BELIEF AND RITUAL IN THE

EDO TRADITIONAL RELIGION

by

MICHAEL ROBERT WELTON

B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1964

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n the Department

of

ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o the

r e q u i r e d staiydard^

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

September, 1969
In p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for

an a d v a n c e d degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of British Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make i t f r e e l y available for r e f e r e n c e and Study.

I f u r t h e r agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis

for s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d b y t h e Head o f my D e p a r t m e n t or

by h i s representatives. It is understood that copying or publication

of this thes,is for f i n a n c i a l gain shall n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my

written permission.

Department

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
V a n c o u v e r 8, Canada
 ABSTRACT

The p r i m a r y purpose o f t h i s study i s t o d e s c r i b e the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o u s system. Four assumptions u n d e r g i r d the g e n e r a l theoretical

framework o f the study.

1. That the d i v i n i t i e s are p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g

to r i t u a l a c t i o n as w e l l as m a n i f e s t i n g themselves in culture.

2. That the i n t e r a c t i o n between man and d i v i n i t y w i l l be patterned

after such r e l a t i o n s h i p s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t characterize

social relations.

3. That i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h d i v i n i t y w i l l be r e l a t e d to the attainment

of g o a l s at d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l reference.

4. That the d i v i n i t y - t o - g r o u p c o o r d i n a t i o n w i l l reflect the c o n -

flicts and c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n the s o c i a l structure.

I have f i r s t o f a l l sought t o determine what the Edo b e l i e f s about

d i v i n i t y are, i . e . what p e r s o n a l i z e d b e i n g s a r e b e l i e v e d to e x i s t i n the

'supernatural' or 'extra-social' world. T h i s has been done through eli-

c i t i n g o f statements from p r i e s t s and o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the divini-

ties, through an a n a l y s i s o f some myths and songs sung b e f o r e the shrines

o f 01okun and Ogun. C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the d i s c o v e r y o f how the Edo r e -

p r e s e n t t h e i r d i v i n i t i e s i s the q u e s t i o n o f how t h e s e d i v i n i t i e s are

b e l i e v e d to m a n i f e s t themselves i n n a t u r e and c u l t u r e . For i f they are

b e l i e v e d t o be 'personalized' entities, then they w i l l have i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

p e r s o n a l i t y and speech.

When the r e s e a r c h e r studies the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s between

man and the d i v i n i t i e s , one o f h i s i n t e r e s t s w i l l be to see how the man to

d i v i n i t y communication p r o c e s s p a r a l l e l s the p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n on

the s o c i a l l e v e l . He w i l l a l s o be i n t e r e s t e d i n what r e l a t i o n s h i p s there

are between the g o a l s an i n d i v i d u a l i n the c u l t u r e pursues at the different

l e v e l s of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l reference and the d i v i n i t i e s as i n s t r u m e n t s to

the a t t a i n m e n t of t h i s valued ends. F i n a l l y , we want to see whether there

is any r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the d i v i n i t i e s and

the c o n f l i c t s and c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . If structural

a l i g n m e n t s i n the s o c i a l o r d e r are ' m i r r o r e d ' i n man's r e l a t i o n s h i p to

d i v i n i t y i n A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s , then i t c o u l d be h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t changes

w i t h i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w i l l a l s o be r e f l e c t e d i n changed o r new r e l a -

t i o n s to o l d o r new d i v i n i t i e s .

The ' m u l t i p l e x ' meaning o f r i t u a l may be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d . Man's

' v e r t i c a l ' r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h d i v i n i t y cannot be i n t e r p r e t e d as a c u l t u r a l

isolate, for b e l i e f and r i t u a l i n t e r s e c t the . s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e and

are r e l a t e d to the e c o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s study i s l i m i t e d to r i t u a l

as i t p e r t a i n s to d i v i n i t y . F o r example, I have not been a b l e to examine

r i t e s o f passage i n the Edo c u l t u r e . I f I had I would have d i s c u s s e d

changes o f r o l e as i n v o l v i n g i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o new groups which u s u a l l y

have p e r s o n a l b e i n g s b e h i n d them who keep the group f l o u r i s h i n g o r weaken

it i n response to breaches o f group norms. T h e r e f o r e r i t e s o f passage

i n v o l v e r i t u a l i n o r d e r to b r i n g the new member under t h e i r c o n t r o l . The

questions I b r i n g t o the study o f r i t u a l are o f a d i f f e r e n t order.

I have chosen t h r e e broad c a t e g o r i e s as o r g a n i z i n g d e v i c e s : the Edo

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f D i v i n i t y ; The Edo m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f D i v i n i t y ; and the Edo

response to D i v i n i t y . A f t e r g i v i n g a b r i e f e t h n o g r a p h i c i n t r o d u c t i o n to the

Edo, f o l l o w e d by an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the s t r u c t u r e o f the Edo cosmology, I

w i l l examine the main d i v i n i t i e s i n the Edo cosmology, and c o n c l u d e w i t h an

overview of the Edo religious system.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

Preface vi

A Note on the Orthography vii

I INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEF AND RITUAL 1

A General D e f i n i t i o n of R e l i g i o n 2

Themes i n A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l B e l i e f ' a n d R i t u a l 7

Divinity in African Belief 7

R i t u a l i n A f r i c a n R e l i g i o u s Systems 27

I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Study o f the Edo T r a d i t i o n a l

R e l i g i o u s System 32

II ETHNOGRAPHIC OUTLINE OF THE EDO 35

G e n e r a l I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Edo 36

M a i n F e a t u r e s o f the Economy 40

S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l S t r u c t u r e 44

The L i f e C y c l e 58

III THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDO COSMOLOGY 67

Introduction 67

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and D e s c r i p t i o n o f the Edo D i v i n i t i e s 72

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and D e s c r i p t i o n o f Some R e l i g i o u s and

Magical Practitioners 93

IV OSANOBUA: THE SUPREME KING AND CREATOR OF ALL THINGS 97

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Osanobua 97

Osanobua as He i s Represented i n the Mythology 98

Osanobua as He i s Represented i n the Osa-names 104

 ii

CHAPTER PAGE

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua 107

P r e s e r v a t i o n o f the Edo V a l u e System 107

. Desperate C i r c u m s t a n c e s P a r t i c u l a r l y R e l a t e d to the

B i r t h Process 109

H e a l t h and Harmony i n the Edo N a t i o n 113

The Edo response to Osanobua . 114

The H o l y Aruosa as Response to Osanobua 115

V OLOKUN: THE POWERFUL SON OF OSANOBUA 127

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Olokun 128

01 okun as He i s Represented i n the Mythology 128

Olokun as He i s Represented by the ohenOlokun 129

Olokun as He i s Represented i n the Olokun Songs 130

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun 135

The Dream-Experience as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun 136

The P o s s e s s i o n - E x p e r i e n c e as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun . . 139

D i v i n a t i o n as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun 142

The Event as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun 143

The Edo Response to Olokun 144

The I n d i v i d u a l Approach to Olokun 144

The C u l t i c Approach to Olokun 145

VI OGUN: THE ARBITER OF JUSTICE 154

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Ogun 154

Ogun as He i s Represented i n the Mythology 154

Ogun as He i s Represented i n the Ogun songs 155

Ogun as He i s Represented by the OhenOgun 159

 iii

CHAPTER PAGE

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun 163

The Dream-Experience as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun 163

The P o s s e s s i o n - E x p e r i e n c e as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun . . . . 164

The Event as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n of Ogun 170

The Edo Response t o Ogun 170

S a c r i f i c e as Response to Ogun 172

Elements i n the UgiOgun as Response to Ogun 178

VII ESU: THE DESTRUCTIVE ENEMY OF OSANOBUA AND MAN 180

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Esu 180

Esu as He i s Represented i n the Mythology 180

Esu as He i s G e n e r a l l y Represented by the Edo 182

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Esu 183

The Edo Response to Esu 184

VIII THE ANCESTORS: SPIRITS OF THE DEPARTED 189

The E r h a 190

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Erha 190

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n 'of the Erha 191

The Eho F e s t i v a l as Response to the Erha 196

The Ed i o n 201

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Ed i o n 201

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the Ed i o n 203

The Edo Response to the Ed i o n 203

IX THE. AZEN: BRIDGE BETWEEN AGBON AND ERIMWIN 205

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Azen 205

Characteristics o f the Azen on the S o c i a l L e v e l 205

 iv

CHAPTER PAGE

Characteristics o f the Azen as Erimwin Beings 207

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the Azen 210

The Edo Response to the Azen 214

X E H I : DESTINY IN THE EDO TRADITIONAL RELIGION 219

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f E h i 219

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f E h i 226
•

The Edo Response to E h i 226

XI THE EDO RELIGION: AN OVERVIEW 230

D i v i n i t y i n the Edo R e l i g i o n 230

R i t u a l i n the Edo R e l i g i o n 232

BIBLIOGRAPHY 244
 V

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

1. The Edo Cosmology 69

2. The Edo C y c l e o f Death 92

3. Olokun S h r i n e 126

4. Ogun S h r i n e and Ceremonial A r e a 164

5. Incarnation of E h i 221
 vi

PREFACE

I am g r a t e f u l to have been a b l e to conduct a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h

i n N i g e r i a w h i l e t e a c h i n g w i t h Canadian U n i v e r s i t y S e r v i c e O v e r s e a s . Two

weeks a f t e r I a r r i v e d i n the Mid-West S t a t e o f N i g e r i a i n September 1966,

r i o t s b r o k e out i n a number o f i m p o r t a n t n o r t h e r n c i t i e s i n c l u d i n g Kano,

Jos and Gusau. These r i o t s were f o l l o w e d by a massive exodus o f Igbos

back to the E a s t e r n Region and the i n e v i t a b l e a l i e n a t i o n o f the Igbo e l i t e .

The A b u r i t a l k s i n January 1967 d i d not a l l e v i a t e the Igbo l o s s e s and sense

of injustice. Four months l a t e r the E a s t e r n Region seceded from the

F e d e r a t i o n under the m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p o f Odumegwu Ojukwu. A f t e r un-

s u c c e s s f u l economic embargoes a g a i n s t B i a f r a , f i g h t i n g e r u p t e d on the

n o r t h e r n f r o n t near the u n i v e r s i t y town o f N s u k k a .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e t e n s i o n i n the Mid-West I was a b l e

to c o n t i n u e my study o f the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s system w i t h o u t inter-

ruption u n t i l Biafra invaded the Mid-West i n August 1967 and o c c u p i e d the

c i t i e s o f B e n i n , Sapele and W a r r i . I was evacuated by my o r g a n i z a t i o n

from B e n i n and p o s t e d to the f a r n o r t h at S o k o t o . F o r t u n a t e l y I was a b l e

to r e t u r n to B e n i n i n A p r i l 1968 to f i l l i n some gaps i n my r e s e a r c h . It

is i m p o r t a n t to keep i n mind t h a t t h i s study was not done on a f u l l time

basis.
 vii

A NOTE ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY

R. B r a d b u r y ' s orthography w i l l not be used i n t h i s w o r k . There

i s no o f f i c i a l agreement on an Edo orthography but I w i l l use one t h a t

is g e n e r a l l y accepted by l i t e r a t e E d o .

Bradbury Weiton

£ - e (Open e as i n g e t )

3 . o (Open o as i n g o t )

'v n ( N a s a l i z a t i o n of vowel)

qh gh (Voiced v e l a r fricative)

X" kh (Unvoiced v e l a r fricative)

(~h r
h (Aspirated r)

\) raw (Bilabial fricative. This

phoneme i s n a s a l i z e d when

p l a c e d n e x t to a n a s a l vowel)

The i n i t i a l 0 i n Oba i s an open o , but i t i s becoming q u i t e common to w r i t e

Oba w i t h o u t the d o t . I have f o l l o w e d t h i s procedure.

 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEF AND RITUAL

A f r i c a n s t u d i e s have advanced to the stage where c e r t a i n t r u i s m s

r e g a r d i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and the study o f c u l t u r e can

be made. Among these we c o u l d i n c l u d e the f a c t t h a t myth and m y t h o l o -

g i c a l categories d e f i n e a w o r l d - v i e w which i s r e f l e c t e d i n the social

structure; t h a t the most important r i t u a l s c e n t r e around b i r t h , puberty

and d e a t h . The work o f the Oxford School ( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , L i e n h a r d t ,

M i d d l e t o n , H o r t o n , F o r t e s ) stands out from many o t h e r s in their willing-

ness to take p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o u s systems at t h e i r face v a l u e : t h a t i s , as

s e r i o u s attempts to p r o v i d e a body o f t h e o r y w h i c h w i l l enable a man to

g a i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the w o r l d around him (Horton 1962: 2 1 5 ) . The M a r c e l

G r i a u l e School o f F r e n c h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ( G r i a u l e 1954, 1965; D i e t e r l e n

1 9 6 5 ) , on the o t h e r hand, have been p r i m a r i l y o r i e n t e d to the r e c o r d i n g

of i n f o r m a n t ' s statements to p o r t r a y the c o m p l e x i t y o f the symbolism and

i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h every phase o f the l i f e and environment o f the peoples

studied. Both s c h o o l s take p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o n s e r i o u s l y ; the fundamental

d i f f e r e n c e between these two s c h o o l s o f thought (Horton c a l l s them the

s y m b o l i s t and l i t e r a l i s t a p p r o a c h e s . See H o r t o n 1962: 217ff) i s that the

' s y m b o l i s t s m a i n t a i n t h a t statements about gods and r i t e s devoted to them

are now r e a l l y what they seem to be: they r e a l l y r e f e r o b l i q u e l y to events

i n the o b s e r v a b l e w o r l d o f those who use them, o r they " s y m b o l i z e " these

e v e n t s . . . F o r the l i t e r a l i s t s , t r e a t i n g the gods as mere symbols f o r events

i n the everyday w o r l d denies what we know as a matter of o b s e r v a t i o n - - i . e .

 - 2 -

t h a t f o r the people who b e l i e v e i n them, they are r e a l l y t h e r e . The

"Literalists 1 1
see t h i s approach ( s y m b o l i s t ) as o b s c u r i n g some o f the most

important facts about the g o d s . T h u s , f o r t h e i r b e l i e v e r s , the gods are

o f t e n f o r c e s from which they do t h i n k they can get a i d o f v a r i o u s sorts;

and f o r at l e a s t some people i n every s o c i e t y , they are v i t a l social

partners i n whom a g r e a t d e a l o f emotion c a p i t a l i s l o c k e d u p . Several

w e l l - k n o w n w r i t e r s have taken t h i s p o s i t i o n i n r e c e n t years.V/(Horton

1962: 217). 1

I. A GENERAL DEFINITION OF RELIGION

A l t h o u g h t h e r e are numerous problems connected w i t h d e f i n i n g r e l i -

g i o n (See T i t i e v 1960, Goody 1961, S p i r o 1966, G e e r t z 1965 and H o r t o n

1 9 6 0 ) , every a n t h r o p o l o g i s t o p e r a t e s w i t h some c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f what

religion i s . S i n c e my study o f the Edo r e l i g i o u s system has been h i g h l y

i n f l u e n c e d by the " l i t e r a l i s t " s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t , p a r t i c u l a r l y Horton, I

will s e t out H o r t o n ' s approach to the problem o f d e f i n i t i o n i n some d e t a i l .

