21 Symmetric and alternating groups

Recall. The symmetric group on n letters is the group

Sn = Perm({1, . . . , n})

21.1 Theorem (Cayley). If G is a group of order n then G is isomorphic to a

subgroup of Sn .

Proof. Let S be the set of all elements of G. Consider the action of G on S

G × S → S, a · b := ab

This action defines a homomorphism % : G → Perm(S). Check: this homomor-

phism is 1-1. It follows that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Perm(S). Finally,
since |S| = n we have Perm(S) ∼ = Sn .

21.2 Notation. Denote

[n] := {1, . . . , n}
If σ ∈ Sn , σ : [n] → [n] then we write
!
1 2 3 ... n
σ=
σ(1) σ(2) σ(3) . . . σ(n)

21.3 Definition. A permutation σ ∈ Sn is a cycle of length r (or r-cycle) if

there are distinct integers i1 , . . . , ir ∈ [n] such that

σ(i1 ) = i2 , σ(i2 ) = i3 , . . . , σ(ir ) = i1

and σ(j) = j for j 6= i1 , . . . , ir .

A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.

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Note. The only cycle of length 1 is the identity element in Sn .

21.4 Notation. If σ is a cycle as above then we write

σ = (i1 i2 . . . ir )

21.5 Example. In S5 we have

!
1 2 3 4 5
= (2 4 5 3)
1 4 2 5 3
Note: (2 4 5 3) = (4 5 3 2) = (5 3 2 4) = (3 2 4 5).

21.6 Definition. Permutations σ, τ ∈ Sn are disjoint if

{i ∈ [n] | σ(i) 6= i} ∩ {j ∈ [n] | τ (j) 6= j} = ∅

21.7 Proposition. If σ, τ are disjoint permutations then στ = τ σ.

Proof. Exercise.

21.8 Proposition. Every non-identity permutation σ ∈ Sn is a product of dis-

joint cycles of length ≥ 2. Moreover, this decomposition into cycles is unique up
to the order of factors.

21.9 Example. Let σ ∈ S9

!
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
σ=
4 7 1 3 2 6 5 9 8
Then σ = (1 4 3)(2 7 5)(8 9).

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Proof of proposition 21.8. Consider the action of Z on the set [n] given by

k · i = σ k (i)

for k ∈ Z, i ∈ [n]. Notice that

Orb(i) = {σ k (i) | k ∈ Z}

Define σi : [n] → [n]

(
σ(j) if j ∈ Orb(i)
σi (j) =
j otherwise

Notice that σi is a bijection since σ(Orb(i)) = Orb(i). Thus σi ∈ Sn . Check:

1) σi is a cycle of length |Orb(i)|.
2) if Orb(i1 ), . . . , Orb(ir ) are all distinct orbits of [n] containing more than
one element then σi1 , . . . , σir are non-trivial, disjoint cycles and

σ = σ i1 · . . . · σ ir

Uniqueness of decomposition - easy.

21.10 Proposition. Every permutation σ ∈ Sn is a product of (not necessarily

disjoint) transpositions.

Proof. By Proposition 21.8 it is enough to show that every cycle is a product of

transpositions. We have:

(i1 i2 i3 . . . ir ) = (i1 ir )(i1 ir−1 ) · . . . · (i1 i3 )(i1 i2 )

Note. For σ ∈ Sn we have a bijection

σ × σ : [n] × [n] → [n] × [n]

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given by σ × σ(i, j) = (σ(i), σ(j)). Define

Sσ := {(i, j) ∈ [n] × [n] | i > j and σ(i) < σ(j)}

21.11 Definition. A permutation σ ∈ Sn is even (resp. odd) if the number of

elements of Sσ is even (resp. odd).

21.12 Theorem. 1) The map sgn : Sn → Z/2Z defined by

(
0 if σ is even
sgn(σ) =
1 if σ is odd

is a homomorphism.

2) If σ is a transposition then sgn(σ) = 1, so this homomorphism is non-trivial.

Proof. 1) Let σ, τ ∈ Sn . Denote sσ = |Sσ |. We want to show

sτ σ ≡ sτ + sσ (mod 2)

Let [n]+ := {(i, j) ∈ [n] × [n] | i > j}. Define subsets Pσ , Rσ , Pτ , Rτ ⊆ [n]+
as follows:

Pσ :={(i, j) | σ −1 (i) > σ −1 (j)}

Rσ :={(i, j) | σ −1 (i) < σ −1 (j)}
Pτ :={(i, j) | τ (i) > τ (j)}
Rτ :={(i, j) | τ (i) < τ (j)}

