Environmental Impact of Irrigation

Introduction

The Environmental impacts of irrigation relate to the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation
and the effects on natural and social conditions in river basins and downstream of an irrigation scheme. The impacts stem from
the altered hydrological conditions caused by the installation and operation of the irrigation scheme.

Direct Effects

An irrigation scheme draws water from groundwater, rivers, lakes or overland flow, and distributes it over an area.
Hydrological, or direct, effects of doing this include reduction in downstream river flow, increased evaporation in the irrigated
area, increased level in the water table as groundwater recharge in the area is increased and flow increased in the irrigated
area. Likewise, irrigation has immediate effects on the provision of moisture to the atmosphere, inducing atmospheric
instabilities and increasing downwind rainfall, or in other cases modifies the atmospheric circulation, delivering rain to different
downwind areas. Increases or decreases in irrigation are a key area of concern in precipitation shed studies, that examine how
significant modifications to the delivery of evaporation to the atmosphere can alter downwind rainfall.

Indirect Effects

Indirect effects are those that have consequences that take longer to develop and may also be longer-lasting. The indirect
effects of irrigation include the following:

Water logging

Soil salination

Ecological damage

Socioeconomic impacts

The indirect effects of water logging and soil salination occur directly on the land being irrigated. The ecological and
socioeconomic consequences take longer to happen but can be more far-reaching. Some irrigation schemes use water wells for
irrigation. As a result, the overall water level decreases. This may cause water mining, land/soil subsidence, and, along the
coast, saltwater intrusion. Irrigated land area worldwide occupies about 16% of the total agricultural area and the crop yield of
irrigated land is roughly 40% of the total yield. In other words, irrigated land produces 2.5 times more product than non-
irrigated land. This article will discuss some of the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of irrigation.

Adverse Impacts
The reduced downstream river flow may cause:

reduced downstream flooding

disappearance of ecologically and economically important wetlands or flood forests

reduced availability of industrial, municipal, household, and drinking water

reduced shipping routes.

reduced fishing opportunities. The Indus River in Pakistan faces scarcity due to over-extraction of water for agriculture. The
Indus is inhabited by 25 amphibian species and 147 fish species of which 22 are found nowhere else in the world. It harbors the
endangered Indus River dolphin, one of the world’s rarest mammals. Fish populations, the main source of protein and overall
life support systems for many communities, are also being threatened

reduced discharge into the sea, which may have various consequences like coastal erosion and salt water intrusion in delta's
and estuaries

Delayed Environmental Impacts

It often takes time to accurately predict the impact that new irrigation schemes will have on the ecology and socio economy of
a region. By the time these predictions are available, a considerable amount of time and resources may have already been
expended in the implementation of that project. When that is the case, the project managers will often only change the project
if the impact would be considerably more than they had originally expected.

Environmental Consequences of Fishing Practices

For centuries, humans have relied on the ocean for subsistence by harvesting its abundance of fish. In recent decades,
new technologies have allowed humans to remove fish from the ocean on a massive scale to supply Earth's burgeoning
population. Unfortunately, there are many negative environmental consequences to these practices and overfishing has
been identified as a primary cause of ecosystem collapse in many aquatic systems.

Overfishing

One of the chief consequences of industrial fishing is that some species have been overfished to the point of near
extinction. Perhaps the best known example of this comes from the Atlantic cod. In the 17 th century, people said that cod
was so plentiful in the Northwest Atlantic that you could walk across the ocean on their backs. During the era, cod fishing
formed the foundation of the New England economy and many people relied on fishing cod for their livelihood. 1 In the
1960's, new technologies like radar and sonar enabled fishermen to fish much deeper for cod and to catch them much
more rapidly. Landings of cod began to skyrocket over the next few decades, but the fishery collapsed dramatically in the
1990's. The area off Newfoundland, formerly the largest cod fishery in the world, had estimated declines in cod biomass
of more than 99%. Six additional stocks off the coast of Canada had all declined in biomass by 75% or greater. 2 The
number of fish became so few that Canada enacted a moratorium on cod fishing to allow stocks to recover. 3 The United
States has also placed severe restrictions on the industry, cutting back the amount of time that people can fish and
reducing the total amount of cod that could be caught.

Shutting down the industry in Canada had consequences that reverberated throughout coastal regions. Many people saw
their livelihoods vanish and unemployment became widespread. Coastal communities dwindled as people moved to
other areas in search of employment.3 In addition to these socioeconomic changes, the ocean was also greatly altered by
the removal of cod, which had formerly been a major predator. With the their major predators gone, animals that had
formerly been the prey of cod, such as shrimp and snow crab, were released from predatory controls and proliferated.
This fundamentally altered the food web and functioning of the ecosystem. 4

This type of phenomenon, in which the removal of large predators causes population explosions of their prey, is deemed
a trophic cascade and is a common consequence of overfishing. Exploitation of sharks has increased dramatically in the
past several decades, driven in part by an increased demand for shark fins and meat. 5 In the southeastern United States,
abundances of many formerly common sharks have decreased by more than 99% in some species. Cownose rays formed
a major component of the diet for many of these sharks, and with the shark population diminished, these rays have
virtually no predators in the ocean.5 As a result, the increased cownose ray population has preyed heavily on bay scallops,
one of their preferred prey items. The bay scallop fishery was once profitable along the Eastern seaboard, but huge
population declines in bay scallops from cownose ray predation have rendered the fishery obsolete. 5 The waters of many
areas along the coast are now closed to fishing in hopes of a recovery of the bay scallop. 6 These examples illustrate how
overfishing impacts more than just a single species of fish, as their removal can have consequences for the entire
ecosystem.

