate using divergence theorem for the
field
G  2  cos 5a   sin 5a  a z 
2

and the wedge-shape region bounded by ρ

= 5, 0 < Φ < 0.1π, 0 < z < 10.
 Solution
Divergence theorem: SG  d S  v Gdv
Evaluating the right side:
1  1 G Gz
G  G   
    z
1       
 
2 2
1 ( 2 sin 5 ) ( 2 )
G   (2  cos5 ) 
2

    z
 3 1    
 
2
1 (sin 5 ) ( 2 )
  G  (2 cos5 )   (2  )
2

    z
 Solution

G 
1

(2 cos5 ) 3   2 1

(2  )(5 cos5 )  0
2

  G  (6  cos 5 )  (10  cos 5 )  0  4  cos 5

  Gdv    4 cos5 ( d ddz)

v vol
5  0.1 10
  Gdv  4  d  cos5d  d z  333.33
2
v 0 0 0
 Curl of a Vector
• The curl of a vector is an axial or rotational
vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of per unit area as the area
tends to zero and whose direction of the
area when the area is oriented so as to
make the circulation maximum.
 

curl A  x A   lim
L
A  d l 
a N m ax
 S 0 S  
 
 Curl of a Vector
• The curl provides the maximum value of
the circulation of the field per unit area
(circulation density) and indicates the
direction along which this maximum value
occurs. The curl of a vector may be
viewed as a measure of the circulation or
how much the field curls around a point.
 Curl of a Vector
Some properties of the Curl:
1. The curl of a vector field is another vector
field.
2. The curl of a scalar field,x A , makes no
sense.

 
3. The divergence of the curl of a vector field
vanishes, that is,   x A  0 .
4. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field
vanishes, that is, .xV  0
 Curl of a Vector
Derived Formulas for the Curl:
• Cartesian:
 H z H y   H x H z   H y H x 
x H    a x    a y    a z
 y z   z x   x y 
• Cylindrical:
 1 H z H    H  H z   1  ( H  ) H  
x H    a     a     a z
   z   z       
• Spherical:
1  1  ( H  sin  ) H   1  1 H r  (rH  )  1   (rH  ) H r 
x H    a r    a     a 
r sin      r  sin   r  r  r  
 Curl of a Vector
• Stoke’s Theorem
• Stokes’ theorem states that the circulation
of a vector field around a closed path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of
over the open surface S bounded by L
provided that and are continuous on S

 A  d l   x A d S
L S
 Curl of a Vector
Example:
Determine the curl of the following vector
fields and evaluate them at the points
specified:
(a) A  yz a x  4 xy a y  y a z
at (1, -2, 3)
(b) B  z sin  a   3z 2 cos a 
at (5, π/2, 1)
1
(c) C  2r cos cos a r  r 2 a 
at (1, π/6, π/3)
 Solution
a)
 Az Ay    Ax Az    Ay Ax  
  A     a x     a y     a z
 y z   z x   x y 
  ( y )  (4 xy )     ( yz )  ( y )  
  A     a x    ay
 y z   z x 
  (4 xy )  ( yz )  
    a z
 x y 
  
  A  1  0 a x   y  0 a y  4 y  z  a z ; at (1,2,3)
  
  A  a x  2 a y  11 a z
 Solution
b)
 1 Bz B    B Bz  
  B     a      a 
   z   z  
 1 B B  
    a z
    
 1  (0)  (3z 2 cos )     ( z sin  )  (0)  
  B     a      a 
   z   z  
 1  (3z 2 cos )  ( z sin  )  
    a z
   
 Solution
b)
 ( z 2 )   
  B   0  3 cos  a    sin   0 a 
 z 
1  (  ) 2
 (sin  )  
  (3z cos )
2
 ( z )  a z
   
 
  B   6 z cos  a    sin   a 

 6 z cos  z cos  a z ; at (5,

2
,1)
2
 Solution
b)
   
  B  6(5)(1) cos a   5 sin a
2 2
    
  6(1) 2 cos  (5)(1) cos  a z
 2 2

  B  5 a
 Solution
c)
1  C sin  C  
C     a r
r sin     
1  1 Cr rC   1  rC Cr 
    a      a
r  sin   r  r  r  
 Solution
  1 
  r  sin 
2 
c) 1     (0)  
C     ar
r sin     
 
 
  12  
  (r ) r  
1  1  (2r cos cos )   
    a
r  sin   r 
 
 
1  r (0)  (2r cos cos )  
    a
r  r  
 Solution
1
c)
r 2
  sin   
C    ar
r sin    
  12  
  (r ) r  
1  2r cos  (cos )   
    a
r  sin   r 
 
 
1  (cos )  
   2r cos  a
r  
 Solution
c) 
1
cos  1  2r cos sin  3 12  
C  r 2
a r    r  a 
sin  r sin  2 

 2r cos sin   a  ; at (1,  6 ,  3)
1
r
 cos 
1
1 2(1) cos 6 sin  3 3 2 
 1 
  C  (1) 2
a r    (1)  a 
sin  1 sin  6 2 

 2(1) cos 3 sin  6 a 
1
1
  
  C  1.732 a r  4.5 a   0.5 a 
 Curl of a Vector
Example:
If F  (2 z  5)a x  (3x  2)a y  (4 x  1)a z
, verify Stokes’ theorem over the
hemisphere x  y  z  4 and z  0 .
2 2 2
Solution
 F  d l   x F  d S
L S
Solution
evaluate the right side :
 F F   F F   F F 
x F   z  y a x   x  z a y   y  x a z
 y z   z x   x y 
  4 x  1  3x  2    2 z  5  4 x  1    3x  2  2 z  5 
x F    a x    a y    a z
 y z   z x   x y 
x F  (0  0)a x  (2  4)a y  (3  0)a z  2a y  3a z ; d S  r 2 sin ddar , r  2( spherical )

 x F  d S    2a  3a  2 sin dda 

2
y z r

 x F  d S    2a  a   3a  a  2 sin dda 

S S
2
y r z r r

 x F  d S    2 sin  sin   3 cos a  2 sin dda 

S S
2
r r
S S

 x F  d S  8 sin d  sin d  12 sin  cosd  d

 /2 2
2  /2 2

S 0 0 0 0

 x F  d S  8 sin  sin d  sin d  12 2 d  d

 /2 2 sin 2  /2 2

S 0 0 0 0

 x F  d S  12
S
 Solution
evaluate the left side : d l  da , r   (cylindrical )