Notice that sσ = |Rσ | and sτ = |Rτ |. Notice also that (i, j) ∈ Sτ σ iff either
(τ (i), τ (j)) ∈ Pσ ∩ Rτ or (τ (j), τ (i)) ∈ Rσ ∩ Pτ . This gives

sτ σ = |Pσ ∩ Rτ | + |Rσ ∩ Pτ |

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On the other hand we have:

sσ = |Rσ | = |Rσ ∩ Pτ | + |Rσ ∩ Rτ |

sτ = |Rτ | = |Pσ ∩ Rτ | + |Rσ ∩ Rτ |

Therefore

sσ + sτ = |Rσ ∩ Pτ | + |Pσ ∩ Rτ | + 2|Rσ ∩ Rτ | = sτ σ + 2|Rσ ∩ Rτ |

and so sτ + sσ ≡ sτ σ (mod 2).

2) Exercise.

21.13 Definition/Proposition. The set

An = {σ ∈ Sn | σ is even}

is a normal subgroup of Sn . It is called the alternating group on n letters.

Proof. It is enough to notice that An = Ker(sgn).

Note. We have
Sn /An ∼
= Z/2Z
n!
Since |Sn | = n! thus |An | = 2
.

21.14 Proposition. If σ ∈ Sn then σ is even (resp. odd) iff σ is a product of

an even (resp. odd) number of transpositions.

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Proof. If σ = τ1 . . .τm where τ1 , . . . , τm are transpositions then
m
X m
X
sgn(σ) = sgn(τ1 . . .τm ) = sgn(τi ) = 1
i=1 i=1

Thus sgn(σ) = 0 iff m is even and sgn(σ) = 1 iff m is odd.

Note. If follows that if a permutation σ ∈ Sn is a product of an even number

of transpositions then it cannot be written as a product of an odd number of
transpositions (and vice versa).

21.15 Corollary. A permutation σ ∈ Sn is even iff

σ = σ1 σ2 . . .σr

where σi is a cycle of length mi and ri=1 (mr + 1) is even.

P

Proof. It is enough to notice that by the proof of Proposition 21.10 a cycle of

length m is a product of m + 1 transpositions.

Note. The usual notation for the sign of a permutation is

(
1 if σ is even
sgn(σ) =
−1 if σ is odd

where {−1, 1} ∼
= Z/2Z is the multiplicative group of units in Z.

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22 Simplicity of alternating groups

22.1 Theorem. The alternating group An is simple for n ≥ 5.

22.2 Lemma. For n ≥ 3 every element of An is a product of 3-cycles.

Proof. It is enough to show that if n ≥ 3 and τ , σ are transpositions in Sn then

τ σ is a product of 3-cycles.

Case 1) τ , σ are disjoint transpositions: τ = (i j), σ = (k l) for distinct

elements i, j, k, l ∈ [n]. Then we have

τ σ = (i j k)(j k l)

Case 2) τ , σ are not disjoined: τ = (i j), σ = (j k). Then

τ σ = (i j k)

22.3 Lemma. If n ≥ 5 and σ, σ 0 are 3-cycles in Sn then

σ 0 = τ στ −1

for some τ ∈ An

Proof. Check: if (i1 i2 . . . ir ) is a cycle in Sn then for any ω ∈ Sn we have

ω(i1 i2 . . . ir )ω −1 = (ω(i1 ) ω(i2 ) . . . ω( ir ))

If σ = (i1 i2 i3 ), σ 0 = (j1 j2 j3 ) then take ω ∈ Sn such that ω(ik ) = jk for

k = 1, 2, 3. We have
σ 0 = ωσω −1

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If ω ∈ An we can then take τ := ω.

Assume then that ω 6∈ An . Since n ≥ 5 there are r, s ∈ [n] such that (r s) and
σ = (i1 i2 i3 ) are disjoint cycles. Take τ = ω(r s). Then τ ∈ An . Moreover,
since (r s) commutes with σ we have

τ στ −1 = ω(r s)σ(r s)−1 ω −1 = ωσω −1 = σ 0

22.4 Corollary. If n ≥ 5 and H is a normal subgroup of An such that H contains

some 3-cycle then H = An .

Proof. By Lemma 22.3 H contains all 3-cycles, and so by Lemma 22.2 it contains
all elements of An .

Proof of Theorem 22.1. Let n ≥ 5, H C An and H 6= {(1)}. We need to show

that H = An . By Corollary 22.4 it will suffice to show that H contains some
3-cycle.

Let (1) 6= σ be an element of H with the maximal number of fixed points in [n].
We will show that σ is 3-cycle. Take the decompositon of σ into dosjoint cycles:

σ = σ1 σ2 · . . . · σm

Case 1) σ1 , . . . , σm are transpositions.