Habitat Destruction

In addition to removing an increasingly large number of fish from the ocean, many industrial fishing practices also destroy
aquatic habitat. Dredging is a practice commonly used to harvest clams and employs a large metal scoop that drags along
the seafloor to pick them up. The process also churns up sediments along the seafloor, causing them to become
suspended in the water column, decreasing water quality. 7 The practice can also dig up burrowing worms from the
sediments. These animals are important because their burrows increase contact between sediments and the water. This
returns nutrients to the water, where they are used by microorganisms in nutrient cycling. Without these burrowing
animals, waters along the seafloor can become depleted of oxygen and uninhabitable. 8

Seafloor trawling, in which equipment is pulled across the seafloor to catch bottom-dwelling fish, decreases the biomass
and production of benthic species.9 The practice also practice destroys corals, oysters and sponges that form productive
marine habitats. The impacts of the destruction can be far-reaching. Oyster reefs, for example, have been decimated in
many places from trawling. Without these important filter feeders, coastal waters can suffer from eutrophication, in
which there are too many nutrients in the water. This in turn causes harmful algal blooms that can cause widespread die-
offs of marine life.10

In tropical regions, people sometimes employ blast fishing. In this method, fishermen light sticks of dynamite and toss
them into the water. The explosion stuns nearby fish and can make their swim bladders rupture, causing them to float to
the surface for easy capture. With up to $2,000 worth of fish being caught from a single blast, the process can be lucrative
for fishermen, but destroys coral reef habitat in the process. 11 Like oyster beds, coral reefs are productive habitats that
serve as nurseries for many fishes. With these important developmental habitats gone, stocks of many species of fish can
rapidly decline. Many of these species are also commercially valuable, so although the short-term payoff is large, the
practice can actually be harmful to fishermen in the long run. Furthermore, people also lose the valuable ecosystem
services provided by coral reefs, such as coastal protection and revenue through tourism.

Derelict Fishing Gear

Some kinds of fishing gear can be even more destructive when they become lost or forgotten in the water because they
continue to catch animals, a phenomenon known as “ghost fishing.” This is particularly wasteful and destructive because
the gear can ensnare tons of animals that aren't being harvested or used in any way. Fishing piers can be sites of ghost
fishing as lures and lines become wrapped around pilings, where animals swimming by become trapped. 12 Fish are not the
only victims, however, as birds that dive into the water for prey can also get caught in the lines when they enter the
water.

Diamondback terrapins provide a case study of how ghost fishing can impact animal populations. These turtles inhabit salt
marshes along the East Coast where people also fish for blue crabs. Blue crabs are caught using a crab pot, a metal cage
that is dropped to the floor of the marsh and tied to a buoy that floats along the surface. If the buoy becomes detached,
fishermen may not be able to find the gear, and it becomes a “ghost pot.” Crab pots have tiny openings that allow crabs
to enter, but are constructed in a way that makes it difficult for them to get back out. Terrapins also swim into the pots,
attracted by the bait in the middle. Because they are social animals, when several turtles are in a pot, it often draws in
other individuals, leading the ghost pot to catch more and more turtles over time. A single ghost pot was discovered in
Georgia that contained more than 130 deceased turtles. 13 This fishing gear is thought to pose a major threat to many
populations of diamondback terrapin.

In addition to direct mortality, ghost pots can also alter population demographics. This is because female terrapins are
larger than males and females often cannot fit into the openings in crab pots. As a result, the pots trap males and younger
turtles at a higher rate, shifting the population to older turtles and females. 14 This biased sex ratio, along with the removal
of many individuals before they reach sexual maturity, can further exacerbate declines already faced by these
populations.

Bycatch

While many fishing practices can be extremely adept at harvesting fish, they also often incidentally catch non-target
species, known as bycatch. Longline fishing is one of the major bycatch culprits. This practice is often employed in the
open ocean and consists of miles of lines off of which thousands of baited hooks are attached and a single long line can
have more than 2,500 hooks. Sea turtles are especially prone to capture in longlines since they must reach the surface of
the ocean to breathe. When they go for the bait on the lines, the hooks become lodged in their mouths and they drown
because they cannot reach the surface. Even when they are not attracted by the bait, some turtles are so large that the
lines can become wrapped around their flippers as they swim through them. Marine mammals often become trapped in
the lines as well. Birds like albatross that fly over the open seas are attracted by the bait as the lines are put into the
water. Once hooked on the line, they are ensnared in the gear and soon drown. 15

Other fishing practices can also incur large amounts of bycatch. Trawling can drown turtles that get caught in nets.
Gillnets are staked to the ocean floor and entrap many animals unintentionally. The collective toll from these practices is
staggering. Over the past twenty years, an estimated 85,000 sea turtles have been killed as bycatch. 16 Additionally, an
estimated 300,000 marine mammals, 160,000 albatross and 3 million sharks are lost to bycatch from fishing practices
each year.17 This high rate of mortality is not sustainable for these animal populations. Animals like albatrosses and sea
turtles that are long-lived and slow to reach maturity are particularly impacted by these threats and many populations
have declined precipitously over the past few decades.