H o r t o n (1960: 201-225) suggests t h a t t h e r e are t h r e e e s s e n t i a l approaches

to the problem o f d e f i n i n g r e l i g i o n : ( i ) r e l i g i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e ,

( i i ) r e l i g i o n refers to a c l a s s o f m e t a p h o r i c a l statements o b l i q u e l y

d e n o t i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and c l a i m s to s o c i a l s t a t u s , ( i i i ) and r e l i -

g i o n i s the b e l i e f in spirits. Nadel (1954: 7-8) i s an advocate o f the

first approach which suggests t h a t because r e l i g i o n i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t to

See, f o r example, E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1956; Goody 1961 and L i e n h a r d t

1956. L i e n h a r d t w r i t e s : ' T h i s , at l e a s t , i s not to deny to f o r e i g n gods
some s o r t o f r e a l e x i s t e n c e ; and t r i b a l peoples do indeed r e p r e s e n t t h e i r
gods to themselves as r e a l persons e x i s t i n g a p a r t from men, not as f i g -
ments o f human thought and f e e l i n g . ' (1956: 3 1 2 ) .
 - 3 -

d e f i n e i t s h o u l d be l e f t u n d e f i n e d . H o r t o n says t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y to

s p e c i f y those v a r i a b l e s whose b e h a v i o u r we have to t r y to e x p l a i n ; i f n o t ,

it i s p o s s i b l e to c a r r y on an e n d l e s s and e n t i r e l y b a r r e n argument about

whether a g i v e n i t e m o f human b e h a v i o u r i s or i s not r e l i g i o u s (1960: 201).

Leach r e p r e s e n t s the second t y p e . H i s v i e w i s t h a t r i t u a l a c t i o n and

belief are a l i k e to be u n d e r s t o o d as forms o f s y m b o l i c statement about the

social order. Horton counters t h i s argument by c i t i n g an example from the

K a l a h a r i c u l t u r e and the New Testament. He notes t h a t when ' a person is

seen t o be u s i n g p r a y e r , s a c r i f i c e , or p r o f e s s i o n o f b e l i e f i n a god

merely to make a statement about s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s or about h i s own s t r u c -

t u r a l a l i g n m e n t , K a l a h a r i say t h a t the one concerned "does not r e a l l y

b e l i e v e " (1960: 2 0 3 ) . And C h r i s t condemned the P h a r i s e e s for using reli-

g i o u s r i t u a l as a s t a t u s - s y m b o l and p o i n t e d to t h e i r a t t i t u d e as the

essence o f i r r e l i g i o n (1960: 2 0 4 ) . Thus H o r t o n i s making the p o i n t that

the ' r e l i g i o u s ' always d e f i n e the ' r e l i g i o u s ' i n terms o f e x p e r i e n c e w i t h

d i v i n i t y , and not s i m p l y i n terms o f what they do on s o c i a l l y important

occasions. It i s not hard to see t h a t t h i s approach to r e l i g i o n counters

the D u r k h e i m i a n , f o r as H o r t o n s t a t e s : ' D e f i n i n g r e l i g i o u s as structural

symbolism comes to much the same t h i n g as d e f i n i n g the substance "linen"

i n terms o f i t s o c c a s i o n a l use as a f l a g : the s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n i s as

i n c i d e n t a l to the n a t u r e o f the f i r s t as i t i s to t h a t o f the second '

(1960: 204).

Tylor is representative o f the l a s t g r o u p . As i s w e l l - k n o w n , he

d e f i n e d r e l i g i o n i n i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t terms as the 'belief i n the super-

natural 1
(For c r i t i q u e s o f T y l o r ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f r e l i g i o n see L i e n h a r d t

1956 and E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1 9 6 5 ) . N o t i n g the p o t e n t i a l dangers i n h e r e n t in

 - 4 -

such a d e f i n i t i o n , i . e . t h a t the s p i r i t s w i l l be thought o f as a c l a s s o f

objects c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s p e c i f i c mode o f e x i s t e n c e o r i n terms o f s p e c i -

fic c o n d i t i o n s o f knowledge r e l e v a n t to the making o f t r u e statements

about them (Horton c i t e s d a t a from E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f kwoth

2

(1956: 315-6) and h i s own d a t a from the K a l a h a r i ) , Horton nevertheless

suggests t h a t w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n T y l o r ' s d e f i n i t i o n has some v a l u a b l e

applications. ' F o r the purposes o f d e f i n i t i o n put forward h e r e , it will

be assumed t h a t i n every s i t u a t i o n commonly l a b e l l e d r e l i g i o u s we are

d e a l i n g w i t h a c t i o n d i r e c t e d towards o b j e c t s which are b e l i e v e d to respond

i n terms o f c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s - - i n our own c u l t u r e those o f purpose,

i n t e l l i g e n c e , and e m o t i o n - - w h i c h are a l s o the d i s t i n c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s for

the d e s c r i p t i o n o f human a c t i o n . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f these c a t e g o r i e s leads

us to say t h a t such o b j e c t s are " p e r s o n i f i e d . " The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

human b e i n g s and r e l i g i o u s o b j e c t s can be f u r t h e r d e f i n e d as governed by

c e r t a i n ideas o f p a t t e r n i n g and o b l i g a t i o n such as c h a r a c t e r i z e relation-

s h i p s among human b e i n g s . In s h o r t , r e l i g i o n can be l o o k e d upon as an

e x t e n s i o n o f the f i e l d o f p e o p l e s ' s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s beyond the confines

o f p u r e l y human s o c i e t y ' (1960: 211).

What i s the u s e f u l n e s s o f such a d e f i n i t i o n ? After demonstrating

3

t h a t . . . ' t h e r e i s no "something e x t r a " which d i s t i n g u i s h e s a l l r e l i g i o u s

2
Many o f the gods o f p r i m i t i v e peoples c o u l d be c i t e d as r e s e m b l i n g
the K a l a h a r i W a t e r - P e o p l e i n t h e i r t h o r o u g h - g o i n g m a t e r i a l i t y (See H o r t o n
1960: 205-6).
3
T h i s "something e x t r a " has been c a l l e d v a r i o u s t h i n g s : awe b e f o r e
r e l i g i o u s l y charged o b j e c t s (Marret 1914); the numinous (Otto 1 9 2 3 ) . D .
Forde commenting on M a r r e t ' s v i e w s t a t e s : 'He d i d n o t a p p r e c i a t e t h a t t h e i r
( o b j e c t s ) e v o c a t i v e power depended on t h e i r s y m b o l i c c h a r a c t e r , and was not
l e d to e x p l o r e the c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l c o n t e x t s o f the i n t a n g i b l e e n t i t i e s '
(1958: 4 ) . See V . T u r n e r ' s work (1967) f o r such an a n a l y s i s o f symbolism
i n i t s s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t .
 - 5 -

r e l a t i o n s h i p s from a l l s e c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ' (1960: 2 1 2 ) , H o r t o n s t a t e s

that...'variables found u s e f u l i n the a n a l y s i s o f man-to-man relationships

w i l l a l s o be found u s e f u l i n the a n a l y s i s o f man-to-god relationships'

(1960: 2 1 2 ) . F i r s t , the two p o l e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p i n the sphere o f inter-

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s : pure communion and pure m a n i p u l a t i o n w i l l be

p a r a l l e l e d i n the man-god r e l a t i o n s h i p . Secondly, a theory of god-to-

group c o o r d i n a t i o n C ) r e p l a c i n g those d e r i v e d from Durkheim can be

elaborated from the d e f i n i t i o n as f o l l o w s . There are t h r e e b a s i c assump-

tions .

Assumption I : The i n d i v i d u a l member o f any s o c i e t y pursues a g i v e n

goal with several different levels of s o c i a l - s t r u c t u r a l reference.

A member o f a g i v e n A f r i c a n community may a c t i v e l y pursue the goals

o f h e a l t h , w e a l t h and i n c r e a s e f o r the v i l l a g e as a w h o l e , f o r the

descent-group o f which he i s a member and f o r h i m s e l f as an indivi-

dual .

Assumption I I : The r e l i g i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n w h i c h the members

o f a s o c i e t y are i n v o l v e d f u n c t i o n as i n s t r u m e n t s to the a c h i e v e -

ment o f t h e i r v a r i o u s goals.

Assumption I I I : In a s o c i e t y where the r e l a t i o n s between segments

of the t o t a l group are markedly c o m p e t i t i v e , the f a c t t h a t a god

and i t s c u l t are seen as c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the member's g o a l s at the

t o t a l group l e v e l o f r e f e r e n c e i p s o f a c t o i m p l i e s t h a t they cannot

be seen as c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the same g o a l s a t the next lower l e v e l

of reference, i . e . t h a t o f the segments. C o n v e r s e l y , where

 - 6 -

4
r e l a t i o n s between segments o f a group are not markedly c o m p e t i t i v e ,

r e l e v a n c e o f a god to a member's g o a l s a t t h e i r t o t a l group level

of reference does not debar i t from r e l e v a n c e to the same g o a l s at

the segment l e v e l o f r e f e r e n c e (Horton 1960: 2 1 3 - 4 ) .

T h i s approach to r e l i g i o n s h i f t s the emphasis from t r a d i t i o n a l

anthropological notions of r e l i g i o n . For M a l i n o w s k i (1948) r e l i g i o n was

r i t u a l a c t i o n o r i e n t e d to n o n - e m p i r i c a l ends whereas magic had as i t s end

some e m p i r i c a l l y d i s c o v e r a b l e g o a l , e g . b e t t e r c r o p s , r a i n , e t c . As i s

w e l l - k n o w n , Durkheim (1961) i n t e r p r e t e d s u p e r n a t u r a l e n t i t i e s as s y m b o l i c

e x p r e s s i o n s o f the common sentiments t h a t s u s t a i n e d the c o l l e c t i v e l i f e o f

the s o c i e t y . Durkheim c o n t r a s t e d r e l i g i o n w i t h magic by l i m i t i n g magic to

i n d i v i d u a l and i s o l a t i v e acts."*

However, i f a l a r g e p a r t o f r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y i s an attempt t o

persuade or c o n t r o l t h e s e p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s i n s i m i l a r ways as one would

c o n s t r a i n o r persuade a'.human b e i n g , then e i t h e r an i n d i v i d u a l or collec-

t i v i t y c o u l d i n t e r a c t w i t h d i v i n i t y to a t t a i n p a r t i c u l a r e n d s . It is also

w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t e i t h e r r e l i g i o u s o r s e c u l a r means might be used to attain

any end i n any s o c i a l c o n t e x t . W i t h i n the framework o f t h i s s t u d y , then,

magic i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from r e l i g i o n not i n terms o f an individualistic

a c t h a v i n g an e m p i r i c a l l y d e f i n a b l e end as opposed to a c o l l e c t i v e a c t

h a v i n g a n o n - e m p i r i c a l l y d e f i n a b l e end but by the c r i t e r i o n t h a t the

4
The K a l a h a r i , f o r example, are a c o m p e t i t i v e - t y p e s o c i e t y where
d i f f e r e n t segments o f the s o c i e t y have c u l t s d i s t i n c t from a l l o t h e r l e v e l s
i n the s y s t e m . The gods become human p a r t n e r s i n the c o m p e t i t i o n ; o r i f
what they want to do i n v o l v e s l i t t l e c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e i r w o r l d o f the gods
i s l i k e l y to be more concerned w i t h the c o l l e c t i v e w e l f a r e and harmony o f
a l l (Horton 1960: 2 1 5 ) .

~*See Ames 1963: 503-4 f o r a b r i e f a n a l y s i s o f Durkheim's under-

standing of r e l i g i o n .
 -7 -

m a g i c i a n does not conduct t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s , but uses

' t h i n g s ' b e l i e v e d to have some i n n a t e 'power' to a c h i e v e e i t h e r e m p i r i c a l

or n o n - e m p i r i c a l ends. T h i s i s not to say t h a t r e l i g i o n and magic c o n -

stitute two c o n c e p t u a l s y s t e m s . Most c u l t u r e s have u n i t a r y magico-

r e l i g i o u s systems r a t h e r than d i s t i n c t l y s e p a r a b l e systems o f magic and

religion.

II. THEMES I N AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEF AND RITUAL

A. DIVINITY IN AFRICAN BELIEF

1. The One and the Many: The Problem S t a t e d

The fundamental ' p r o b l e m ' w i t h A f r i c a n cosmologies i s to understand

how the one (God) and the many ( m y s t i c a l f o r c e s , g h o s t s , ancestors, clan

d i v i n i t i e s and f r e e d i v i n i t i e s ) can e x i s t f o r the a c t o r s i n a non-contra-

dictory system.

I t has o f t e n been s a i d t h a t the H i g h God i n A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s i s

an a b s t r a c t sky god who has been pushed back i n t o the f a r t h e s t recesses

o f the u n i v e r s e and has l i t t l e to do w i t h man s i n c e h i s e s s e n t i a l creative

f u n c t i o n has been f u l f i l l e d . T h i s n o t i o n t h a t A f r i c a n s do not w o r s h i p the

h i g h god i s a common theme i n the w r i t i n g s o f e a r l i e r e x p l o r e r s . Frobenius

w r i t i n g i n The V o i c e o f A f r i c a (1912) s a i d : 'God i s n e i t h e r worshipped nor

c o n s i d e r e d i n any way but l e a d s an e n t i r e l y p l a t o n i c and m y t h o l o g i c a l

existence.' Even G. P a r r i n d e r , w r i t i n g as r e c e n t l y as 1949 s a y s : 'The

Yoruba c a l l God O l o r u n . . . n o c u l t i s o f f e r e d H i m ' . . . a n d he goes on to

 - 8-

d e s c r i b e Him a s . . . ' H i s Supreme but unworshipped God' ( P a r r i n d e r 1949: 2 6 ) .

S b e l t o n (1964) w r i t e s t h a t Europeans have o v e r e s t i m a t e d the e x t e n t o f t h i s

withdrawal. He p o i n t s out t h a t God ^Ls worshipped r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y ; that

He _is immanent i n l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s ; t h a t He i s i n v o l v e d i n the continuous

process o f emanating a l l t h i n g s which have a v i t a l force, for forces

u l t i m a t e l y come from God ( S h e l t o n 1964: 5 3 ) . Countering O'Connell (1962),

S h e l t o n argues t h a t God, i n s o f a r as he i s s e p a r a t e d from the a f f a i r s o f

men, i s s e p a r a t e d not because he i s so pure but because he i s v a s t and

powerful--in fact, i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e (1964: 5 4 ) . With reference to the

Yoruba o f Western N i g e r i a , Idowu d i s p e l s the i d e a o f the w i t h d r a w n h i g h

God. A f t e r n o t i n g t h a t the o r i s h a ( l e s s e r gods) do seem to be predominant

i n Yoruba r e l i g i o n , he says t h a t the Yoruba do not e r e c t temples f o r the

h i g h God: Olodumare. 'The Yoruba cannot c o n c e i v e i n what form the D e i t y

o f such a t t r i b u t e s c o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d i n images' (Idowu 1962: 1 4 1 ) .

Idowu a l s o demonstrates t h a t the Yoruba do w o r s h i p Olodumare, not i n

temples but i n the open.

The w o r s h i p p e r makes a c i r c l e o f ashes o r w h i t e c h a l k ; w i t h i n the

c i r c l e , w h i c h i s a symbol o f e t e r n i t y , he pours a l i b a t i o n o f c o l d
w a t e r , and i n the c e n t r e he p l a c e s a k o l a - n u t on c o t t o n w o o l . He
then takes the k o l a - n u t , s p l i t s i t , and h o l d i n g the v a l v e s f i r m l y
between the h o l l o w o f h i s p a l m s , he s t r e t c h e s them up and prays to
Olodumare, o f f e r i n g the k o l a - n u t ; then he c a s t s the v a l v e s w i t h i n
the c i r c l e (Idowu 1962: 1 4 2 ) .

Idowu concludes by s t a t i n g t h a t Olodumare i s ' v e r y r e a l to the Y o r u b a , as

one w i t h o u t whom n o t h i n g r e m a i n s ' (1962: 1 4 3 ) . Shelton's material (1965)

c o n f i r m s Idowu's d a t a . With reference to the Igbo o f E a s t e r n N i g e r i a , he

shows t h a t the ' H i g h God i s p r e s e n t i n the l i v e s o f NorthTTsukka Igbo

villagers i n s o f a r as the v i l l a g e r s c o n s i s t e n t l y m a i n t a i n t h a t Chukwu

c r e a t e s and r e c a l l s the i n d i v i d u a l , the i n d i v i d u a l must possess c h i to

 - 9-

be a person and to be a l i v e (and c h i i s Chukwu w i t h i n the p e r s o n ) , and

t h a t the v i l l a g e r s c o n s i s t e n t l y p r a c t i s e d i r e c t w o r s h i p o f and s a c r i f i c e

to Chukwu. Such w o r s h i p takes the s e v e r a l forms o f d a i l y p r a y e r s pre-

c e d i n g the Arua ceremony, d a i l y p r a y e r s at a household a l t a r , annual

f e s t i v a l w o r s h i p , and i r r e g u l a r a l t h o u g h frequent s u p p l i c a t i o n and

s a c r i f i c e to the H i g h God' (1965: 18).