Since σ ∈ An we must then have m ≥ 2. Say, σ1 = (i j), σ2 = (k l). Take

s 6= i, j, k, l and let τ = (k l s) ∈ An . Since H is normal in An we have

τ στ −1 σ −1 ∈ H

Check:

1) τ στ −1 σ −1 6= (1) since τ στ −1 σ −1 (k) 6= k

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 2) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes every element of [n] fixed by σ
3) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes i, j.

Thus τ στ −1 σ −1 has more fixed points than σ which is impossible by the definition
of σ.

Case 2) σr is a cycle of length ≥ 3 for some 1 ≤ r ≤ m.

We can assume r = 1: σ1 = (i j k . . . ). If σ = σ1 and σ1 is a 3-cycle we are

done.

Otherwise σ must move at least two more elements, say p, q. In such case take
τ = (k p q). We have
τ στ −1 σ −1 ∈ H
Check:
1) τ στ −1 σ −1 6= (1) since τ στ −1 σ −1 (k) 6= k
2) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes every element of [n] fixed by σ
3) τ στ −1 σ −1 fixes j.

Thus τ στ −1 σ −1 has more fixed points than σ which is again impossible by the
definition of σ.

As a consequence σ must be a 3-cycle.

22.5. Classification of simple finite groups.

1) cyclic groups Z/pZ, p – prime
2) alternating groups An , n ≥ 5
3) finite simple groups of Lie type, e.g. projective special linear groups

P SLn (F) := SLn (F)/Z(SLn (F))

F -finite field, n ≥ 2 (and n > 2 if F = F2 or F = F3 ).

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4) 26 sporadic groups (the smallest: Mathieu group M11 , |M11 | = 7920, the
biggest: the Monster M , |M | ≈ 8 · 1053 ).

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23 Solvable groups

Recall. Every finite group G has a composition series:

{e} = G0 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Gk = G

where Gi−1 C Gi and Gi /Gi−1 is a simple group.

23.1 Definition. A group G is solvable if it has a composition series

{e} = G0 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Gk = G

such that for every i the group Gi /Gi−1 is a simple abelian group (i.e. Gi /Gi−1 ∼
=
Z/pi Z for some prime pi ).

23.2 Example.

1) Every finite abelian group is solvable.

2) For n ≥ 5 the symmetric group Sn has a composition series

{(1)} ⊆ An ⊆ Sn

and so Sn is not solvable.

23.3 Proposition. A finite group G is solvable iff it has a normal series

{e} = H0 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Hl = G

such that Hj /Hj−1 is an abelian group for all j.

Proof. Exercise.

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Recall.
1) If G is a group the [G, G] is the commutator subgroup of G
[G, G] = h{aba−1 b−1 | a, b ∈ G}i

2) [G, G] is the smallest normal subgroup of G such that G/[G, G] is abelian:

if G/H for some H C G then [G, G] ⊆ H.

23.4 Definition. For a group G the derived series of G is the normal series
· · · ⊆ G(2) ⊆ G(1) ⊆ G(0) = G
where Gi+1 = [G(i) , G(i) ] for i ≥ 1. The group G(i) is called the i-th derived
group of G.

23.5 Theorem. A group G is solvable iff G(n) = {e} for some n ≥ 0.

Proof. Exercise.

23.6 Theorem.
1) Every subgroup of a solvable group is solvable.
2) Ever quotient group of a solvable group is solvable.
3) If H CG, and both H and G/H are solvable groups then G is also solvable.

Proof.

1) If H ⊆ G then H (i) ⊆ G(i) . Thus if G(n) = {e} then H (n) = {e}.

2) For H C G take the canonical epimorphism f : G → G/H. We have

f (G(i) ) = (G/H)(i)

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Therefore if G(n) = {e} then (G/H)(n) = {e}.

3) Assume that H C G, and that H (m) , (G/H)(n) are trivial groups. Consider
the canonical epimorphism f : G → G/H. We have

f (G(n) ) = (G/H)(n) = {e}

Therefore G(n) ⊆ Ker(f ) = H. As a consequence we obtain

(m)
G(n+m) = G(n) ⊆ H (m) = {e}

23.7 Theorem (Feit-Thompson). Every finite group of odd order is solvable.

Proof. See:
W. Feit, J.G. Thompson, Solvability of groups of odd order, Pacific Journal of
Mathematics 13(3) (1963), 775-1029.

23.8 Corollary. There are no non-abelian finite simple groups of odd order.

Proof. Let G 6= {e} be a simple group of odd order. By Theorem 23.7 G is

solvable so [G, G] 6= G. Since [G, G] C G, by simplicity of G we must have
[G, G] = {e}, and so G is an abelian group.

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