As with the other impacts from fishing, consequences of bycatch are often far-reaching as species become functionally
extinct in many areas. For example, leatherback turtles are major predators of jellyfish, capable of consuming more than
600 jellyfish in a single day.18 With their major predators gone, there have been jellyfish population booms in some parts
of the ocean. This has made the waters dangerous for swimmers in some places that rely on tourism as a revenue source
and can also prevent the recovery of depleted fish stocks. Green sea turtles and manatees, which are commonly victims
of bycatch, also demonstrate the ecological complexities that can occur after the removal of important functional species.
These animals are herbivores that graze in seagrass beds. In these habitats they are important because their constant
grazing keeps the grass at a healthy level, contributing to nutrient cycling and preventing disease outbreaks from
spreading through the grass beds.19 Without these grazers, many seagrass ecosystems have suffered from large seagrass
die-offs. When this happens, biodiversity declines as these habitats can no longer support a wide range of marine life.

Solutions

In recent years, the consequences of fishing have increasingly become the source of research interest. Much of this has
been prompted by the collapse of commercially valuable fisheries, as well as the threat of extinction to many animals. For
some species, like bluefish and flounder in the mid-Atlantic, implementing catch limits has been successful in bringing
back depleted stocks. For other species like the Atlantic cod, however, such regulations have not resulted in a rebounding
of the population.20 In these instances, there may be other factors such as increasing water temperature that inhibit
recovery.

Research has also focused on new methods of fishing that are less destructive. For example, studies on diver harvesting of
oyster showed that the technique was less damaging to the structure of the reef than traditional methods like dredging.
Whereas the latter method indiscriminately picks up all oysters, including those that are dead on the reef, diver
harvesting is more selective and only collects those that are commercially valuable. The practice was also shown to
increase the amount of oysters harvested per unit time of fishing. 21

There has likewise been much investigation into techniques that reduce fisheries bycatch. For example, studies on
longline hooks have shown that certain hooks do not get stuck in the mouths of sea turtles, which reduces their risk of
capture.22 Acoustic pingers on fishing vessels have been shown to deter marine mammals and reduce their bycatch rates
in the California drift gill net fishery. 23 Swordfish longline fisheries employ lights to attract fish, but they also attract
leatherback turtles as well. Research on turtle light perception has shown that certain light frequencies are not visible to
turtles, but are still attractive to swordfish. 24 This offers a mechanism of reducing bycatch without impacting the catch of
target species. For crab pots, bycatch reduction devices are tiny plastic rings that are attached to the openings. These
make the openings smaller so that blue crabs can still get in while keeping terrapins out. 25

One of the largest success stories of bycatch reduction has been the use of turtle excluder devices (TED) in shrimp
trawlers. In the Gulf of Mexico, bycatch of Kemp's ridley turtles in shrimp trawlers was cited as a major factor in declines
of the species. The TED is a large grate that is attached to the inside of the net and an opening in the net is placed next to
it. Shrimp easily pass through the grate, but turtles cannot get through it. When they come into contact with the grate,
the opening in the net provides a way out and the turtle can leave the net unscathed. Reduction in bycatch from using
this device has led to significant recovery of Kemp's ridley turtles in the Gulf of Mexico. 26 These avenues of research offer
solutions that can ease the harmful environmental consequences of fishing and allow fishing practices to proceed in a
more environmental friendly method in the future.

Biodiesel,

Biodiesel, Fossil fuel, Environmental Benefits, etc. 1. Introduction The world is presently confronted with the twin crises of
fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. The search for alternative fuels, which promise a harmonious
correlation with sustainable development, energy conservation, efficiency and environmental preservation, has become
highly pronounced in the present context. The fuels of bio-origin can provide a feasible solution to this worldwide
petroleum 346 Mohd Moiz Khan et al crisis. Gasoline and diesel-driven automobiles are the major sources of greenhouse
gases (GHG) emission. Scientists around the world have explored several alternative energy resources like biomass,
biogas, primary alcohols, vegetable oils and biodiesel. These alternative energy resources are highly environment-friendly
but need to be evaluated on case-to-case basis for their advantages, disadvantages and specific applications. Some of
these fuels can be used directly, while some others need to be formulated to bring the relevant properties closer to
conventional fuels. Environmental concerns have increased significantly in the world over the past decade, particularly
after the Earth Summit-92. Excessive use of fossil fuels has led to global environmental degradation effects such as
greenhouse effect, acid rain, ozone depletion and climate change. So there is need to develop or find alternative ways to
power the world’s motor vehicles. There are two global bio renewable liquid transportation fuels that might replace
gasoline and diesel fuel. These are bioethanol and biodiesel. Bioethanol is good alternate fuel that is produced almost
entirely from food crops. Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental benefits. Transport
is one of the main energy consuming sectors. It is assumed that biodiesel is used as a fossil diesel replacement.

Impacts of Biodiesel on the Environment

Conventionally, biodiesel is produced either in single-stage or double-stage batch process or by continuous flow-type
transesterification process. A number of methods are currently available and have been adopted for the production of
biodiesel fuel. There are four primary ways to produce biodiesel 1. Direct use and blending of raw oils. 2. Micro-
emulsions. 3. Thermal cracking. 4. Transesterification. 2.1 Advantages of biodiesel The advantage of biodiesel as diesel
fuel are its portability, ready availability, renewability, higher combustion efficiency, lower sulphur and aromatic content,
higher cetane number and higher biodegradability. 2.2 Disadvantages of biodiesel Disadvantages of biodiesel as diesel
fuel are its higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher cloud point and pour point, higher nitrogen oxide emission,
lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high price, and higher engine wear. 3. Biodiesel
Combustion The waste gas emissions associated with the biodiesel Combustion must be considered when determining its
overall environmental impacts .Biodiesel would beblended with fossil diesel by a petrochemical company according to a
given fractional volumetric ratio(1:19) for vehicle use. According to the current average vehicle fuel consumption level
inChina, the diesel fuel consumption was8.4L/100km (mixed condition) when a compression ignitiondirect injection
vehicle was used.