R e s e a r c h , t h e n , has shown t h a t the h i g h god i s n e i t h e r 'd'eus

o t i o s u s ' nor 'deus i n c e r t u s . ' He i s worshipped r i t u a l l y , at l e a s t by

some p e o p l e s , and has not withdrawn from the a f f a i r s o f men, even i f he

r u l e s and i n t e r v e n e s through l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s .

Two Sudanic c u l t u r e s , the Nuer and the D i n k a , p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t

e t h n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l f o r the e x p l o r a t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between

the one and the many. The D i n k a b e l i e v e i n a supreme b e i n g - - N h i a l i c ,

the C r e a t o r , who i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l to the C h r i s t i a n God and the

Moslem A l l a h . N h i a l i c i s one, y e t t h e r e are c l a n and f r e e d i v i n i t i e s ,

w i t h whom the D i n k a are concerned i n t h e i r p r a c t i c a l l i f e and o f whom

the D i n k a may say ee N h i a l i c , ' i t is divinity' ( L i e n h a r d t 1961: 5 6 ) .

These d i v i n i t i e s and a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s may p r o t e c t or i n j u r e p e o p l e , as

t h e i r whims d i c t a t e . D r . L i e n h a r d t e x p r e s s e s the p e c u l i a r u n i t y o f

N h i a l i c i n the f o l l o w i n g terms:

D i v i n i t y i s m a n i f o l d as human e x p e r i e n c e i s m a n i f o l d and o f a
m a n i f o l d w o r l d . D i v i n i t y i s one as the s e l f ' s m a n i f o l d e x p e r i e n c e
i s u n i t e d and brought i n t o r e l a t i o n s h i p i n the e x p e r i e n c i n g s e l f .
The Powers are d i s t i n c t from each o t h e r , and from D i v i n i t y , as the
e x p e r i e n c e s they image are d i s t i n c t from each o t h e r and from the
t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e o f the w o r l d and the s e l f .

In h i s paper on 'The W i t h d r a w a l o f the H i g h God i n West A f r i c a n

R e l i g i o n : an Essay i n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' , O ' C o n n e l l argues t h a t p o l y t h e i s m
i s not a l a t e c o r r u p t i o n o f monotheism. He says t h a t t h i s v i e w tends to
c o n f i r m the m i s a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t the gods were once at f o r e f r o n t i n an
e a r l i e r p e r i o d o f time (1962: 6 9 ) .
 - 10 -

D i v i n i t y , t h e n , corresponds to e x p e r i e n c e common to a l l men,

and t o the D i n k a s ' r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a s i n g l e human n a t u r e and
c o n d i t i o n embraces a l l . D i v i n i t y i s thus everywhere, and e v e r y -
where the same. The d i f f e r e n t names by w h i c h d i f f e r e n t peoples
know i t are m a t t e r s o n l y o f d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s . . . D i v i n i t y
t h e r e f o r e t r a n s c e n d s the i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s
the D i n k a know, as they r e c o g n i z e them in.some ways to be t r a n s -
cended i n a fundamental u n i t y o f human n a t u r e (1961: 1 5 6 - 7 ) .

Noting that ' t h i s u n i t y and m u l t i p l i c i t y o f D i v i n i t y causes no d i f -

ficulty i n the c o n t e x t o f D i n k a language and l i f e ' (1961: 5 6 ) , Lien-

hardt s t a t e s t h a t N h i a l i c u n i f i e s the d i v e r s i t i e s o f e x p e r i e n c e taking

p l a c e w i t h i n the D i n k a s e l f in culture. D i v i n i t y and M a c a r d i t are not

opposing or w a r r i n g p r i n c i p l e s for 'Marcardit is also D i v i n i t y , though

D i v i n i t y i s not M a r c a r d i t ' (1961: 1 5 9 ) . The d i f f e r e n c e between M a r c a r d i t

and D i v i n i t y i s not i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n them but i n the human experiences

they image. Thus the f r e e - d i v i n i t i e s Deng, Abuk, and Garang c o r r e s p o n d

to f i e l d s o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h are s p e c i a l a s p e c t s o f the t o t a l to which

D i v i n i t y corresponds (1961: 1 5 9 ) .

The Nuer i d e a o f god i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o the D i n k a ' s . Like the

D i n k a , the p o l i t i c a l system i s amorphous and s e g m e n t a l . And l i k e the

D i n k a , the Nuer b e l i e v e i n one S p i r i t (Kwoth) as w e l l as a c o r r e s p o n d i n g

multiple series of s p i r i t 'refractions.' Kwoth i s l i k e n e d to the wind

and i s the w i l l f u l c r e a t o r and mover o f a l l t h i n g s . Evans-Pritchard

(1953: 201) notes t h a t : 'It i s e v i d e n t t h a t Nuer d i s t i n g u i s h between

their different s p i r i t s . . . N u e r s a c r i f i c e t o one or o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r spirit

a c c o r d i n g to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s . ' He goes on to say t h a t ' i t is equally

c l e a r t h a t we are d e a l i n g w i t h a s i n g l e c o n c e p t i o n , f o r a l l the spirits

are, as Kwoth, b e i n g s o f the same n a t u r e or e s s e n c e . T h i s problem o f

u n i t y i n d i v e r s i t y c o n f r o n t s not o n l y the s t u d e n t o f Nuer r e l i g i o n , but

a l s o s t u d e n t s o f many o t h e r p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o n s , and a l s o those o f

 - 11 -

A n c i e n t E g y p t , the e a r l y S e m i t e s , A n c i e n t C h i n a , and the Greeks and

Latins' (1953: 201).

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d e x p l a i n s the apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n Nuer b e l i e f

t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t i s Kwoth but Kwoth i s not any p a r t i c u l a r spirit.

He s u g g e s t s , l i k e L i e n h a r d t , t h a t the Nuer a r e n ' t c o n f u s e d , and t h a t ' i f

we t h i n k o f the p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t s as f i g u r e s or r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s or re-

fractions o f God, o r S p i r i t , i n r e l a t i o n to p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s , events,

persons, and g r o u p s . . . t h i s i s what "they a r e " among the N u e r ' (1953: 202).

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d a t t r i b u t e s the 'refractions' o f S p i r i t to segmen-

t a r y n a t u r e o f the Nuer s o c i a l o r d e r . ^ In an i l l u m i n a t i n g paragraph in

h i s paper 'The Nuer C o n c e p t i o n o f S p i r i t i n i t s R e l a t i o n to the Social

O r d e r , ' E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d sums up the s t r u c t u r a l d i m e n s i o n o f Kwoth.

At one end S p i r i t i s thought o f i n r e l a t i o n t o man and the w o r l d

i n g e n e r a l , as omnipresent God. Then i t i s thought o f i n r e l a t i o n
t o a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l groups and a c t i v i t i e s and t o p e r s o n s : to
p o l i t i c a l movements connected w i t h p r o p h e t s , and i n a s p e c i a l r e l a -
t i o n to w a r f a r e , as s p i r i t s o f the a i r ; to d e s c e n t groups as c o l w i c
and t o t e m i c and t o t e m i c - l i k e s p i r i t s . A t the o t h e r end i t i s con-
c e i v e d o f more o r l e s s i n r e l a t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l s i n a p r i v a t e
c a p a c i t y as n a t u r e s p r i t e s and f e t i s h e s . God f i g u r e d as the common
f a t h e r and the c r e a t o r i s p a t r o n o f a l l men; f i g u r e d i n s p i r i t s o f
the a i r he i s p a t r o n o f p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s ; f i g u r e d i n c o l w i c and
t o t e m i c s p i r i t s he i s p a t r o n o f l i n e a g e s and f a m i l i e s ; and f i g u r e d
i n n a t u r e s p r i t e s and f e t i s h e s he i s p a t r o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s (1953:
211).

Summing u p , every l e v e l o f Nuer t h e o r y f e a t u r e s the concept o f S p i r i t .

A t lower l e v e l s the concept is 'refracted' by v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f the

o b s e r v a b l e w o r l d , and thereby a c q u i r e s a v a r i e t y o f s u b s i d i a r y attributes

I t i s n o t suggested t h a t the Nuer see t h e i r r e l i g i o n i n t h i s s o r t

o f way. N e v e r t h e l e s s , though they do not r e l a t e what we c a l l the concep-
t i o n o f s p i r i t to what we c a l l the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , the s t r u c t u r a l con-
f i g u r a t i o n we a b s t r a c t by t h i s p r o c e s s i s o f the same d e s i g n as the sym-
b o l i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n s i n w h i c h they t h i n k o f t h e i r v a r i o u s k u t h ' (1953:
212).
 - 12 -

w h i c h the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t can i n t e r p r e t by r e f e r e n c e to f e a t u r e s o f Nuer

social structure, e c o l o g y , and so o n . A t the h i g h e s t level--'unrefracted'

S p i r i t — t h e concept emerges untrammelled by t h i s pure c o n c e p t . This

p r o g r e s s i v e d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n towards Pure S p i r i t o c c u r s because successive

l e v e l s o f Nuer t h e o r y are committed to e x p l a i n i n g more and more i n terms

o f l e s s and l e s s (See H o r t o n 1962: 2 1 6 ) .

When we s h i f t our focus to the West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s scene, the

concept o f the 'one and the many' does not appear to be as unified as

t h a t o f the Nuer and D i n k a , i . e . the c o n c e p t i o n o f S p i r i t i s not s i m p l y

b r o k e n up by the r e f r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s o f n a t u r e , o f s o c i e t y o f c u l t u r e , and

of h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . When S p i r i t i n Nuer and Dinka b e l i e f passes

i n t o the c u l t u r a l p r i s m , i t i s r e f r a c t e d i n t o i t s component p a r t s w h i l e

r e t a i n i n g i t s e s s e n t i a l u n i t y o f oneness. In many West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s ,

i t i s as i f we were l o o k i n g at the ' l i g h t ' after i t had passed through the

p r i s m and then making a statement about i t s n a t u r e . Rather than s e e i n g

' o n e ' , we see o n l y the 'many.' As I see i t , West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s systems

( p a r t i c u l a r l y the systems o f the F o r e s t Kingdoms) make a c o n c e p t u a l d i s -

t i n c t i o n between God and d i v i n i t y : God i s , n o t any p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t , even

though d i v i n i t y may r e c e i v e i t s v i t a l i t y from the h i g h god and f u r t h e r , be

c o o r d i n a t e d t o segments o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . For example, the Edo o f

southwest N i g e r i a would not say t h a t Ogun=0sanobua, a l t h o u g h they would

say t h a t Osanobua and Ogun are members o f the same pantheon ( C f . the way

the Dinka i d e n t i f y M a c a r d i t w i t h D i v i n i t y ) . L e t me t r y to i l l u s t r a t e the

n a t u r e o f the 'one and the many' i n t h r e e West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s systems

t h a t are not s e g m e n t a l , amorphous, n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d politi-

cally .
 - 13 -

The A s h a n t i o f Ghana are w e l l - k n o w n through the w r i t i n g s o f

R a t t r a y and E . Smith and i n r e c e n t y e a r s , K . B u s i a . The A s h a n t i b e l i e v e

that ' t h e r e i s the Great S p i r i t , the Supreme B e i n g , who c r e a t e d all

t h i n g s , and who m a n i f e s t s h i s power through a pantheon o f gods; below

t h e s e are l e s s e r s p i r i t s which animate t r e e s , a n i m a l s , o r charms; and

then t h e r e are the e v e r - p r e s e n t s p i r i t s o f the a n c e s t o r s (nsamanafo)

whose c o n t a c t w i t h the l i f e o f man on the e a r t h b r i n g s the w o r l d o f the

s p i r i t s so c l o s e to the l a n d o f the l i v i n g ' ( B u s i a 1954: 1 9 1 ) . The

A s h a n t i b e l i e v e t h a t every l i n e a g e i s p r o t e c t e d by i t s own a n c e s t o r s ,

a l t h o u g h i t i s the dead r u l e r s , the a n c e s t o r s o f the r o y a l l i n e a g e , that

guard and p r o t e c t the whole t r i b e or c h i e f d o m . As i s w e l l - k n o w n , the

Ashanti chief i s the symbol o f the i d e n t i t y and c o n t i n u i t y o f the tribe,

the s t o o l b e i n g the symbol o f h i s power (See B u s i a 1954: 2 0 0 - 2 0 5 ) .

The l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s do not seem t o be 'refractions', although

they do d e r i v e t h e i r power from the Supreme B e i n g who was b e l i e v e d to be

o r i g i n a l l y near. ' A god i s but the mouthpiece o f the Supreme B e i n g , a

servant a c t i n g as i n t e r m e d i a r y between C r e a t o r and c r e a t u r e ' (1954: 193).

I n A s h a n t i the most important d i v i n i t i e s are those t h a t are the spirits

o f the r i v e r . The gods a l s o r e q u i r e temporary abode and a p r i e s t , the

god sometimes s p e a k i n g through the p r i e s t , sometimes by d i s p l a c i n g h i s

personality (1954: 1 9 3 - 4 ) . The importance o f the a n c e s t o r s i n Ashanti

w i l l be examined later.

The Fon c o n c e p t i o n o f D i v i n i t y does not l e n d i t s e l f e a s i l y to

simplication. In the Fon cosmology, the androgynous d i v i n i t y , Nana

B u l u k u , i s b e l i e v e d t o be the o r i g i n a t o r o f 'creative stuff.' The d u a l

c r e a t o r , Mawu-Lisa i s the one who o r d e r e d the n a t u r a l w o r l d and the w o r l d

 - 14 -

of man. Mawu-Lisa are at the head o f the group o f sky-gods who are their

offspring, as are a l s o the o t h e r gods, o f e a r t h , and e t c . (1954: 218).

The a c t u a l p r e s e r v a t i o n o f the w o r l d i s secured by the vodun, the o f f s p r i n g

o f Mawu-Lisa (1954: 2 2 2 ) . The vodun each r u l e a p a r t i c u l a r domain. For

example, Sakpata r u l e d the e a r t h ; Sogbo the atmosphere. There was sub-

d i v i s i o n w i t h i n each o f the domains o f the vodun (1954: 222).

I have a l r e a d y a l l u d e d to D r . Idowu's study o f Olodumare, God i n

Yoruba B e l i e f . The Y o r u b a , as has been s t a t e d above, b e l i e v e i n the

e x i s t e n c e o f Olodumare who i s f i r s t above a l l d i v i n i t i e s (1962: 5 0 ) . He

i s the D i s p o s e r Supreme to whom belongs the u l t i m a t e s a n c t i o n o f a n y t h i n g

p r o p o s e d , the acceptance o f any a c t o f w o r s h i p , the b l e s s i n g o f any e n t e r -

p r i s e , and the c r e d i t f o r the success o f any p r i e s t ' s m e d i a t i o n or p e r -

formance (1962: 5 2 ) . Y e t the c u l t s or w o r s h i p o f the o r i s h a ( l e s s e r gods)

dominate i n the Yoruba r e l i g i o n . Each o f these o r i s h a has i t s own sphere

of i n f l u e n c e (Ogun, O r u n m i l a , Shango, e t c ) and a l l acknowledge Olodumare

as the u l t i m a t e authority.