F   F  a  2 z  5a x  3x  2a y  4 x  1a z  a 
F   F  a  2 z  5a x  a  3x  2a y  a  4 x  1a z  a 
F   2 z  5 sin    3x  2cos   4 x  1(0); z  0, x   cos  2 cos

F    5 sin   6 cos2   2 cos a 

L
F  d l  
L
 
5 sin   6 cos2
  2 cos a  2da 
2 2 2
 F  d l  10  sin d  12  cos d  4 cosd
2
L 0 0 0
  
 F  d l  10  sin d  12  2 1  cos 2 d  4 cosd
2 2 2
1
L 0 0 0

 F  d l  10 cos   
2
2  2 sin 2  2
0
 6 0    4 sin  0
 12
 2 
L
0
 Laplacian of a Scalar
• The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as
 V , is the divergence of the gradient of V.
2
 Laplacian of a Scalar
• Laplacian:
• In cartesian coordinates:
 2
V  2
V  2
V
V  2  2  2
2

x y z

• In cylindrical coordinates:
1   V  1   2V   2V
V 
2
    2  2   2
         z
• In spherical coordinates:
1   V  1   V  1  2
V
 V  2 r  2  sin   2 2
2 2

r r  r  r sin      r sin   2
 Laplacian of a Scalar
• A scalar field V is deemed harmonic in a
given region if its Laplacian vanishes in
the region: . This is also called Laplace’s
equation.

• Laplacian of a Vector
• When applied to vectors, is now defined
as the gradient of the divergence of minus
the curl of the curl of
 Laplacian of a Scalar
Example
Find the laplacian of the following scalar
field
(a) F  xz  y
20 2 20
(b) D   2 sin   2 sin 2
  2
(c) F  cos sin  ln r  r sin 
 Solution
a)
 2
V  2
V  2
V
V 2  2  2
2

x y z
z z
 2
( e sin 2 x cosh y )  2
( e sin 2 x cosh y )
V
2

x 2
y 2
 2 (e  z sin 2 x cosh y )

z 2
 Solution
a) z z
 ( 2e cos 2 x cosh y )  ( e cos 2 x sinh y )
V
2

x y
 (e  z sin 2 x cosh y )

z
 2V  4e  z sin 2 x cosh y  e  z sin 2 x cosh y
z
 e sin 2 x cosh y
 2V  2e  z sin 2 x cosh y
 Solution
b) 1   U  1  2
U  2
U
U
2
    2  2
       2
z
1    ( z sin   z 2
cos2
   2
)
U
2
   
    
1  ( z sin   z cos    )
2 2 2 2

 2
 2

 2 ( z sin   z 2 cos2    2 )

z 2
 Solution
b)
1 
U
2
 ( z sin   2  ) 
 
1  2  (sin  cos ) 
 2   z sin   2 z 
   
 (  sin   2 z 2 cos2  )

z
2


1

 
 U  z sin   4    2 z sin   2 z 2 cos 2  2 cos2 
1

2
2z
 U  4  2 cos  
2 2
cos 2
 2
 Solution
1   2 V  1   V 
 V  2 r  2  sin  
2
c) r r  r  r sin     
1 V2
 2 2
r sin   2

1    (cos  sin  ln r  r 2
) 
 f  2  r
2 2

r r  r 
1    (cos sin  ln r  r 2 ) 
 2  sin  
r sin     
1  2 (cos sin  ln r  r 2 )
 2 2
r sin   2
 Solution
c)  2 f  1   1 1 cos sin   2r 2 
r r  r r
2 2


 2
1
r sin  
 sin 2  sin  ln r 

1
 2 2 ( cos sin  ln r )
r sin 
 f  2 cos sin  
2 1
r

 2
1
r sin  

1  2 ln r  csc2  ln r   6
Classification of Vector Fields
A vector field is uniquely characterized
by its divergence and curl. All vector fields
can be classified in terms of their
vanishing or non-vanishing divergence or
curl as follows:
1.   A  0, x A  0
2.   A  0, x A  0
3.   A  0, x A  0
4.   A  0, x A  0
 Classification of Vector Fields

• Illustration of the categories of vector fields

 Classification of Vector Fields
• A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or
divergenceless) if   A  0 . Such field
has neither source nor sink. From the
S v
divergence theorem: A  d S    Adv  0
• Hence, flux lines of entering any closed
surface must also leave it. Examples of
solenoidal fields are incompressible fluids,
magnetic fields and conduction current
density under steady state conditions.
 Classification of Vector Fields
• A vector field is said to be irrotational (or
L
 
potential) if x A  0.  A  d l   x A  d S  0
S
• Thus, in an irrotational field, the circulation
of around a closed path is identically zero.
This implies that the line integral of is
independent of the chosen path. Therefore,
an irrotational field is also known as a
conservative field. Examples of irrotational
field are the electrostatic field and the
gravitational field.
 Classification of Vector Fields
Summary:
  A  0 , if the divergence of a vector is
equal to zero then it is a solenoidal.
x A  0 , if the curl of a vector is equal to
zero then it is a irrotational.