6. Conclusion Biodiesel has become an attractive diesel fuel substitute due to its environmental benefitssince it can be
made from renewable resource.Biodiesel is much less polluting than petro-diesel, resulting in much lower emissions of
almost every pollutant: carbon dioxide, sulphur oxide, particulates, carbon monoxide, air toxics and unburned
hydrocarbons. Blending biodiesel into petro-diesel can help reduce emissions.

Nuclear energy

Nuclear energy has been proposed as an answer to the need for a clean energy source as opposed to CO2-producing
plants. Nuclear energy is not necessarily a clean energy source. The effects nuclear energy have on the environment
pose serious concerns that need to be considered, especially before the decision to build additional nuclear power
plants is made.

Nuclear energy does not release greenhouse gasses so does not contribute to global climate change. However, nuclear
wastes are difficult to manage and accidents -- and the threat of terrorism -- are serious concerns.

Carbon Dioxide

Nuclear power has been called a clean source of energy because the power plants do not release carbon dioxide. While
this is true, it is deceiving. Nuclear power plants may not emit carbon dioxide during operation, but high amounts of
carbon dioxide are emitted in activities related to building and running the plants. Nuclear power plants use uranium as
fuel. The process of mining uranium releases high amounts of carbon dioxide into the environment. Carbon dioxide is
also released into the environment when new nuclear power plants are built. Finally, the transport of radioactive waste
also causes carbon dioxide emissions.

Low Level Radiation

Nuclear power plants constantly emit low levels of radiation into the environment. There is a differing of opinion
among scientists over the effects caused by constant low levels of radiation. Various scientific studies have shown an
increased rate of cancer among people who live near nuclear power plants. Long-term exposure to low level radiation
has been shown to damage DNA. The degree of damage low levels of radiation cause to wildlife, plants and the ozone
layer is not fully understood. More research is being done to determine the magnitude of effects caused by low levels
of radiation in the environment.

Radioacative Waste

Radioactive waste is a huge concern. Waste from nuclear power plants can remain active for hundreds of thousands of
years. Currently, much of the radioactive waste from nuclear power plants has been stored at the power plant. Due to
space constraints, eventually the radioactive waste will need to be relocated. Plans have been proposed to bury the
radioactive waste contained in casks in the Yucca Mountains in Nevada.

There are several issues with burying the radioactive waste. Waste would be transported in large trucks. In the event of
an accident, the radioactive waste could possibly leak. Another issue is uncertainty about whether the casks will leak
after the waste is buried. The current amount of radioactive waste requiring long-term storage would fill the Yucca
Mountains and new sites would need to be found to bury future radioactive waste. There is no current solution to deal
with the issue of radioactive waste. Some scientists feel that the idea of building more nuclear power plants and
worrying about dealing with the waste later has the potential of a dangerous outcome.
Cooling Water System

Cooling systems are used to keep nuclear power plants from overheating. There are two main environmental problems
associated with nuclear power plant cooling systems. First, the cooling system pulls water from an ocean or river
source. Fish are inadvertently captured in the cooling system intake and killed. Second, after the water is used to cool
the power plant, it is returned to the ocean or river. The water that is returned is approximately 25 degrees warmer
than the water was originally. The warmer water kills some species of fish and plant life.

Nuclear Power Plant Accidents and Terrorism

According to the Union of Concerned Scientists, regulated safety procedures are not being followed to ensure that
nuclear power plants are safe. Even if all safety precautions are followed, it is no guarantee that a nuclear power plant
accident will not occur. If a nuclear power plant accident occurs, the environment and surrounding people could be
exposed to high levels of radiation. The 2011 accident at the nuclear power plant in Fukushima, Japan is one of the
worst nuclear disasters in history; the reactors were destroyed by a tsunami following a major earthquake. Terrorism
threats are another concern that needs to be addressed. A satisfactory plan to protect nuclear power plants from
terrorism is not in place.

Conclusion

There is no disagreement that clean sources of energy are vital to the environment. The disagreement lies in what form
that clean energy should be in. Supporters of nuclear energy argue that it is an efficient source of energy that is easy to
implement. People against nuclear energy propose using combined methods of solar, wind and geothermal energy.
Solar, wind and geothermal energy still have environmental issues, but ones that are not as great as nuclear plants or
coal-burning power plants.

What Is the Environmental Impact of Petroleum

What you know as oil is actually called petroleum or crude oil and may exist as a combination of liquid,
gas, and sticky, tar-like substances. Oil and natural gas are cleaner fuels than coal, but they still have
many environmental disadvantages.
The secret to fossil fuels’ ability to produce energy is that they contain a large amount of carbon. This
carbon is left over from living matter — primarily plants — that lived millions of years ago. Oil and
natural gas are usually the result of lots of biological matter that settles to the seafloor, where
the hydrocarbons (molecules of hydrogen and carbon), including methane gas, become trapped in
rocks.
Petroleum sources are usually small pockets of liquid or gas trapped within rock layers deep
underground (often under the seafloor). Extracted crude oil is refined and used to manufacture
gasoline (used in transportation) and petrochemicals (used in the production of plastics,
pharmaceuticals, and cleaning products).
While some petroleum is found in gas form, the most common natural gas is methane. Methane
usually occurs in small amounts with petroleum deposits and is often extracted at the same time as the
petroleum. Natural gas can be found in certain rock layers, trapped in the tiny spaces in sedimentary
rocks.
The environmental impact of drilling for oil