The Nuer and D i n k a r e l i g i o u s systems bear the ' i m p r e s s o f the social

structure' ( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1953: 2 1 1 ) , t h a t i s , t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p

between the s t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f d i v i n i t y and the s t r u c t u r a l con-

f i g u r a t i o n o f the s o c i a l o r d e r . Students o f the Fon c u l t u r e o f Dahomey

have shown t h a t the i d e n t i t y o f the d i v i n e and human p a t t e r n s o f o r g a n i -

z a t i o n i s seen a g a i n i n t h e i r h i e r a r c h i c a l and s p e c i a l i z e d character.

H e r s k o v i t s has o b s e r v e d : 'Dahomean c u l t u r e s are based on c o n t r o l by an

o f f i c i a l d o m , w h i c h , under the monarch was o f an e s s e n t i a l l y h i e r a r c h i c a l

character s i m i l a r to t h a t a s c r i b e d t o the g o d s ' and ' j u s t as each p r i n c i p a l

c h i e f who governed a r e g i o n had minor c h i e f s under h i s d i r e c t i o n who were

 -Ir-

r e s p o n s i b l e to h i m , so each pantheon-head has minor d e i t i e s under his

c o n t r o l who are r e s p o n s i b l e to h i m ' (1938: 2 9 4 ) . In a paper in African

W o r l d s : S t u d i e s i n the C o s m o l o g i c a l Ideas and S o c i a l V a l u e s o f A f r i c a n

Peoples M e r c i e r has w r i t t e n :

There i s a remarkable correspondence between the government o f the

u n i v e r s e and t h a t o f human s o c i e t y , between the s t r u c t u r e o f the
w o r l d o f the gods and t h a t o f the w o r l d o f men. These two e s s e n t i a l
a s p e c t s o f the cosmogony are complementary and comparable: the k i n g ,
who s u s t a i n s s o c i e t y , i s n a t u r a l l y compared to the d i v i n i t i e s who
s u s t a i n the w o r l d (1954: 2 3 3 ) .

A l t h o u g h Idowu i s not a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t he does show how the Yoruba

concept o f Olodumare p a r a l l e l s the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . D r . Idowu says that

the Yoruba by not g o i n g to Olodumare d i r e c t l y are r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r social

pattern.

I n Yoruba e t i q u e t t e i t i s c o n s i d e r e d a t h i n g "not done", f o r a young

person to approach an e l d e r d i r e c t l y when he wants a s p e c i a l f a v o u r .
Even a son may not go d i r e c t l y to h i s f a t h e r to beg f o r a g r e a t f a v o u r ,
o r to a p o l o g i z e f o r an o f f e n c e . . . I t i s an o b s e r v a b l e f a c t t h a t i t i s
not the custom o f the Yoruba to t r e a t f a m i l i a r l y w i t h t h e i r k i n g . . .
For example, the O n i o f I l e - I f e i n consequence o f h i s s t a t u s , used
to be h e l d i n so much r e v e r e n c e , t h a t i t was u t t e r l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r
any except the v e r y few who were h i g h l y p r i v i l e g e d to b e h o l d h i s
face or the gates o f h i s p a l a c e . . . h i s v o i c e came to them through a
g r a d a t i o n o f c i v i c o f f i c e r s w i t h whom they were i n c l o s e touch through
t h e i r own ward o r f a m i l y heads (1962: 1 4 1 ) .

In sum, we have seen t h a t the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f the 'one and the

many' v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g to the n a t u r e o f the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l structure.

A l t h o u g h t h i s does not enable us to s t a t e p r e c i s e l y what the n a t u r e o f

Spirit i s , we do see how the i d e a o f S p i r i t takes v a r i o u s forms corres-

ponding to departments o f s o c i a l l i f e (See E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1953: 2 1 4 ) .

Nor f o r t h a t matter can the h i g h g o d ' s w i t h d r a w a l be e x p l a i n e d s o l e l y by

r e f e r r i n g to the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e as Idowu d o e s . The Igbo o f s o u t h e a s t

N i g e r i a , f o r example, do not have a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d political

system (See Uchendu 1965: 3 9 f f ) , y e t the h i g h god i s as remote from

 - 16 -

their affairs as the Yoruba o r A s h a n t i h i g h g o d . However, Uchendu does

say t h a t :

The o r g a n i z a t i o n and power s t r u c t u r e o f these n a t u r e gods m i r r o r

Igbo s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . L i k e the l a t t e r , the n a t i v e gods are not
c o n c e i v e d o f as forming a h i e r a r c h i c a l pantheon. There i s no
s e n i o r i t y o r a u t h o r i t y i m p l i e d i n the c o n c e p t i o n o f these minor
d e i t i e s (1965: 9 5 ) .

The Fon and Yoruba gods are d e f i n i t e l y p l a c e d i n a pantheon h a v i n g h i g h e r

and lower members.

In a t t e m p t i n g t o answer the q u e s t i o n o f why t h e r e i s a c o r r e s -

pondence between D i v i n i t y and the s o c i a l o r d e r , I think that there are

at l e a s t t h r e e answers. F i r s t , i n some c u l t u r e s the m y t h o l o g i c a l c a t e -

g o r i e s p r o v i d e a model f o r o r d e r i n g ' r e a l i t y ' on the s o c i a l l e v e l . Thus

g

the s t r u c t u r e o f the cosmology m i r r o r s t h a t o f the s o c i a l o r d e r . Secondly,

if L i e n h a r d t i s r i g h t when he s t a t e s t h a t ' t h e Powers may be understood

as images c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o complex and v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f Dinka

e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h are c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l and p h y s i c a l

environment' (1961: 1 7 0 ) , then man's e x p e r i e n c e i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c -

t u r e d s o c i a l o r d e r w i l l be m i r r o r e d (imaged) i n the D i v i n i t y - r e a l m . This

might h e l p us e x p l a i n the d i f f e r e n c e between the N u e r / D i n k a and F o n / Y o r u b a /

Ashanti conceptualizations of D i v i n i t y . And t h i r d l y , f o l l o w i n g H o r t o n ,

D i v i n i t y i n i t s diverse manifestations may be c o o r d i n a t e d to u n i t s within

the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e because r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h the e x t r a - s o c i a l w o r l d o f

D i v i n i t y p r o v i d e the o p p o r t u n i t y to a t t a i n p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p - o r i e n t e d ends

t h a t might be u n a t t a i n a b l e through o t h e r means.

See M . G r i a u l e 1954: 8 3 f f f o r a study o f the i n t r i c a t e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p between myth and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .
 - 17 -

2. C o s m o l o g i c a l Ideas Viewed as an E x p l a n a t o r y System

Recent s t u d i e s o f cosmologies ( M i d d l e t o n . Lugbara R e l i g i o n ;

Lienhardt. D i v i n i t y and E x p e r i e n c e ; F o r t e s . Oedipus and Job i n West

A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n and H o r t o n . 'The ( K a l a h a r i W o r l d - V i e w : an O u t l i n e and

Interpretation') show t h a t the gods o f a g i v e n c u l t u r e do form a scheme

which i n t e r p r e t s the v a s t d i v e r s i t y o f everyday e x p e r i e n c e i n terms o f a

r e l a t i v e l y few k i n d s o f f o r c e s . In M i d d l e t o n ' s work (See 1960: 230-70)

'we f i n d a t h e o r e t i c a l model i n w h i c h the a n c e s t o r s , embodying the forces

o f the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r , are i n b a l a n c e d o p p o s i t i o n to the adro spirits

w h i c h embody the f o r c e s o f the e x t r a - s o c i a l ' (Horton 1962: 2 1 5 - 6 ) .

Commenting on L i e n h a r d t ' s work on the D i n k a , H o r t o n suggests t h a t the

Dinka w o r l d - v i e w . . . ' i s a system o f t h e o r y which attempts to p r o v i d e a

basis f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a v a s t number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , about relations

between d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y , r e l a t i o n s between the established

o r d e r and what i s e x t e r n a l to i t , r e l a t i o n s between the i n d i v i d u a l and

the group and so o n . L i e n h a r d t l a y s p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on the way the

Dinka gods serve t o demonstrate the u n i t y which l i e s behind the apparent

d i v e r s i t y o f the observed w o r l d . He shows how they form a t h e o r e t i c a l

model w h i c h enables the Dinka to see the v a r i o u s e v e n t u a l i t i e s o f the w o r l d

around them as due to the o p e r a t i o n o f a s m a l l number o f u n d e r l y i n g p r i n -

c i p l e s :in a f a i r l y s i m p l e way' (Horton 1962: 2 1 5 ) .

The importance o f t h i s argument i s t h a t A f r i c a n c o s m o l o g i c a l ideas

are seen as r e f l e c t i n g the A f r i c a n ' s quest f o r meaning: he b u i l d s models

t h a t become maps f o r e x p e r i e n c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l

environment.
 - 18 -

To say o f the t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n t h i n k e r t h a t he i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
s u p e r n a t u r a l r a t h e r than n a t u r a l causes makes l i t t l e more s e n s e ,
t h e r e f o r e , than t o say o f the p h y s i c i s t t h a t he i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
n u c l e a r r a t h e r than n a t u r a l c a u s e s . In f a c t , b o t h are making the
same use o f t h e o r y to t r a n s c e n d the l i m i t e d v i s i o n o f n a t u r a l causes
p r o v i d e d by common sense (Horton 1967: 5 4 ) .

Thus the d i v i n i t i e s are not merely c a p r i c i o u s b e i n g s - - t h e y have t h e i r

a p p o i n t e d f u n c t i o n i n the o r d e r o f o b s e r v a b l e t h i n g s . The r e l i g i o u s

e x p e r t can know what s p i r i t u a l e n t i t i e s are b e h i n d observed events

(Horton 1967: 5 2 ) . And s i n c e t h e o r y p l a c e s t h i n g s i n a c a u s a l c o n t e x t

w i d e r than t h a t p r o v i d e d by common s e n s e , the f a c t t h a t A f r i c a n s go to

d i v i n e r s becomes e x p l i c a b l e . For the d i v i n e r r e f e r s to an unseen entity

and a l s o r e l a t e s the p a t i e n t ' s c o n d i t i o n to a whole s e r i e s o f disturbances

i n the s o c i a l f i e l d . The d i v i n e r uses ideas about t h i s agency t o link

d i s e a s e to causes i n the w o r l d o f v i s i b l e , t a n g i b l e events [ Horton c a l l s

t h i s the c o n v e r g i n g - s e q u e n c e t h e o r y (1967: 170) ] .

To the q u e s t i o n o f why A f r i c a n s draw a n a l o g i e s between p u z z l i n g

phenomena and the f a m i l i a r , H o r t o n argues t h a t , i n c o n t r a s t to Western

s o c i e t y where o r d e r , p r e d i c t a b i l i t y and s i m p l i c i t y are i n t h i n g s , i n

t r a d i t i o n a l societies of Africa, we f i n d the s i t u a t i o n r e v e r s e d . The

human scene i s the l o c u s par e x c e l l e n c e o f o r d e r , p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , r e g u -

larity. In the w o r l d o f the i n a n i m a t e , these q u a l i t i e s are f a r less

evident...And here, the mind i n quest o f e x p l a n a t o r y a n a l o g i e s turns

n a t u r a l l y to people and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s (Horton 1967: 6 4 - 5 ) . He i s a r g u i n g ,

then, that A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f draws on persons as e x p l a n a t o r y

d e v i c e s , i . e . gods, and i n d o i n g so omits c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s o f human

b e i n g s i n the m o d e l . With r e f e r e n c e to the K a l a b a r i , H o r t o n suggests

t h a t the a n c e s t o r s , heroes and w a t e r - s p i r i t s are a t r i a n g l e o f forces.

The a n c e s t o r s u n d e r p i n the l i f e and s t r e n g t h o f the l i n e a g e s , b r i n g i n g

 - 19 -

m i s f o r t u n e to those who b e t r a y l i n e a g e v a l u e s and f o r t u n e to those who

promote them. The heroes are those f o r c e s u n d e r p i n n i n g the l i f e and

s t r e n g t h o f the community and i t s v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . And the w a t e r -

s p i r i t s are the owners o f the creeks and swamps, the g u a r d i a n s o f the fish

harvest, the f o r c e s o f n a t u r e . On the o t h e r h a n d , they are the forces

u n d e r p i n n i n g a l l t h a t l i e s beyond the c o n f i n e s o f the e s t a b l i s h e d order

(1967: 6 7 ) . Thus the K a l a h a r i are a b l e t o e x p l a i n d i v e r s i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e

as w e l l as c o n f l i c t and c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e s e t h r e e forces.

M i d d l e t o n a l s o shows t h a t the c o n t r a s t and o p p o s i t i o n between adro and the

ancestors p r o v i d e s the Lugbara w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l scheme e n a b l i n g them to

comprehend a whole s e r i e s o f o p p o s i t i o n s and c o n f l i c t s m a n i f e s t i n the

w o r l d o f t h e i r everyday e x p e r i e n c e .

In P a r t I I o f h i s paper ' A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l Thought and Western

Science, ' Horton contrasts t r a d i t i o n a l thought w i t h Western by s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n thought i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c l o s e d system

mentality. There i s a l a c k o f awareness of a l t e r n a t i v e s , b e l i e f s are

s a c r e d w i t h the subsequent a n x i e t y over any t h r e a t s to the system (Horton

1967: 1 5 6 ) . Some o f the d i f f e r e n c e s connected w i t h the presence or absence

of a v i s i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e s are i n the m a g i c a l a t t i t u d e to w o r d s ; ideas-

bound- t o - o c c a s i o n s v e r s u s i d e a s - b o u n d - t o - i d e a s ; u n r e f l e c t i v e v e r s u s re-

f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g ; p r o t e c t i v e versus d e s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e towards estab-

l i s h e d t h e o r y ; d i v i n a t i o n v e r s u s d i a g n o s i s ; absence v e r s u s presence o f

e x p e r i m e n t a l method; the c o n f e s s i o n o f i g n o r a n c e and b e l i e f s about coin-

c i d e n c e , chance and p r o b a b i l i t y ; p r o t e c t i v e v e r s u s d e s t r u c t i v e attitude

to the c a t e g o r y - s y s t e m and concepts o f time (Horton 1967: 1 5 8 - 1 7 7 ) .

H o r t o n c o n c l u d e s h i s essay by n o t i n g t h a t ' t h e concept o f the " c l o s e d "

 - 20 -

predicament not o n l y p r o v i d e s a key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f each one o f the

above s a l i e n t t r a i t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t ; i t a l s o h e l p s us to see why

these eleven t r a i t s f l o u r i s h and p e r i s h t o g e t h e r . The c l o s e d system

c r a c k s when p r e s e n t e d w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e s ' ( 1 9 6 7 : 180).

We have now added another d i m e n s i o n to our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f D i v i n i t y

in African belief. R e l i g i o u s c a t e g o r i e s have a p h i l o s o p h i c a l and e p i s t e m o -

l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , p r o v i d i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n w i t h models to

interpret the ' r e a l i t y ' that confronts him i n c u l t u r e .

3. The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f the A n c e s t o r s i n A f r i c a n R e l i g i o u s Systems

The remarks t h a t f o l l o w are p r i m a r i l y based on M . F o r t e s paper

'Some r e f l e c t i o n s on A n c e s t o r Worship i n A f r i c a ' (1965: 1 2 2 - 1 4 1 ) . For

a n a l y t i c a l purposes I have chosen to examine the r o l e o f the ancestors

in African traditional belief a p a r t from D i v i n i t y , a l t h o u g h i n my study

o f the Edo I do not make any c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n .

I t has l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a n c e s t o r i s a conspicuous feature

o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s systems h a v i n g a r e m a r k a b l y u n i f o r m s t r u c t u r a l frame-

work. An a n c e s t o r i s a named, dead f o r b e a r who has l i v i n g descendants of

a designated genealogical c l a s s representing h i s continued structural

relevance. A n c e s t o r w o r s h i p i s r o o t e d i n d o m e s t i c , k i n s h i p and descent

r e l a t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s .