Oil companies pump liquid oil out of the ground by using drilling rigs and wells that access the pockets
of oil resources. The oil fills the rock layers the way water fills a sponge — spreading throughout open
spaces — instead of existing as a giant pool of liquid.
This arrangement means that to pump out all the oil, drillers have to extend or relocate the wells after
the immediate area has been emptied. Oil drilling rigs set on platforms in the ocean to access oil
reserves below the seafloor must therefore employ a series of more technically complex drill rigs built
to access oil reserves in deeper water.
This figure illustrates some of the most commonly used ocean drilling rigs and platforms and the water
depths they’re most suited for.
Refining petroleum creates air pollution. Transforming crude oil into petrochemicals releases toxins
into the atmosphere that are dangerous for human and ecosystem health.
Burning gasoline releases CO2. Although oil doesn’t produce the same amount of CO2 that coal burning
does, it still contributes greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and increases global warming.
Oil spills cause great environmental damage. Large oil spills sometimes occur during drilling,
transport, and use, which of course affect the surrounding environment. But these spills aren’t the only
risk.
Although large oil spills with catastrophic environmental effects — such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez in
Alaska or the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico — get the most media coverage, most
of the oil spilled into ecosystems is actually from oil that leaks from cars, airplanes, and boats, as well
as illegal dumping.
Environmental Impact of Electricity Generation and Transmission

All energy conversion methods used to produce electricity have some environmental impact. The impact may have an
active effect like the emission of airborne pollutants, or may have a passive effect like aesthetics or habitat modification.
Even methods considered environmentally friendly, like wind, solar, and hydro, have some impact on the environment.
Not only does the final production of electricity have an environmental impact. The transmission of electricity with
concerns over electromagnetic fields, aesthetics, and land use, also impacts the environment.

The whole cycle of electricity generation must be considered when looking at the environmental impact. This includes the
production and transportation of fuel for the conversion process. This is especially true of fossil fuel and nuclear power
plants, which use large quantities of fuel taken from the earth. Energy system environmental impact consists of fuel
recovery and production, fuel transportation, electicity transmission, and spent fuel emissions.

2.6.1 Environmental Effects of Raw Fuel Production

Coal Production

Coal is almost exclusively produced for electrical generation. Coal production is often viewed as only a local
environmental problem. Coal mining, particularly surface mining, has both long-term and short-term effects on land,
including dust, noise, and water drainage/runoff. Preparation of coal produces both solid and liquid waste of which must
be treated and disposed. Transportation of coal produces dust while coal storage produces dust to control and also
results in water runoff problems.

Oil Production

The fuel oil burned in power plants is a byproduct of the petroleum industry, so electricity production is partially
responsible for environmental issues associated with oil and hydrocarbon burning. This fuel burning produces many
"greenhouse" gases. Other environmental impacts associated with oil production include blowouts, spills, brine disposal,
and the production of hydrogen sulfide. Transportation of oil involves spill and leak hazards. Oil refining includes
environmental effects such as explosions, fires, air emissions, noise, odor, and water runoff.

Natural Gas Production

During the natural gas production, possible environmental effects include blowouts, leaks, hydrocarbon emissions, and
trace metal emissions. The treatment of natural gas involves air emissions and the disposal of liquid residuals, while
transportation and storage effects include spills and explosions.
Uranium Production

Uranium mining involves concerns such as radioactive dust releases, mine water seepage, protection of workers from
radioactivity, and the disposal of a large quantity of mine waste containing a low level of radioactivity. Uranium treatment
must dispose of mill tailings containing toxic metals and chemical wastes used in the treatment process, as well as
radiological waste. The treatment of raw uranium also must deal with radioactive dust releases. The enrichment of
uranium ore must account for liquid and gaseous effluent releases, and must recycle fission products. Transportation
involves the hazard of the accidental release of radioactive particles.

2.6.2 Environmental Effects of Electricity Production

Fossil fuel power plants generally have the most widespread effect on the environment, as the combustion process
produces airborne pollutants that spread over a wide area. Nuclear power plants have the most potentially dangerous
effect. An operating accident at a nuclear station could allow a large release of radioactive particles to occur. Solar, hydro,
and wind power plants generally have smaller effects on the environment.

Fossil Fuel Power Plants

Fossil fuel power plants produce environmental problems including land and water use, air emissions, thermal releases,
climatic and visual impacts from cooling towers, solid waste disposal, ash disposal (for coal), and noise. Due to the need
for large amounts of steam, plants can have a great effect on water use. For example, a typical 500 MW coal fired power
plant uses 25 x 109 l/GW-year of water, which must be taken from a water source, and then cooled to return to the water
source with as little environmental effect as possible. The biggest effect fossil fuel plants have overall is the emission of air
pollutants, particularly SOX, NOX , CO, CO2 , and hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide, CO, carbon dioxide, CO 2, and the
hydrocarbons are the "greenhouse gases," believed to be responsible for global warming. SO X and NOX produce acid when
released into the atmosphere, leading to the production of acid rain. Table 2.6 list approximate amounts of airborne
pollutants produced. Generally, air emissions are controlled by the use of scrubbers and precipitators located at the plant.

Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear power plants have one environmental issue no other form of electrical power plant does. An accident at a nuclear
power plant may release large amounts of radioactive particles, possibly resulting in a direct loss of life, and rendering a
large land area immediately around the plant unlivable. The largest regular environmental impact is the disposal of the
high level nuclear waste contained in spent fuel rods, as this waste must be stored safely for thousands of years. There is
no site in the United States currently accepting high level nuclear waste, so utilities are generally storing the waste in
above ground casks at plant sites. A long term issue is the decommissioning of nuclear power plants. Decommissioning is
shutting down a nuclear plant after its operational life is over. At this point the entire reactor vessel becomes a high level
radioactive waste that must be disposed. The current methods of decommissioning a plant are to completely remove and
dispose of all radioactive components, to entomb the reactor in concrete, or simply to shut the plant down and restrict
access until the radioactivity dies out.