F o r t e s s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s much more to a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p than its

u t i l i t y as a means o f mapping out and p r o v i d i n g a c h a r t e r for a genealogi-

c a l l y ordered s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e (See Bohannan 1953 and E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d

1956: 1 6 2 ) . Fortes d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p and customary

 - 21 -

b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s concerning death, the s o u l , g h o s t , s p i r i t s and the

afterlife. R . B r a d b u r y ' s paper ' F a t h e r and S e n i o r Son i n Edo M o r t u a r y

Ritual' (1965) has shown t h a t death alone i s not s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n

f o r becoming an a n c e s t o r . C i t i n g m a t e r i a l from the Tsonga (Junod 1927:

3 4 7 f f ) , F o r t e s n o t e s t h a t they d i s t i n g u i s h between g h o s t l y dead w i t h o u t

o f f s p r i n g and a n c e s t o r s who have o f f s p r i n g .

A v e r y important p a r t o f F o r t e s ' summary o f a n c e s t o r c e n t r e s around

the i d e a t h a t a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n or e x t e n s i o n o f the

a u t h o r i t y i n the j u r a l r e l a t i o n s o f s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s ; i t i s not a

duplication, i n a supernatural i d i o m , o f the t o t a l complex o f affective,

e d u c a t i v e , and s u p p o r t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p m a n i f e s t e d i n c h i l d - r e a r i n g or i n

m a r r i a g e , or i n any o t h e r forms o f a s s o c i a t i o n , however l o n g l a s t i n g and

i n t i m a t e , between k i n s m e n , neighbours or f r i e n d s . He i l l u s t r a t e s this

p r o p o s i t i o n by c i t i n g m a t e r i a l from the A s h a n t i where even though the

f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p i s o f h i g h a f f e c t i v i t y , o n l y the m o t h e r ' s brother

has a s t o o l d e d i c a t e d to h i m becoming the a n c e s t o r f o r purposes o f w o r s h i p .

In a m a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t y i t i s o n l y those members o f a l i n e a g e who have

been i n v e s t e d w i t h a u t h o r i t y , t h a t i s , j u r i s d i c t i o n i n the l i n e a g e , as

l i n e a g e heads or as h o l d e r s o f o f f i c e i n the e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c o - j u r a l domain,

who become permanently e n s h r i n e d i n s t o o l s o f w o r s h i p .

The a n c e s t o r s are approached r i t u a l l y by s a c r i f i c e , l i b a t i o n and

prayer. In T a l l e n s i c u l t u r e o n l y a son can o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s to ancestors,

and he can do so o n l y i f h i s r e l e v a n t p a r e n t i s d e a d . Thus i t i s u s u a l l y

the s u r v i v i n g s e n i o r son who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r i t u a l tendance and s e r v i c e

o f the a n c e s t o r s . H i s i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i n i t i a t i n g , s u p e r v i s i n g

and t a k i n g the l e a d i n g p a r t i n the mortuary and f u n e r a l f o r h i s p a r e n t s .

To r e f u s e the a n c e s t o r s i s to i n v i t e d i s a s t e r . A c c o r d i n g to F o r t e s the
 - 22 -

behaviour of ancestors i s standardized regardless of t h e i r lifetime

behaviour: a l l ancestors e x a c t r i t u a l s e r v i c e and p r o p i t i a t i o n i n

accordance w i t h the same r u l e s o f u n p r e d i c t a b l e and more commonly p e r -

s e c u t o r y r a t h e r than b e n e f i c i e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n (See K r i g e 1943: 2 3 2 ) .

When the p e r s e c u t i n g a n c e s t o r intervenes they are b e l i e v e d t o have acted

r i g h t f u l l y and not w a n t o n l y . Thus the a n c e s t o r s are thought o f as an

u l t i m a t e judge and mentor whose v i g i l a n c e i s d i r e c t e d towards restoring

o r d e r and d i s c i p l i n e i n compliance w i t h the norms o f r i g h t and d u t y ,

amity and p i e t y .

The a n c e s t o r s are r e l a t e d to the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . E . Colson

w r i t i n g on ' A n c e s t r a l S p i r i t s among the P l a t e a u Tonga' shows how the

Mizumu ' r e f l e c t the i d e a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Tonga s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ' (Colson

1960: 3 7 2 ) . A l t h o u g h F o r t e s does n o t r e g a r d a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p as exhaus-

t i b l y s p e c i f i a b l e as a p u r e l y j u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n (See f o o t n o t e 6, 1965:

1 3 7 ) , he does c o r r e l a t e i t w i t h r u l e s o f conduct which s e r v e to entrench

the p r i n c i p l e o f j u r a l a u t h o r i t y t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s c o r r o l a r y , legitimate

r i g h t , and i t s r e c i p r o c a l , d e s i g n a t e d a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , as an i n d i s p u t a b l e

and s a c r o s a n c t v a l u e - p r i n c i p l e o f the s o c i a l s y s t e m . The a n c e s t o r s symbol-

i z e the c o n t i n u i t y o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , and the proper a l l o c a t i o n , a t

any g i v e n t i m e , o f the a u t h o r i t y and r i g h t they h e l d and transmitted.

F o r t e s notes t h a t the A s h a n t i h e l d to the n o t i o n t h a t the S t o o l was the

s a c r e d v e h i c l e o f the presence o f the a n c e s t o r s and b o t h the source and

symbol o f p o l i t i c o - r i t u a l o f f i c e (See B u s i a 1 9 5 4 ) , from the k i n g s h i p down

to the h e a d s h i p o f a l o c a l l i n e a g e . It i s the e x p e r i e n c e o f filial

dependence as r e c o g n i z e d and i n t e r p r e t e d by the c u l t u r e w h i c h p r o v i d e s

the m a t e r i a l f o r the code o f symbolism and r i t u a l by means o f w h i c h

 - 23 -

r e v e r e n c e f o r a u t h o r i t y can be r e g u l a r l y a f f i r m e d and e n a c t e d . For i t

i s i n t h i s e x p e r i e n c e t h a t the b e l i e f s and sentiments of respect, reverence

and w o r s h i p are i n c u l c a t e d . F o r t e s has argued a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s i n an

e a r l i e r essay Oedipus and Job i n West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n . He s t a t e s that

' t h e w o r s h i p o f the a n c e s t o r s i s i n essence the r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f filial

piety' (1959: 2 9 ) . The g e n e s i s o f the T a l l e n s i b e l i e f , t h e n , is ' i n the

r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n i n s o c i e t i e s w i t h a s o c i a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n based on k i n s h i p and d e s c e n t 1
(1959: 7 8 ) .

4. W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y i n A f r i c a n Belief

The f u l l e s t study o f w i t c h c r a f t i n A f r i c a i s E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s epochal

work W i t c h c r a f t , O r a c l e s and Magic among the A z a n d e . L i e n h a r d t as w e l l as

o t h e r s have noted t h a t Europeans have had numerous problems u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h i s phenomenon p a r t i c u l a r l y because i t seems remote from our own modes o f

thought ( L i e n h a r d t 1954: 9 9 ) . E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d demonstrated that i n order

to u n d e r s t a n d t h i s b e l i e f - s y s t e m we must b e g i n by making some assumptions

w h i c h the Azande make ( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1962: 9 8 - 1 0 2 ) . We have to assume

t h a t a man's death or m i s f o r t u n e demands s p e c i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n ; t h a t human

b e i n g s w i t h o u t any p h y s i c a l a c t can i n j u r e each o t h e r ; t h a t a p o s s i b l e way

o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r death or s u f f e r i n g i s to say t h a t someone, some human

witch, i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the d e a t h ; t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t o r a c l e s can

r e v e a l t r u t h when o t h e r means fail.

Most a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s today accept E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s c l a s s i c d i s -

t i n c t i o n between magic and s o r c e r y . He d e f i n e d a w i t c h as one who has

b e l i e v e d to be a b l e to harm o t h e r s m y s t i c a l l y and i l l e g i t i m a t e l y by means

 - 24 -

o f p s y c h i c emanations from an i n h e r e n t p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n t h a t was

transmitted b i o l o g i c a l l y . A s o r c e r e r , on the o t h e r hand, was b e l i e v e d

to harm o t h e r s m y s t i c a l l y and i l l e g i t i m a t e l y by p r a c t i c i n g d e s t r u c t i v e

m a g i c , t h a t i s , by p e r f o r m i n g r i t e s , u s i n g m e d i c i n e s and making these

e f f e c t i v e o r p o s s i b l y s e l e c t i v e by u s i n g more or l e s s f o r m a l s p e l l s or

addresses. The w i t c h seems to be more d e l i b e r a t e and v e n g e f u l i n h i s

i n t e n t i o n s whereas a w i t c h i s d r i v e n by an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e urge which may

even o p e r a t e a g a i n s t h i s b e t t e r nature.

In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e have been a number o f i m p o r t a n t works t h a t

have g i v e n more a t t e n t i o n t o the s t r u c t u r a l and n o r m a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

beliefs i n s o r c e r y and w i t c h c r a f t i n c o n t r a s t to E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s study

o f the l o g i c a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f b e l i e f s i n m a g i c , w i t c h c r a f t and

s o r c e r y among the A z a n d e . In a paper ' W i t c h c r a f t i n four A f r i c a n societies,'

Nadel argues t h a t w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s are r e l a t e d to s p e c i f i c

a n x i e t i e s and s t r e s s e s i n s o c i a l l i f e , even the p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f the

s o c i a l causes o f w h i c h they are symptoms. He i d e n t i f i e s two b a s i c types

of w i t c h c r a f t . The Nupe o f c e n t r a l N i g e r i a i d e n t i f y t h e i r w i t c h e s as

openly and s u c c e s s f u l l y s e t t i n g a s i d e the s o c i a l v a l u e s and thus denying

the s t a t e o f s o c i e t y d e s i r e d and thought gopd. On the o t h e r h a n d , the

M e s a k i n i d e n t i f y a w i t c h as a p e r s o n who cannot l i v e up to the social

v a l u e s y e t cannot o p e n l y r e b e l a g a i n s t them; the a t t a c k s upon w i t c h e s are

a t t a c k s upon the v i c t i m s o f the i d e a l s o c i e t y (Nadel 1952: 2 9 ) . Nadel's

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n leans h e a v i l y on the 'scape-goat' t h e o r y a l s o u t i l i z e d by

Kluckhohn (1962) and W h i t i n g ( 1 9 5 0 ) . He concludes h i s paper by s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e f s are c a u s a l l y as w e l l as c o n s p i c u o u s l y r e l a t e d to

s p e c i f i c a n x i e t i e s and s t r e s s e s a r i s i n g i n the m a r r i a g e r e l a t i o n s i n Nupe,

 - 25 -

and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r and s i s t e r ' s son i n M e s a k i n .

I t s h o u l d be noted h e r e t h a t w i t c h c r a f t cannot be ' e x p l a i n e d ' s i m p l y by

saying that i t i s a kind of p r e l o g i c a l m e n t a l i t y , that i s , that w i t c h c r a f t

i s because t h e r e are i n e x p l i c a b l e t h i n g s i n c u l t u r e .

One o f the most important works on w i t c h c r a f t and s o r c e r y i s the

c o l l e c t i o n o f essays e d i t e d by M i d d l e t o n and W i n t e r , W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y

i n East A f r i c a . The e d i t o r s h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t between s o c i e t i e s t h a t utilize

e i t h e r w i t c h c r a f t or s o r c e r y b e l i e f s i n making a c c u s a t i o n s but not b o t h ,

t h e r e are c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . They s t a t e t h a t

' w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e f s are thus u t i l i z e d in societies i n which u n i l i n e a r

k i n s h i p p r i n c i p l e s are employed i n the f o r m a t i o n o f l o c a l residential

g r o u p s , l a r g e r t h a n the domestic h o u s e h o l d , w h i l e s o r c e r y b e l i e f s tend to

be s i m i l a r l y u t i l i z e d when u n i l i n e a l p r i n c i p l e s are not so u s e d ' ( M i d d l e t o n

1962: 1 2 ) .

V . Turner i n h i s paper ' W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y : Taxonomy v e r s u s

Dynamics' (1967) o f f e r s a number o f sharp c r i t i c i s m s o f t h i s w o r k . First,

he advocates an extended case method a p p r o a c h , n o t i n g t h a t o n l y 49 pages

o f 299 are t a k e n up w i t h case m a t e r i a l . For Turner i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o set

any g i v e n a c c u s a t i o n i n t o the w i d e s t p o s s i b l e c o n t e x t . T h i s i n c l u d e s know-

i n g the s t r u c t u r e o f groups and subgroups t o which the a c c u s e r and accused

b e l o n g and t h e i r e x t a n t d i v i s i o n i n t o t r a n s i e n t a l l i a n c e s and f a c t i o n s on

the b a s i s o f immediate i n t e r e s t s , ambitions, moral a s p i r a t i o n s . I t "would

a l s o i n c l u d e as much o f the h i s t o r y o f these groups as would be c o n s i d e r e d

relevant to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the a c c u s a t i o n by l e a d i n g a c t o r s within

the f i e l d situation. And i t would a l s o i n c l u d e demographic d a t a about

subgroup and f a c t i o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n s over the r e l e v a n t time p e r i o d , t o g e t h e r

 - 26 -

w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n about the b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s bearing

on these such as e p i d e m i c s , r i s e and f a l l i n the death and b i r t h r a t e s ,

l a b o u r m i g r a t i o n s , wars and feuds (Turner 1967: 1 1 5 ) . The f a c t t h a t A

accused B would then be seen as the product o f a complex i n t e r p l a y o f

p r o c e s s e s and f o r c e s , among w h i c h the norms g o v e r n i n g b e h a v i o u r between

members o f a s i n g l e k i n s h i p c a t e g o r y c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a s i n g l e and p o s s i b l y

minor c l a s s (1967: 115-6).

However, the c r u x o f T u r n e r ' s c r i t i q u e i s t h a t 'witch beliefs can

no l o n g e r - - i f they ever c o u l d - - b e u s e f u l l y grouped i n t o two contrasting

categories, witchcraft ( i n i t s narrow sense) and s o r c e r y ' (1967: 118).

A c c o r d i n g to T u r n e r , when E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d made h i s c l a s s i c ? d i s t i n c t i o n he

' c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d t o c o n f i n e i t t o Zande c u l t u r e ' [See E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1927:

21] (1967: 118).

W i t c h c r a f t , i n s h o r t , may be u n c o n s c i o u s and i n v o l u n t a r y , though i t

i s o f t e n i n t e n t i o n a l , i n h e r i t e d , and i n h e r e n t . S o r c e r y i s always
c o n s c i o u s and v o l u n t a r y , and i s taught and o f t e n b o u g h t . Witchcraft
o p e r a t e s d i r e c t l y and s o r c e r y i n d i r e c t l y through s p e l l s , r i t e s , and
m e d i c i n e s . T h i s d i c h o t o m y , v e r b a l i z e d and e x p l i c i t among the Azande,
i s not made i n many s o c i e t i e s . R a t h e r , these possess a wide range o f
b e l i e f s about the types o f persons who seek to harm t h e i r f e l l o w s by
n o n - e m p i r i c a l means (1967: 1 1 9 ) .

B a r r i e R e y n o l d s ' well-documented m a t e r i a l from the c o u r t s o f B a r o t s e l a n d ,

Zambia shows t h a t the s i n g l e term m u l o i was used f o r a l l e v i l practioners

(1963: 1 4 - 4 7 ) . Turner says t h a t t h i s d a t a r a i s e s the whole q u e s t i o n o f

what i s meant by " i n h e r i t a n c e . " C i t i n g m a t e r i a l from the Lunda, Turner

s t a t e s t h a t the 'Lunda or L u v a l a w i t c h i s not b o r n a w i t c h but has w i t c h -

craft " t h r u s t upon h e r , " u s u a l l y l a t e in l i f e ' (1967: 120).