Solar

The production of electricity from solar energy sources generally has a small effect on the environment. There are no
residuals produced in the energy conversion process. The only exception is solar thermal processes, which have an
operating fluid that must occasionally be discharged. There are some environmental concerns, however. Bulk solar plants
generally require a large land area, and they produce a great deal of heat. An unknown quantity in solar energy is the
disposal of photovoltaic cells. The most promising solar cells use gallium arsenide, a toxic substance.

Hydro

The use of hydropower to produce electricity can have both positive and negative effects on the environment. At some
sites, a dam may help with flood control, flow regulation, or the reservoir may provide recreational opportunities. At
other sites, the dam may have adverse effects on the hydrological cycle, water quality of the stream, stream ecology, fish
migration, and cause the destruction of landscapes and ecosystems. Building new high-head dams requires the
displacement and compensation of populations. Low-head dams generally have a benign effect on the environment. Dam
failures can lead to catastrophic floods.

Wind
Wind generators biggest environmental effects come from visual pollution, noise, and TV interference. This is particularly
true of wind farms, where 50 or more wind turbines may be mounted at the same site. Wind farms situated on a
migratory path may pose major hazards to birds. There is also a safety hazard in case of blade breakage.

2.6.3 Environmental Effects Of Electricity Transmission

Transmission of bulk electricity from the generating station to the load uses wires suspended on large towers, known as
transmission lines. Traditionally these lines have been viewed only as an aesthetic nuisance that could cause
communications interference and be a hazard to low flying aircraft. Today, there are other issues considered about the
effect of transmission lines on the environment. Greater concern is placed on the effect of the lines on the natural
habitat. The major new issue is the effect of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on human health.

More than 1000 studies have been performed since 1979 to assess the relationship between low frequency magnetic
fields and human health. Most of the research has focused on the relationship between cancer rates and fields produced
in the 50-60 Hertz range used for electricity transmission. The studies generally focus on children with residential
exposure to high voltage transmission lines, or workers with high degrees of occupational exposures to EMFs. Most of the
studies have failed to establish a statistically significant relationship between cancer and EMFs. One difficulty in the
studies is estimating the amount of EMF exposure a person receives.

Magnetic fields are produced when current flows through a conductor. The strength of the magnetic field decreases
quadratically with distance from the conductor. While the strength of a magnetic field directly underneath a transmission
line is in the range of 300 to 600 milliGauss (mG), the field strength is only 10 to 100 mG 200 feet away. This is in
comparison to the earth's natural magnetic field of approximately 450 mG. Home appliances like hair dryers, microwaves,
and televisions produce magnetic fields, ranging in strength from 1 to 50 mG. Obviously, due to the large number of
different sources of EMFs, estimating a person's daily exposure becomes extremely complex. The studies generally used a
broad estimate of EMF exposure.

Effects of Mining

Coal mining, the first step in the dirty lifecycle of coal, causes deforestation and releases toxic
amounts of minerals and heavy metals into the soil and water. The effects of mining coal persists
for years after coal is removed.
Dear Readers, please refer to this latest article regarding the serious effects of
Acid Mine Drainage on the environment and human lives in South Africa. This Harvard report
was just recently released in October, 2016 and is extremely in depth on the issues of the serious
effects of mining on the environment and human health.
Destruction and poison linger

Bad mining practices can ignite coal fires, which can burn for decades, release fly ash and smoke
laden with greenhouse gasses and toxic chemicals. Furthermore mining releases coal mine
methane, a greenhouse gas 20 times more powerful than carbon dioxide. Coal dust inhalation
causes black lung disease among miners and those who live nearby, and mine accidents kill
thousands every year. Coal mining displaces whole communities, forced off their land by expanding
mines, coal fires, subsidence and contaminated water supplies.
There are two widely used ways of mining: strip mining and underground mining.
Strip mining

Strip mining (also known as open cast, mountaintop or surface mining) involves scraping away
earth and rocks to get to coal buried near the surface. In many cases, mountains are literally
blasted apart to reach thin coal seams within, leaving permanent scars on the landscape as a result.
Strip mining accounts for about 40 percent of the world’s coal mines but in some countries, such as
Australia, open cast mines make up 80 percent of mines. Even though it’s highly destructive,
industry often prefers strip mining as it requires less labour and yields more coal than underground
mining.
Effects Of Mining on the Environment and Human Health

Impacts of strip mining:

Strip mining destroys landscapes, forests and wildlife habitats at the site of the mine when trees,
plants, and topsoil are cleared from the mining area. This in turn leads to soil erosion and
destruction of agricultural land.
When rain washes the loosened top soil into streams, sediments pollute waterways. This can hurt
fish and smother plant life downstream, and cause disfiguration of river channels and streams,
which leads to flooding.
There is an increased risk of chemical contamination of ground water when minerals in upturned
earth seep into the water table, and watersheds are destroyed when disfigured land loses the
water it once held.
Strip mining causes dust and noise pollution when top soil is disrupted with heavy machinery and
coal dust is created in mines.
The result of all this is barren land that stays contaminated long after a coal mine shuts down.
Although many countries require reclamation plans for coal mining sites, undoing all the
environmental damages to water supplies, destroyed habitats, and poor air quality is a long and
problematic task. This land disturbance is on a vast scale. In the US, between 1930 and 2000, coal
mining altered about 2.4 million hectares [5.9 million acres] of natural landscape, most of it
originally forest. Attempts to re-seed land destroyed by coal mining is difficult because the mining
process has so thoroughly damaged the soil. For example, in Montana, replanting projects had a
success rate of only 20-30 percent, while in some places in Colorado only 10 percent of oak aspen
seedlings that were planted survived.
In China, coal mining has degraded the quality of land of an estimated 3.2 million hectares,
according to a 2004 estimate. The overall restoration rate (the ratio of reclaimed land area to the
total degraded land area) of mine wasteland was only about 10–12 percent.
Underground mining