T u r n i n g t o the m a t e r i a l i n W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y i n E a s t Africa,

he f u r t h e r demonstrates how d i f f i c u l t i t i s t o use E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s dis-

tinction. C o n t r a r y to W i n t e r ' s argument (1962: 292) t h a t the b e h a v i o u r o f

 - 27 -

w i t c h e s i t the " e x a c t r e v e r s e " o f t h a t o f o t h e r p e o p l e , Turner s t a t e s t h a t

' i t c e r t a i n l y has some " i n v e r t e d " f e a t u r e s , but o t h e r s are r a t h e r cari-

catures o f normal b e h a v i o u r . The w o r l d o f w i t c h c r a f t , as i t appears i n

t r i b a l b e l i e f s , i s not the " s t r u c t u r a l " w o r l d u p s i d e down i n i n m i r r o r

image. I t i s the w o r l d i n d e c a y , where a l l t h a t i s n o r m a l , h e a l t h y , and

o r d e r e d i s reduced to chaos and " p r i m o r d i a l s l i m e . " It is "anti-struc-

9

ture"--not inverted structure' (1967:,125).

H i s major c r i t i c i s m , t h e n , i s that ' t h e r e i s y e t no s t a n d a r d usage

o f these t e r m s ' (1967: 1 2 5 ) . He s u g g e s t s , for further researchers, that

a ' h o l i s t i c l a b e l l i n g approach to the d e f i n i t i o n a l problems d i s c u s s e d i n

t h i s a r t i c l e i s l i k e l y to s i d e t r a c k i n v e s t i g a t i o n from the study o f a c t u a l

b e h a v i o u r i n the s o c i a l f i e l d c o n t e x t to an o b s e s s i o n w i t h the proper

p i g e o n h o l i n g o f b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s as e i t h e r " w i t c h c r a f t " or "sorcery."

I n sum, the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f w i t c h c r a f t and s o r c e r y has been

a b l e , u s i n g E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s m o d e l , to l e a d us t o the p o i n t where we see

the d e c l i n i n g adequacy o f p r e s e n t t h e o r e t i c a l frames' (1967: 1 1 2 ) . Un-

f o r t u n a t e l y I have been u n a b l e to e x p l o r e or t e s t T u r n e r ' s ideas i n my

f i e l d work among the E d o .

B. RITUAL IN AFRICAN RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

R i t u a l can be viewed at many l e v e l s . One o f the most influential

works on the s o c i o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r i t u a l i s t h a t o f Van Gennep's

R i t e s de P a s s a g e . H i s problem was t h a t i n t r i b a l s o c i e t y t h e r e seemed t o

My i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n to Edo w i t c h c r a f t was t h a t i t was a n t i - v a l u e

and not a n t i - or i n v e r t e d s t r u c t u r e .
 - 28 -

be on the whole g r e a t e r r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n s i n s o c i a l s t a t u s , and

greater r i t u a l i z a t i o n of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in general, than t h e r e was

i n modern s o c i e t y (See Gluckman 1962: 2 ) . Van Gennep c o r r e c t l y noted that

changes i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g movements between g r o u p s , or altera-

t i o n s of s t a t u s , i n s e m i - c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t i e s w i t h t h e i r conceptions of

m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s bases f o r g r o u p s , d i s t u r b e d b o t h the l i f e o f the society

and the l i f e o f the i n d i v i d u a l , and the f u n c t i o n o f r i t e s o f passage was

to reduce the harmful e f f e c t s o f these d i s t u r b a n c e s (See Gluckman 1962: 3).

Radcliffe-Brown (1952: 136-9) employed the term r i t u a l to cover magico-

r e l i g i o u s phenomena in general. T h i s gets us to the c r u x o f the problem

f o r r i t u a l i s u s u a l l y g i v e n a w i d e r s i g n i f i c a n c e than t h a t o f identifying

i t w i t h the m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s . Nadel (1954: 99) uses the c a t e g o r y ritual

i n c l u s i v e l y and r e l a t e s i t to any type o f e x c e s s i v e l y f o r m a l a c t i o n , w h i l e

r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l covers a c t s where the means-end r e l a t i o n s h i p is deemed

inadequate by e m p i r i c a l s t a n d a r d s . A c c o r d i n g to M o n i c a W i l s o n r i t u a l can

be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from c e r e m o n i a l . A r i t u a l is a 'primarily religious

action...directed t o s e c u r i n g the b l e s s i n g o f some m y s t i c a l p o w e r . . . S y m b o l s

and concepts are employed i n r i t u a l s but are s u b o r d i n a t e d to p r a c t i c a l e n d s '

(1957: 9 ) . And c e r e m o n i a l i s 'an e l a b o r a t e c o n v e n t i o n a l form f o r the expres-

s i o n o f f e e l i n g , not c o n f i n e d t o r e l i g i o u s o c c a s i o n s ' (1957: 9 ) . Goody

would a p p l y ' r i t u a l ' to a l l categories of a c t i o n which Wilson c a l l s 'con-

v e n t i o n a l ' , and ' r e l i g i o u s ' would cover a c t i v i t i e s addressed to 'some

m y s t i c a l power' (Goody 1961: 1 5 9 - 6 0 ) . Evans-Pritchard also s a i d that

'ritual' i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by the f a c t t h a t i t r e f e r s to some ' m y s t i c a l

n o t i o n s , ' w h i c h are ' p a t t e r n s o f thought t h a t a t t r i b u t e to phenomena supra-

s e n s i b l e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h , o r p a r t o f w h i c h , are not d e r i v e d from o b s e r v a t i o n

 - 29 -

or cannot be l o g i c a l l y i n f e r r e d from i t , and w h i c h they do not possess'

( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1937: 1 2 ) .

Gluckman i n h i s paper 'Les R i t e s de P a s s a g e ' admits t h a t 'ritual,

t h a t i s to s a y , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n o t i o n s t h a t i t s performance i n some

m y s t e r i o u s way, by p r o c e s s e s out o f sensory c o n t r o l , a f f e c t s the w e l l -

b e i n g o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s : i t i s b e l i e v e d to p r o t e c t them or i n o t h e r

ways a c h i e v e t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g 1
(1962: 3 0 ) , but h i s i n t e r e s t lies elsewhere.

He i s p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n how ' t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s h a v e . . . w o r k e d t h e i r

r o l e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t o t h e i r r i t u a l s . ' Gluckman's purpose i s to

d i s c o v e r why t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s w i t h a l l t h e i r u n c e r t a i n t i e s about growth

become ' i n e x t r i c a b l y i n v o l v e d i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e m s e l v e s ; and i t

i s t h i s r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w h i c h i s my problem h e r e 1
(1962:

33). His thesis i s that 'the greater the s e c u l a r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f r o l e ,

the l e s s the r i t u a l ; and the g r e a t e r the s e c u l a r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , the less

m y s t i c a l i s the c e r e m o n i a l o f e t i q u e t t e ; the g r e a t e r the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f

u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d and o v e r l a p p i n g r o l e s , the more r i t u a l to s e p a r a t e them'

(1962: 3 4 ) . Although t h i s t h e s i s is i l l u m i n a t i n g , 1 0
w i t h Forde ( 1 9 5 8 ) , I

e x p r e s s a c e r t a i n d i s q u i e t u d e at the tendency o f some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s to

interpret r i t u a l s i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l o r p y s c h o l o g i c a l terms a l o n e . Forde

argues t h a t b e l i e f s and r i t e s

. . . a r e by no means always evoked by c o n c e r n f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l

p a t t e r n , but may be s t i m u l a t e d by o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s o f the human
environment through the v a l u e s and hazards a t t a c h e d t o m a t e r i a l
r e s o u r c e s and t e c h n i q u e s , the i n c i d e n c e o f d i s e a s e and o t h e r r i s k s
to h e a l t h and l i f e . . . W h i l e b e l i e f s and c u l t s focus on m a t e r i a l needs
and p h y s i c a l w e l l - b e i n g may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h or l e a d to t h e . f u r t h e r
development o f p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , such as p r i e s t h o o d s

H o r t o n says t h a t ' t h o s e who f o l l o w Gluckman are u n a b l e to see

such b e l i e f s as h a v i n g n o t h i n g more than a s o r t o f a l l - p u r p o s e s o c i a l
g l u e ' (1964: 8 7 ) .
 - 30 -

o r i n s t i t u t i o n s d e r i v i n g from the p r e s t i g e o f a s a c r e d c h i e f s h i p ,
i t i s i m p o r t a n t to r e c o g n i z e t h a t i t i s the e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s ,
stemming from b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , and the c h a r a c t e r
o f p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i q u e s , t h a t have c a l l e d them i n t o b e i n g and sus-
t a i n t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e (1958: 7 - 8 ) .

R i t u a l , as Gluckman has s a i d , has a ' m u l t i p l e x ' meaning, and i n t h i s ,s;tudy

o f the Edo I am concerned w i t h r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n between man and d i v i n i t y .

One q u e s t i o n I t r y to answer i s why i t s h o u l d be t h a t e n t i t i e s w i t h the

characteristic properties o f the m y s t i c a l are invoked as a l i n k between

f l u c t u a t i o n s o f the s o c i a l o r d e r and f l u c t u a t i o n s o f n a t u r e (See H o r t o n

1964: 8 7 ) . We have a l r e a d y noted the A f r i c a n tendency to 'define' social

units in religious terms.

P . Bohannan has a c o n v e n i e n t summary o f the two fundamental aspects

of A f r i c a n r i t u a l . He suggests t h a t A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n has two fundamental

event sequences.

One i s the sequence o f r i t u a l t h a t f o l l o w s the seasons and has d e f i n i t e

a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h the economic l i f e o f p e o p l e , and i n many cases w i t h
the p o l i t i c a l l i f e as w e l l ; t h e r e i s u s u a l l y an accompanying sequence
of r i t u a l t h a t f o l l o w s the l i f e c y c l e o f m a t u r i n g human b e i n g s . The
second system c e n t r e s i n a sequence o f r i t u a l t h a t i s t r i g g e r e d o f f
when m i s f o r t u n e appears i n the community, e i t h e r i n the form o f i l l -
ness and death o r o f drought or e p i d e m i c . The two events may be
c l o s e l y i n t e r l i n k e d , because the appearance o f m i s f o r t u n e may be
a t t r i b u t e d to f a i l u r e to c a r r y out p r o p e r l y the r i t u a l f o r k e e p i n g
the f o r c e s o f the firmament i n good w o r k i n g o r d e r (1963: 3 3 7 ) .

The f i r s t c y c l e would f a l l i n t o the c a t e g o r y o f r i t e s of passage; the

second i n t o what Turner has a p t l y c a l l e d ' r i t u a l s o f a f f l i c t i o n ' (1967:

9-11). He s t a t e s t h a t m i s f o r t u n e , women's r e p r o d u c t i v e d i s o r d e r s and

v a r i o u s forms o f i l l n e s s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a c t i o n o f s p i r i t s . These

r i t u a l s are d e v i s e d to p r o p i t i a t e and to get r i d o f the s p i r i t t h a t is

thought to be c a u s i n g the t r o u b l e . I mention o n l y i n p a s s i n g t h a t rituals

of a f f l i c t i o n are c e n t r a l i n the E d o / r i t u a l life.

 - 31 -

Sacrifice is c e n t r a l i n A f r i c a n r i t u a l s of a f f l i c t i o n . In the

r e c e n t works o f E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ( 1 9 5 6 ) , M i d d l e t o n (1960) and L i e n h a r d t

(1961) s a c r i f i c e and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to concepts o f d i v i n i t y and human

p e r s o n a l i t y , i t s s y m b o l i c f o r c e and i t s s o c i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e have been

demonstrated. In D i v i n i t y and E x p e r i e n c e (See c h a p t e r 6 ) , L i e n h a r d t shows

t h a t s a c r i f i c e i n c l u d e s a r e c r e a t i o n o f the b a s i s o f the l o c a l corporate

life. He emphasizes t h a t s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s do not a u t o m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e

i n o r d e r to a c h i e v e some s p e c i f i c e n d . For L i e n h a r d t s a c r i f i c e and p r a y e r

a r e r e l a t e d to the measure o f c o n t r o l t h a t man can a s s e r t over e x p e r i e n c e .

And the s y m b o l i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n o f s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s demands the presence

o f those who share the common v a l u e s which g i v e them meaning, e g . the

clan-divinities. In an essay ' B e l i e f and Knowledge' he s t a t e s :

In D i n k a s a c r i f i c e s I have s e e n , two s e p a r a t e v i c t i m s may be o f f e r e d ,

one to the t o t e m i c s p i r i t s o f the c l a n p r o v i d i n g the s a c r i f i c e , and
one to the god i n the sky who watches over a l l the human c r e a t i o n .
I t i s as though the a c t o f s a c r i f i c e i t s e l f , t u r n i n g man's a t t e n t i o n
to a k i n d o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t from and s u p e r i o r to t h e i r own, a l s o
s u g g e s t s , b e s i d e s l o c a l t i e s and l o y a l t i e s , a w i d e n i n g c i r c l e o f
common human concerns (1964: 4 5 2 ) .

From t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w s a c r i f i c e to a common god i s a s i g n and a

s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f the common l i f e . From o t h e r p o i n t s o f v i e w i t has
o t h e r meanings (1964: 4 5 2 ) .

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d makes a d i s t i n c t i o n between c o l l e c t i v e and p e r s o n a l

sacrifices. 'The p r i m a r y purpose o f a c o l l e c t i v e s a c r i f i c e i s to confirm,

to e s t a b l i s h , or to add s t r e n g t h to a change i n s o c i a l s t a t u s . . . ' (1956:

199). The a c t o f s a c r i f i c e does not a u t o m a t i c a l l y e x p i a t e a f a u l t .

L i e n h a r d t s t a t e s t h a t : 'Many d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f s a c r i f i c e have
been d i s t i n g u i s h e d - - s a c r i f i c e as a g i f t to the gods; as a s i g n o f communion
w i t h them and a way o f g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h from them; s a c r i f i c e as atonement,
as s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n , as i m m o l a t i o n or d e s t r u c t i o n f o r the d i v i n i t y , and so
forth'(1964: 451).
 - 32 -

'Kwoth or. a s p i r i t , i s not c o n s t r a i n e d by the s a c r i f i c e to g r a n t the

favour asked f o r . An a n i m a l s a c r i f i c e d to Kwoth i s h i s a n i m a l anyhow and

what he g i v e s the s u p p l i a n t i n r e t u r n i s a f r e e g i f t . Nevertheless the

Nuer f e e l t h a t the r e c i p i e n t o f a s a c r i f i c e i s at f a u l t i f he does not

fulfil i t s p a r t o f the b a r g a i n ' (1956: 222).

To sum u p , we can say t h a t the a c t o f s a c r i f i c e , whether private

o r p u b l i c , i s b e l i e v e d to have e f f i c a c y as p a r t o f an exchange between man

and d i v i n i t y . That i s one meaning; the o t h e r i s that s a c r i f i c e strengthens

the common l i f e , a f f i r m i n g l i n e a g e , c l a n and c u l t i c l o y a l t i e s .

III. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE EDO TRADITIONAL:'"

RELIGIOUS SYSTEM

Due to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s under which my r e s e a r c h was conducted I

cannot o f f e r a complete and comprehensive a n a l y s i s o f the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o u s system. My c o l l e c t i o n o f myths, f o r example, i s i n no way c o m p l e t e .

The complex o f r i t u a l s c e n t r i n g i n the Oba and h e r e d i t a r y n o b l e s are outside

the scope o f t h i s s t u d y , a l t h o u g h I do touch on the Igwe• Q u e s t i o n s such

as V . Turner r a i s e s i n h i s paper ' W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y : Taxonomy v e r s u s

Dynamics' are c r u c i a l , but I was u n a b l e to get the k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n

needed f o r a ' p r o c e s s theory' analysis. So, f o l l o w i n g H o r t o n ' s approach

t o the study o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s , I have chosen to l o o k at r e l i g i o n from

a l i t e r a l i s t perspective. T h i s i n v o l v e s the f o l l o w i n g assumptions.

1. That the d i v i n i t i e s are p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g

to r i t u a l a c t i o n as w e l l as m a n i f e s t i n g themselves in culture.

2. That the i n t e r a c t i o n between man and d i v i n i t y w i l l be patterned

 - 33 -

after such r e l a t i o n s h i p s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t characterize

social relations.

3. That i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h d i v i n i t y w i l l be r e l a t e d to the attain-

ment o f g o a l s at d i f f e r e n t levels of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l reference.

4. That the d i v i n i t y - t o - g r o u p c o o r d i n a t i o n w i l l r e f l e c t the c o n -

flicts and c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n the s o c i a l structure.

I have f i r s t o f a l l sought to determine what the Edo b e l i e f s about divinity

are, i . e . what p e r s o n a l i z e d b e i n g s are b e l i e v e d to e x i s t i n the 'supernatural'

or 'extra-social' world. T h i s has been done through e l i c i t i n g o f statements

from p r i e s t s and o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the d i v i n i t i e s , through an a n a l y -

sis o f some myths and songs sung b e f o r e the s h r i n e s o f Olokun and Ogun.

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the d i s c o v e r y o f how the Edo r e p r e s e n t their divinities

is the q u e s t i o n o f how t h e s e d i v i n i t i e s a r e b e l i e v e d to m a n i f e s t themselves

i n n a t u r e and c u l t u r e . F o r i f they are b e l i e v e d to be ' p e r s o n a l i z e d '

entities, then they w i l l have i n t e l l i g e n c e , p e r s o n a l i t y and s p e e c h .

When the r e s e a r c h e r s t u d i e s the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s between

man and the d i v i n i t i e s , one o f h i s i n t e r e s t s w i l l be to see how the man to

d i v i n i t y communication p r o c e s s p a r a l l e l s the p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n on

the s o c i a l l e v e l . He w i l l a l s o be i n t e r e s t e d i n what r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e r e

are between the g o a l s an i n d i v i d u a l i n the c u l t u r e pursues at the different

levels of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l reference and the d i v i n i t i e s as instruments

t o the a t t a i n m e n t o f these v a l u e d e n d s . F i n a l l y , we want to see whether

t h e r e i s any r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the divinities

and the c o n f l i c t s and c o m p e t i t i o n > w i t h i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , f o r we have

seen t h a t i n some c u l t u r e s such as the K a l a b a r i , the d i v i n i t i e s assist

segments ( e g . l i n e a g e o r c l a n ) o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . If structural

 - 34 -

alignments in the social order are 'mirrored' in man's relationship to

divinity in some A f r i c a n cultures, then it could be hypothesized that

changes within the social structure will also be reflected in changed or

new r e l a t i o n s to old or new divinities.

The 'multiplex' meaning of ritual may be taken for granted. Man's

'vertical' relationship with divinity cannot be interpreted as a cultural

isolate, for belief and ritual intersect the socio-political structure and

are related to the e c o l o g i c a l environment, as Forde has pointed out in his

1958 study of Yako religion. This study is limited to ritual as it pertains

to divinity. For example, I have not been able to examine rites of passage

in the Edo culture. If I had I would have discussed changes of role as

involving incorporation into new g r o u p s which usually have personal beings

behind t h e m who keep the group flourishing or weaken it in response to

breaches of group norms. Therefore rites of passage involve ritual in

order to bring the new member under their control. The questions I bring

to the study of ritual are of a different order.

I have chosen three broad categories as organizing devices: The

Edo representation of Divinity; The Edo manifestation of Divinity; and The

Edo response to Divinity. After giving a brief ethnographic introduction

to the Edo cosmology, I examine the main divinities in the Edo cosmology,

and conclude with an overview of the Edo religious system.

 CHAPTER I I

ETHNOGRAPHIC OUTLINE OF THE EDO

The Edo proper ( B i n i ) o f the B e n i n Kingdom are b r o a d l y coterminous

w i t h the p r e s e n t - d a y Benin D i v i s i o n . The Edo language and d i a l e c t s b e l o n g

to the Kwa group o f Western Budanic Languages.

The p r e s e n t day B e n i n D i v i s i o n covers 4,000 square m i l e s and has a

p o p u l a t i o n o f j u s t under 300,000 Edo and n o n - E d o . The B e n i n Kingdom

c o n s i s t s o f the c a p i t a l , B e n i n C i t y , and s e v e r a l hundred v i l l a g e s which

may e i t h e r form s e p a r a t e u n i t s v i s - a - v i s the c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y or be c o -

ordinated i n v i l l a g e - g r o u p s of sub-chiefdoms. V i l l a g e s everywhere break

down i n t o w a r d s , o f w h i c h t h e r e may be s e v e r a l t i e r s , and these i n t u r n

are made up o f one o f more extended f a m i l i e s w i t h p a t r i l i n e a l n u c l e i . The

degree to w h i c h l o c a l groups l a r g e r than the extended f a m i l y are a s s o c i a -

t e d w i t h l i n e a g e s appears to v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y .

A second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f Edo s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s the

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f the male p o p u l a t i o n i n t o age-grades o r g a n i z e d on a v i l l a g e

wide b a s i s . In most areas a u t h o r i t y i s v e s t e d v e r y l a r g e l y i n the senior

age-grade ( u s u a l l y c a l l e d e d i o n ) and, s u b j e c t to c e r t a i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ,

the o l d e s t man i s the v i l l a g e headman. T h i s p a t t e r n o f a u t h o r i t y may be

upset by the presence o f t i t l e - a s s o c i a t i o n s or o f i n d i v i d u a l t i t l e d o f f i c e s .

Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the E d o - s p e a k i n g peoples i s t h e i r marked

The f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l i s taken from R . B r a d b u r y . The B e n i n K i n g -

dom and the E d o - s p e a k i n g Peoples o f S.W. N i g e r i a , p p . 1 8 - 6 0 . London:
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e , 1957.
 - 36 -

p a t r i l i n e a l b i a s i n t h e i r k i n s h i p and l i n e a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h a s t r o n g

emphasis on p r i m o g e n i t u r e . The s e n i o r s u r v i v i n g son o f a dead man i s

regarded as the c h i e f h e i r to h i s p r o p e r t y and the s u c e s s o r to whatever

offices, p r i v i l e g e s , and d u t i e s he may have h a d .

The B e n i n Kingdom i s comparable to the Yoruba and Dahomey kingdoms

to t h e west w h i l e the remainder o f the E d o - s p e a k i n g peoples a r e , in their

p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , more a k i n to the Igbo and Ijaw peoples

to the e a s t and to the s o u t h . In terms o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i -

z a t i o n , as w e l l as g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , the E d o - s p e a k i n g peoples stand i n an

i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n between the s m a l l e r s c a l e s o c i e t i e s o f eastern

N i g e r i a and the more h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d p o l i t i c a l groups i n the w e s t .

I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE EDO

A. LOCATION AND NOMENCLATURE .

The B e n i n Kingdom i s regarded as b e i n g coterminous w i t h the present-

day B e n i n D i v i s i o n . The a u t h o r i t y o f the Oba ( k i n g ) was r e c o g n i z e d i n

t h i s u n i t i n 1914. The t o t a l a r e a o f the B e n i n D i v i s i o n i s abou(t; 4,000

square m i l e s and the p o p u l a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to the 1952 census was 2 9 2 , 0 0 0 .

Bradbury s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no s a t i s f a c t o r y v e r n a c u l a r term to designate

the B e n i n kingdom or i t s p e o p l e . B e n i n C i t y i s c a l l e d Edo by i t s i n h a b i -

t a n t s and i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s i n d i v i d u a l s from a l l p a r t s o f the kingdom

w i l l refer to themselves as o v i e d o ( c h i l d o f Edo o f oviOba ( c h i l d o f the

"0ba). But the same i n d i v i d u a l may speak o f h i m s e l f as 'child o f his

v i l l a g e o r v i l l a g e - g r o u p o r o f the r e g i o n o f the kingdom i n which he lives.

 - 37 -

The major r e g i o n s are d e f i n e d i n terms o f the main r i v e r s ; f o r example,

i y e k - O v i a , i y e k - O r h i o m o and i y e k - O g b a r e f e r to the groups on the farther

s i d e o f ( i y e k e - - ' a t the back o f ' ) these r i v e r s from B e n i n C i t y . The word

'Benin' i s o f d o u b t f u l o r i g i n , but i s p o p u l a r l y used to d e s c r i b e the

capital city, the kingdom. The term ' B i n i ' i s commonly used to describe

the people o f the B e n i n kingdom. However, I w i l l r e f e r to the B i n i as

Edo, but w i l l use B e n i n C i t y to d e s c r i b e the c a p i t a l c i t y , as t h i s is

w i d e l y accepted by N i g e r i a n s and i s used i n o f f i c i a l publications.

B. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The B e n i n c o u n t r y i s a l o w - l y i n g p l a i n covered w i t h porous B e n i n

sand. The c o u n t r y r i s e s t o the n o r t h around the Ishan p l a t e a u . The a r e a

is d r a i n e d by a s e r i e s o f d e e p l y - e n t r e n c h e d r i v e r s and s m a l l streams flowing

i n a general north-south d i r e c t i o n . G e n e r a l l y the Edo v i l l a g e s a v o i d c l o s e

p r o x i m i t y t o these streams though the U r h o b o - I s o k o and Kwale b u i l d on t h e i r

banks. The n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n o f the a r e a i s t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t , with

a good d e a l o f swamp v e g e t a t i o n i n the south and w e s t . There i s an abun-

dance o f good timber i n the area and t h e r e i s a t h r i v i n g m i l l at Sepele.

Rubber p l a n t a t i o n s have a l s o been p l a n t e d i n the area.

C. DEMOGRAPHY

A p a r t from the c a p i t a l , B e n i n C i t y , which today has a p o p u l a t i o n o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 5 , 0 0 0 , the people o f the B e n i n kingdom l i v e i n s e v e r a l hun-

dred compact v i l l a g e s e t t l e m e n t s r a n g i n g i n s i z e from 20-30 to more t h a n

 - 38 -

5,000 i n h a b i t a n t s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y one f i f t h o f the people are concentrated

i n Benin C i t y .

D. TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN AND HISTORY

A c c o r d i n g to Edo m y t h o l o g y , the B e n i n kingdom was founded by the

youngest o f the c h i l d r e n o f Osanobua (the h i g h g o d ) . With h i s senior

b r o t h e r s , who i n c l u d e d the f i r s t k i n g s o f I f e and o t h e r Yoruba kingdoms and

the f i r s t k i n g o f the Europeans, they were sent to l i v e i n the agbon (the

world). Each was a l l o w e d to take something w i t h h i m . Some chose w e a l t h ,

m a t e r i a l and m a g i c a l s k i l l s or Implements b u t , on the i n s t r u c t i o n s o f a

b i r d , the youngest chose a s n a i l s h e l l . When they a r r i v e d i n the w o r l d

they found i t covered w i t h w a t e r . The youngest son was t o l d by the b i r d

t o u p t u r n the s n a i l s h e l l and when he d i d so sand f e l l from i t and spread

out t o form the l a n d . So the f i r s t Oba o f B e n i n became the owner o f the

l a n d and h i s s e n i o r ' b r o t h e r s ' had t o come to him and b a r t e r their posses-

s i o n s i n r e t u r n f o r a p l a c e to s e t t l e . Hence, though he was the youngest

s o n , he became the w e a l t h i e s t and most p o w e r f u l r u l e r .

The s e m i - m y t h i c a l r u l e r s o f the f i r s t dynasty are known as o g i s o

(ogie—ruler/king; iso--sky). The names o f a number o f them, some o f them

women, are remembered, as are some o f the t i t l e s o f c h i e f s o f t h e i r court,

the o r i g i n a l s i t e o f which i s s t i l l p o i n t e d out w i t h i n the w a l l s o f the

present town.

The p r e s e n t Oba, Akenzua I I , i s a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n , the 35th

o f the dynasty whose b e g i n n i n g i s v a r i o u s l y dated from the l a t e t w e l f t h

c e n t u r y to the b e g i n n i n g o f the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
; The 15th Oba i n the
 - 39 -

g e n e r a l l y accepted l i s t i s s a i d to have been r e i g n i n g when the P o r t u -

2

guese f i r s t v i s i t e d B e n i n i n 1485.

The f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s were a p p a r e n t l y the p e r i o d

of g r e a t e s t e x p a n s i o n and i t was d u r i n g t h i s time t h a t the g r e a t w a r r i o r

k i n g s , Ewuare, O z o l u a , E s i g i e , Orhoghua, and Ehegbuda r e i g n e d . Catholic

m i s s i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d by the Portuguese e a r l y i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

F i r e a r m s were i n t r o d u c e d about the same time and seem to have l e d to an

i n c r e a s e i n w a r f a r e whose purpose was the c a p t u r e o f s l a v e s f o r e x p o r t .

E s i g i e , i n about 1515, was accompanied by Portuguese m i s s i o n a r i e s i n a

campaign w h i c h drove the marauders from Idah to the n o r t h back a c r o s s the

Niger. Churches were b u i l t by the Portuguese i n B e n i n C i t y . This raises

the q u e s t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i n f l u e n c e s on the Edo c o n c e p t i o n o f Osanobua and

the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s . The Portuguese remained the most i n f l u e n t i a l power

i n the a r e a u n t i l the second h a l f o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y though E n g l i s h

and Dutch t r a d e r s had begun t o v i s i t Ughoton and B e n i n C i t y l o n g b e f o r e

this. There were m i s s i o n a r i e s i n B e n i n about 1688, but they were a p p a r e n t l y

based at W a r r i .

B e n i n was ravaged by a c i v i l war i n 1702 and from t h i s time forward

w r i t t e n accounts o f B e n i n d e s c r i b e p e r i o d s o f f l u c t u a t i n g power and p r o s -

p e r i t y d i s t u r b e d by c i v i l wars which appear to have been caused by d i s p u t e s

over the s u c c e s s i o n o f the k i n g s h i p . Between p e r i o d s o f d i s s e n s i o n the

kingdom seems to have shown remarkable powers o f r e c o v e r y and i n the late

e i g h t e e n t h and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e r e was renewed e x p a n s i o n w h i c h l e d

' A c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n , i t was i n the r e i g n o f the f i f t e e n t h Oba

O z o l u a , t h a t European v i s i t o r s had f i r s t s e t f o o t i n B e n i n C i t y . As t h i s
event p r o p a b l y took p l a c e i n 1485, i t i s u n l i k e l y , t h a t the dynasty was
founded l a t e r than the e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' (Bradbury 1967: 1 ) .
 - 40 -

t o the reconquest o f the Yoruba town Akure and E k i t i c o u n t r y . The h i s t o r y

of B e n i n , then, i s one o f a l t e r n a t i n g p e r i o d s o f t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n and

c o n t r a c t i o n i n accordance w i t h the degree o f a u t h o r i t y at the centre.

The key date i n the h i s t o r y o f B e n i n i s 1897. T h i s date has given

the name ' C i t y o f B l o o d 1

to B e n i n . Oba Ovoramwen feared the i n c r e a s i n g

i n f l u e n c e o f the Europeans i n the D e l t a and thus forbade a l l e x t e r n a l

trade. A p p a r e n t l y he d i d s i g n a t r e a t y a l l o w i n g the Europeans to trade,

send m i s s i o n a r i e s and to accept B r i t i s h p r o t e c t i o n . He d i d n o t , however,

adhere to t h i s t r e a t y and a f t e r the massacre o f members o f a B r i t i s h trade

m i s s i o n i n 1897 B r i t i s h t r o o p s a t t a c k e d and c a p t u r e d B e n i n C i t y . Ovoramwen

was deported to C a l a b a r where he remained u n t i l h i s death i n 1914. His

son was then i n s t a l l e d as Eweka I I and he i n t u r n was succeeded i n 1933

by h i s s o n , Akenzua I I , the p r e s e n t Oba. The Oba's o f f i c i a l sphere o f

a u t h o r i t y was l i m i t e d i n 1914 t o what had then become the B e n i n D i v i s i o n .