The majority of the world’s coal is obtained through underground mines.  While underground
mining, which allows coal companies to extract deeper deposits of coal, is viewed as less
destructive than strip mining, the effects of mining widespread damage to the environment. In
room-and-pillar mines, columns of coal are left to support the ground above during the initial
mining process, then they are often taken out and the mine is left to collapse, which is known as
subsidence. In longwall mines, mechanical shearers strip the coal from the mines. Support
structures that enable the shearers’ access to the mine are eventually removed, and the mine
collapses. It is these effects of mining that nobody sees but are the most troubling of all.
Underground Coal Mining
Impacts of underground mining
Underground mining causes huge amounts of waste earth and rock to be brought to the surface –
waste that often becomes toxic when it comes into contact with air and water.
It causes subsidence as mines collapse and the land above it starts to sink. This causes serious
damage to buildings.
It lowers the water table, changing the flow of groundwater and streams. In Germany for example,
over 500 million cubic metres of water are pumped out of the ground every year. Only a small
percentage of this is used by industry or local towns – the rest is wasted. What’s worse is that
removing so much water creates a kind of funnel that drains water from an area much larger than
the immediate coal-mining environment.
Coal mining produces also greenhouse gas emissions.
Coal mine methane

Coal mine methane, less prevalent in the atmosphere than CO2, but 20 times as powerful as a
greenhouse gas, forms during the geological formation of coal, and is released during the coal
mining process. Most coal mine methane  come from underground mines. While this methane is
often captured and used as town fuel, industrial fuel, chemical feedstock and vehicle fuel, it’s very
rare that it all gets used.[vii] Methane is also used in power generation projects. However, despite
big investment in research, only about 50 such projects exist worldwide.
In China, which mines more than 95 percent of its coal underground, about 300 of the state-owned
mines are classified as methane-outburst prone. The effects of mining coal in China have become
increasingly clear in modern times.
Worldwide emissions are expected to increase by 20 percent in the next 12 years.
Coal fires

Coal fires – burning or smouldering coal seams, coal storage piles or coal waste piles – are a
significant environmental problem in many countries, including China, Russia, the US, Indonesia,
Australia and South Africa. Underground coal fires can burn for centuries, filling the atmosphere
with smoke laden with carbon-monoxide (CO), carbon-dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), sulphur
dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxides (NOx) and other greenhouse or toxic gases – as well as fly ash from
vents and fissures.
Other effects of coal fires include rising surface temperatures and contamination of groundwater,
soil and air.
Although coal fires can be caused by thunderstorm lightning, and forest or peat fires, they are
often caused by mining accidents and improper mining techniques. In Indonesia, the same fires
that are used to clear large tracts of rainforest have ignited over 300 coal fires since the 1980s.
China has the world’s most coal fires, while India accounts for the world’s greatest concentration.
In China, between 15 and 20 million tons of coal burn uncontrollably each year, accounting for
between 0.1 percent and 1 percent of the world’s human-induced CO2 emissions, (Although coal
fires are significant, emissions from power plants are far higher.)
OVERPOPUATION
Introduction The earth’s population in 1800 was 1 billion, having taken all of human history to reach that mark. Only 2
centuries later, the global population is 6 billion, half of which lives in cities. The impact that this population explosion has
had on the environment has been just as striking, as seen by changes in greenhouse gas emissions, rates of soil erosion,
and the extinction of species. Nature reserves currently comprise about 10% of land area globally, but most are small,
disconnected from other reserves, and subject to tremendous human pressures. Population size is clearly an important
factor in measuring environmental impact. Other multipliers in this equation are level of affluence—measured as
consumption per person and unit of consumption, reflected in the technologies used to supply energy, food, and other
resources. The combined effects of population growth, consumption, overuse, wastage and misuse of resources has
strained the capacity of the earth to sustain life. That’s why the study and control of human population is very important
today.

Impacts of Population Growth on the Physical Environment

Physical environment means – non living environment or the land, air, water, soil and minerals. The utilization, overuse
and misuse of physical resources increased manifold due to the growth of human population. As it has been told earlier,
more population means more mouths to eat food which requires more agricultural production. More cultivable land has
been made available by clearing forests and by reclaiming wet lands, ponds and green belts. Advanced agriculture
requires utilization of more water, more fertilizers and more pesticides. Application of fertilizers and pesticides makes the
soil infertile. Clearing of forests has its own serious impacts and the environment on the whole gets imbalanced.

More population means more space to construct houses and availability of more consumer goods. It also requires more
means of transport, more consumption of fossil fuels and more pollution of air, land and water. Thus growth of
population leads to pollution of air, land and water. Different types of pollutions are causing a number of problems in the
physical environment that are further affecting the biological environment seriously.

Air and water pollution

As the population grows, more and more forests are cleared. The two most common reasons for deforestation are to
make houses for increased number of people to live in, and to use wood as a fuel in the industries. As a result, the trees
that help us in reducing the air pollution through the process of photosynthesis are not able to do so any more. One of
the major issues that have lately been bothering environmentalists all over the world is global warming. Like glass in a
greenhouse, gases like carbon monoxide admit the sun's light but tend to reflect back downward the heat that is radiated
from the ground below, trapping heat in the earth's atmosphere. This is called the greenhouse effect. Air pollution is not
the only environmental damage being done by the increasing population. Nowadays water pollution is also one of the
increasing problems due to the population explosion. Water is considered the essence of life. As in the case of air
pollution, the increasing population calls for increasing numbers of factories. These factories lead to various kinds of
pollution, including water pollution. Also, India being an agrarian country, the water pollution also comes from pesticides
used for agriculture. As we can observe, the increased population size is leading to increased pollution, which in turn is
leading to a more hostile environment for human beings themselves.

Deforestation

Forests are an important natural resource of India. They have moderate influence against floods and thus they protect the
soil erosion. Forests also play an important role in enhancing the quality of environment by influencing the ecological
balance and life support system (checking soil erosion, maintaining soil fertility, conserving water, regulating water cycles
and floods, balancing carbon dioxide and oxygen content in atmosphere etc. India has a forest cover of 76.52 million
square kms. of recorded forest area, while only 63.34 million square kms. can be classified as actual forest cover. In the
year 1997, as compared to 1993, the total forest cover has decreased by 6710 Sq. Kms. The states, which have shown
significant decline in the forest covers, are Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Continuing deforestation, therefore, has
brought us face to face with a major ecological and socio-economic crisis.

Depletion of ozone layer

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun. The Ozone layer has been gradually
ruined by the effect of the CFCs. These CFCs were used as solvents, refrigerants, aerosol propellants, and to blow foam
plastics. For this reason, the use of CFCs in aerosols has been banned everywhere. Other chemicals, such as bromine
halocarbons, as well as nitrous oxides from fertilizers, may also attack the ozone layer. Nitrogen oxides and methane are
also compounds which adversely affect the stratosphere’s ozone. The concentration of CFCs has been increased as the
human population has grown, and the thickness of the Ozone layer has been lesser to the extent that a hole in the layer
has been formed. Scientists have found that there are other emissions derived from human activities, which have
contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer. Antarctica was an early victim of ozone destruction. A massive hole in
the ozone layer right above Antarctica now threatens not only that continent, but many others that could be the victims
of Antarctica's melting icecaps.

Extinction of species

Today, human activities are causing a massive extinction of species, the full implications of which are barely understood.
More than 1.1 billion people live in areas that conservationists consider the richest in non-human species and the most
threatened by human activities. While these areas comprise about 12 percent of the planet's land surface, they hold
nearly 20 percent of its human population. The population in these biodiversity hotspots is growing at a collective rate of
1.8 percent annually, compared to the world's population's annual growth rate of 1.3 percent. Modern agricultural
practices strip the Earth of its thin layer of topsoil through water and wind erosion, destroying this precious micro
ecosystem that takes centuries to form and supports all life on land. Many species are of immense value to humans as
sources of food, medicines, fuel and building materials. Between 10,000 and 20,000 plant species are used in medicines
worldwide. The diversity of nature helps meet the recreational, emotional, cultural, spiritual and aesthetic needs of
people.

Land/soil degradation

The land serves as storage for water and nutrients required for plants and other living micro-macro-organisms. The
demand for food, energy and other human requirements depends upon the preservation and improvement of the
productivity of land. The loss of arable land has been caused by a number of factors, many or most of which are tied to
human development. The primary causes are deforestation, overexploitation for fuelwood, overgrazing, agricultural
activities and industrialization. On the global basis, the soil degradation is caused primarily by overgrazing (35%),
agricultural activities (28%), deforestation (30%), over exploitation of land to produce fuel-wood (7%), and
industrialization (4%). In order to combat land degradation, several efforts have been made at the national and regional
levels to develop monitoring and data collection methodologies and to formulate appropriate policies, programs and
projects. At the national level, such measures include watershed management, soil and water conservation, sand dune
stabilization, reclamation of waterlogged and saline land, forest and range management and the replenishment of soil
fertility in arable lands by use of green manures and cultivation of appropriate crops.

Global warming and climate change

Global climate change is identified as one of the greatest threats to the planet. Governments and scientists alike have
agreed that the problem is real and serious. There is a worldwide consensus among climate scientists that global average
temperature has raised about 1F (0.4C –0.8C) in the past 140 years. The 1990s were the hottest decade of the entire
millennium and the last 5 years were among the seven hottest on record. Spring arrives approximately 15 days earlier
than it did 30 years ago. Climate, if it changes at all, evolves so slowly that the difference cannot be seen in a human
lifetime. Looking to times long past, scientists recognized that massive ice sheets had once covered a good part of the
Northern Hemisphere. The Ice Age was tens of thousands of years in the past, however, and it had been an aberration.
The IPCC projects the temperature in the Middle East to increase by 1 – 2C by 2030 to 2050.

conclusion

The Earth's environment is finite and can be destroyed if we do not start population control. Measures need to be taken
now to correct the current situation which includes the increase of deforestation and desertification, the decrease of
farmland, more water pollution, the deteriorating ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect. It should be known that
population control will not end all the problems mentioned above, but they would definitely allow more time for them to
be fixed. Also, population control helps alienate environment problems. The alternative, letting the population grow
indefinitely could only hurt the environment. Overpopulation is a negative solution for everyone; plants, animals, land,
water, and humans.