II. MAIN FEATURES OF THE ECONOMY

A. AGRICULTURE

The b a s i s o f the s u b s i s t e n c e economy on which the v i l l a g e s depend

and the a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s c u l t i v a t i o n determine the pattern

o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l y e a r . The Edo p r a c t i c e s h i f t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , and l a n d

i s r a r e l y brought back i n t o c u l t i v a t i o n u n t i l i t has been f a l l o w f o r at

l e a s t seven o r e i g h t y e a r s and the p e r i o d may be as l o n g as 15-20 y e a r s .

C l e a r i n g o f the p l o t s b e g i n s i n F e b r u a r y o r e a r l y M a r c h . The c l e a r i n g i s

u s u a l l y completed by the end o f March and i s f o l l o w e d by the t i l l i n g o f

 - 41 -

the ground. P l a n t i n g begins i n A p r i l a f t e r the seed-yams have been brought

out of s t o r a g e and o f t e n c o n t i n u e s i n t o the e a r l y p a r t o f May. The seed

yams are pressed i n t o the s i d e s o f the h o l e s from which the e a r t h has been

removed and the l o o s e s o i l i s pushed back over the top o f them. The

period f o l l o w i n g the p l a n t i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y i n a c t i v e but towards the end

of May i t i s necessary to i n s e r t p o l e s to support the growing v i n e s .

T h i s corresponds w i t h the b e g i n n i n g of the rains.

The Edo r e c o g n i z e t h r e e types o f yam: white, red and water which

mature i n t h a t o r d e r over a p e r i o d s t r e t c h i n g from mid-September to Novem-

ber. Yam farming i s e s s e n t i a l l y men's work though the women u s u a l l y a s s i s t

i n weeding and p l a n t i n g and the whole labour supply i s m o b i l i z e d f o r the

harvest. The Edo i n t e r c r o p p l a n t i n g c o r n , cocoyam, o c r a , r i c e , groudnuts,

peppers, melons, gourds, beans and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e s round the t r e e stumps

left i n the farm, along the boundaries and i n other spaces. These crops

are g e n e r a l l y owned and always p l a n t e d , tended and h a r v e s t e d by the women,

though some men g i v e t h e i r wives seeds to p l a n t f o r t h e i r own profit.

When the yam h a r v e s t has been reaped the farm i s usually replanted with

c o r n and cassava. These and other c r o p s , such as p l a i n t a i n , which may

s t i l l be growing on the o l d farm, are gathered as they become r i p e and

the p l o t g r a d u a l l y r e v e r t s to f a l l o w .

B. TREE CROPS

The k o l a and the o i l and coconut palms are the most important trees.

K o l a and coconut are p l a n t e d , owned and i n h e r i t e d by individuals. A l l men

and some women have k o l a t r e e s which are p l a c e d along the main p a t h s . The
 - 42 -

kola is ubiquitous i n a l l southern N i g e r i a n c u l t u r e s , being essential as

a symbol o f h o s p i t a l i t y and an I n d i s p e n s a b l e i t e m i n every r i t u a l offering.

O i l palms are h e l d c o l l e c t i v e l y by the v i l l a g e community and any member o f

the v i l l a g e may reap t h e i r f r u i t or tap them f o r w i n e .

C. CASH CROPS

The main sources o f monetary income f o r the v i l l a g e Edo are rubber

and c o c o a , w h i c h are grown on s m a l l - h o l d i n g s as w e l l as i n plantations,

palm p r o d u c t s from p l a n t a t i o n s and t i m b e r . Most Edo h o u s e h o l d e r s own a

few hundred rubber t r e e s w h i c h are tapped each morning by a d o l e s c e n t boys

and young men and even by women when the market p r i c e i s h i g h . Extensive

plantations of rubber, c o c o a , coconuts and o i l - p a l m s are owned by

:
indivi-

duals (mainly w e a l t h y and t i t l e d men i n B e n i n C i t y ) who employ p a i d labour:

a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f whom are Igbo m i g r a n t w o r k e r s . The commercial

e x t r a c t i o n o f t i m b e r i s j m a i n l y i n the hands o f European f i r m s , a l t h o u g h a

few l o c a l i n d i v i d u a l and f a m i l y concerns can be found.

D. HUNTING, GATHERING AND FISHING

Most men have dane guns and hunt the b u s h - p i g , and v a r i o u s k i n d s

o f buck such as the d y k a . The c o l l e c t i o n o f w i l d bush p r o d u c t s and o f the

s n a i l s and t o r t o i s e s w h i c h form an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f the p r o t e i n d i e t is

i n the hands o f the women. The Edo depend on the Urhobo,. I j a w , and

I t s e k i r i f o r the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the rivers.

 - 43 -

E. LIVESTOCK

Goats, sheep, dogs, and fowls are ubiquitous and are a l l important

as sacrificial offerings as well as for meat. However, they are rarely

killed except for sacrificial purposes. Cows are killed only as sacri-

f i c i a l items, particularly during the Igwe Festival held around mid-Decem-

ber .

F. MARKETS AND TRADE

Most villages have markets which belong exclusively to them or are

shared with one or more neighbouring villages. Markets are held every four

days; the women handling a l l kinds of foodstuffs and other native products

while both sexes engage in the modern trade in imported goods.

G. CRAFTS AND INDUSTRIES

Most of the important indigenous crafts of the Benin kingdom were

in the hands of special ward-guilds in Benin City. There were guilds of

blacksmiths and brass-smiths, wood and ivory carvers (one group), leather

workers, weavers of special embroidered cloths, drum-makers, locksmiths.

Some of these s t i l l function. Much has been written about the origin of

Edo brass casting. Formerly the whole production of the brass-smiths was

at the command of the palace, consisting very largely of ritual and cere-

monial objects. Today a number of brass workers, under the guidance of

the tutelary spirit Ogun work on Igun St. in Igun ward producing
 - 44 -

i m i t a t i o n works m a i n l y f o r European w o r k e r s , v i s i t o r s and teachers.

Wood-carving i s a t h r i v i n g i n d u s t r y i n B e n i n C i t y . Traditionally

carved staves ( u k h u r h e ) , which are symbols o f the d i v i n i t i e s worshipped

by v i l l a g e communities were the most important o b j e c t s . Important title

h o l d e r s i n the c a p i t a l and h e r e d i t a r y v i l l a g e c h i e f s c o u l d o b t a i n ukhurhe

and wooden heads as a l t e r d e c o r a t i o n s and o t h e r r i t u a l and c e r e m o n i a l

objects. The Oba had c o n t r o l over a l l i v o r y i n the kingdom and n e a r l y a l l

i v o r y c a r v i n g s appear to have been f o r h i s p e r s o n a l u s e . Today, however,

a number o f men w o r k i n g i n t h e i r own shops w i t h a p p r e n t i c e s o r i n l a r g e r

c o o p e r a t i v e s produce 'airport art' f o r the t o u r i s t market.

Carpenters (onwina) who produced m o r t a r s , d o o r - f r a m e s , roofing

beams, drumparts f o r the Oba's c o u r t formed a s p e c i a l group l o c a t e d i n a

number o f s c a t t e r e d v i l l a g e s o u t s i d e B e n i n C i t y . Pottery for both cere-

m o n i a l and u t i l i t a r i a n purposes was f o r m e r l y produced by o n l y two v i l l a g e s ,

Use to the west o f B e n i n C i t y and Utekon to the n o r t h .

III. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE

A. DOMESTIC AND FAMILY GROUPS

Households i n B e n i n C i t y and the v i l l a g e s v a r y i n s i z e from a s i n g l e

( u s u a l l y impotent) man to a j o i n t f a m i l y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y . The

f o l l o w i n g types o f f a m i l y can be r e c o g n i z e d :

P r e s e n t day f a m i l y groupings i n B e n i n C i t y do not d i f f e r markedly

from those i n the v i l l a g e s , a l t h o u g h i n the p a s t the households o f impor-
t a n t t i t l e - h o l d e r s were c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r .
 - 45 -

1. The n u c l e a r o r compound f a m i l y c o n s i s t i n g o f a man and h i s

w i f e or wives and t h e i r c h i l d r e n , who may occupy a house o r be

l o c a t e d i n rooms o f the man's f a t h e r or s e n i o r b r o t h e r .

2. The j o i n t f a m i l y c o n s i s t i n g o f an e l d e r l y man w i t h h i s wives

and u n m a r r i e d c h i l d r e n , t o g e t h e r w i t h one or more u n m a r r i e d

sons w i t h t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n and, i n some c a s e s , younger

married b r o t h e r s . Most m a r r i e d men p r e f e r to move out o f t h e i r

f a t h e r ' s house b e f o r e or soon a f t e r the l a t t e r ' s death. Recently

m a r r i e d sons may s t a y u n t i l they have some c h i l d r e n .

3. The extended f a m i l y , o c c u p y i n g s e v e r a l , u s u a l l y n e i g h b o u r i n g

h o u s e s , made up o f a man and h i s m a r r i e d b r o t h e r s and sons w i t h

t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n , and, p o s s i b l y , the sons and u n m a r r i e d

daughters o f h i s deceased e l d e r b r o t h e r ( s ) w i t h the latters 1

w i v e s and c h i l d r e n .

Residence a f t e r m a r r i a g e i s v i r i l o c a l . A man w i l l b r i n g h i s first

w i f e t o l i v e i n h i s f a t h e r ' s house who w i l l remain t h e r e u n t i l the b i r t h

of one or more c h i l d r e n . An o n l y s o n , however, may r e m a i n w i t h h i s father

until death.

None o f the types o f f a m i l y l i s t e d above n e c e s s a r i l y corresponds t o

an economic u n i t , f o r e i t h e r p r o d u c t i o n or c o n s u m p t i o n . The most common

farming u n i t c o n s i s t s o f a man and h i s w i f e o r wives and any c h i l d r e n who

are o l d enough to assist.

Each o f the types o f f a m i l y l i s t e d above i s a q u a s i - p o l i t i c a l u n i t

i n t h a t i t s members are under the immediate c o n t r o l , f o r c e r t a i n p u r p o s e s ,

of the o l d e s t male who can a p p l y s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t .them. The t h r e e k i n d s

of f a m i l y form a h i e r a r c h y i n so f a r as the head o f the n u c l e a r or compound

 - 46 -

f a m i l y may be under the a u t h o r i t y o f the head o f a j o i n t f a m i l y o r com-

pound f a m i l y may be under the a u t h o r i t y o f the head o f a j o i n t f a m i l y who

may i n t u r n be s u b j e c t t o the head o f h i s extended f a m i l y . The headmen

o f the v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f a m i l i e s s e t t l e d i s p u t e s between t h e i r dependents

and p u n i s h them f o r misdemeanours. The headmen o f j o i n t and extended

families, as members o f the s e n i o r age-grade w i t h an e f f e c t i v e v o i c e i n

the v i l l a g e c o u n c i l r e p r e s e n t t h e i r dependents v i s - a - v i s the v i l l a g e

community and can be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r b e h a v i o u r .

The main support f o r the a u t h o r i t y o f the f a m i l y head l i e s i n the

r e l a t i o n between the l i v i n g and the deceased p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s o f the

f a m i l y head (See the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the Eho F e s t i v a l i n Chapter V I I I ) .

The w e l f a r e o f the s e n i o r son and h i s s i b l i n g s and the w i v e s o f the a g n a t i c

descendants o f h i m s e l f and h i s b r o t h e r s i s b e l i e v e d t o depend upon the

g o o d w i l l o f the deceased f a t h e r and h i s l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s who p u n i s h wrong-

d o i n g w i t h s i c k n e s s , death and o t h e r c a t a s t r o p h e s . As the i n t e r m e d i a r y

w i t h these a n c e s t o r s the s e n i o r son thus has access t o p o w e r f u l super-

natural sanctions.

The r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s consequent upon common membership o f

domestic and f a m i l y g r o u p i n g s are c o n c e i v e d i n terms o f a m a s t e r - s e r v a n t

relationship. In r e l a t i o n t o the f a m i l y head or the household a l l h i s

dependents are s e r v a n t s . C h i l d r e n are thought o f as the s e r v a n t s o f

t h e i r f a t h e r , w i v e s o f t h e i r husbands, j u n i o r b r o t h e r s o f t h e i r s e n i o r s ,

and younger o f o l d e r women. Thus i n each h o u s e h o l d or f a m i l y t h e r e i s a

s e r i e s o f h i e r a r c h i e s w h i c h determines the moral r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s

o f the members towards each o t h e r .

 - 47 -

B. AGNATES AND OTHER K I N

The r u l e o f descent i s p a t r i l i n e a l . C h i l d r e n are a f f i l i a t e d to

the l i n e a g e o f the 'pater' from whom they i n h e r i t and t o whose t i t l e , if

any, the e l d e s t s u r v i v i n g son s u c c e e d s . The w i d e s t e f f e c t i v e p a t r i l i n e a g e

i s u s u a l l y t h a t which corresponds t o the extended f a m i l y and i s t h u s , as

w i l l be seen from above, o n l y t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s i n d e p t h . Bradbury sug-

g e s t s t h a t the poor development o f the l i n e a g e system appears to be c o r -

r e l a t e d w i t h a number o f economic and p o l i t i c a l factors.

1. A system o f l a n d tenure i n w h i c h k i n groups do not l a y c l a i m t o

t r a c t s of l a n d . Each a d u l t male i s dependent upon the v i l l a g e

community as a w h o l e , r a t h e r than upon h i s own k i n group f o r

l a n d on which t o farm o r b u i l d .

2. The u n i t a r y c h a r a c t e r o f the v i l l a g e community i n g e n e r a l w h i c h

i s e x p r e s s e d i n the t h r e e - t i e r age-grade system t h a t cuts

a c r o s s k i n groups and makes age, r a t h e r t h a n l i n e a g e affiliation,

the c r i t e r i o n o f a u t h o r i t y . The u n i t y o f the v i l l a g e i s illus-

t r a t e d by the f a c t t h a t a man who w i s h e s to b u i l d a house calls

upon the v i l l a g e as a whole r a t h e r than h i s own kinsmen t o

assist him.

3. Low-marriage payments. In o r d e r to o b t a i n h i s f i r s t w i f e a man

i s dependent o n l y upon h i s f a t h e r and p o s s i b l y h i s p a t e r n a l

g r a n d f a t h e r , w h i l e the a c q u i r i n g o f subsequent wives i s h i s own

responsibility.

4. The r u l e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e by w h i c h a s e n i o r son i n h e r i t s h i s

f a t h e r ' s house and most o f h i s p r o p e r t y a n d , where a p p l i c a b l e ,

 - 48 -

his t i t l e ; thus the b e n e f i t s o f i n h e r i t a n c e are restricted

w i t h i n the narrowest limits. The Edo v a l u e g e n e r o s i t y and a

s e n i o r son who d o e s n ' t d i s t r i b u t e some o f h i s 'wealth' is

l o o k e d down u p o n . In accordance w i t h t h i s p r i n c i p l e , the

system o f a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p i s such t h a t t h e r e i s a tendency

for a new s e t o f s h r i n e s t o be s e t up i n each g e n e r a t i o n so

that there i s a constant h i v i n g - o f f of ancestor-worshipping

units, i y e . o f r i t u a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e corporate

lineages.

5. A t i t l e - s y s t e m i n w h i c h t i t l e s are e i t h e r h e r e d i t a r y by p r i m o -

g e n i t u r e o r are not h e r e d i t a r y i n any s e n s e . T h i s i s marked

c o n t r a s t w i t h the Yoruba where most t i t l e s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

l i n e a g e s and may be o b t a i n e d by any male member.

A g n a t i o n , t h e n , determines the l i n e o f i n h e r i t a n c e and s u c c e s s i o n ,

membership o f w i d e r d o m e s t i c and f a m i l y groupings o f a v i l l a g e community.

In B e n i n C i t y , and a few v i l l a g e s o u t s i d e , i t determines^membership of the

d i s p e r s e d c l a n s o r q u a s i - c l a n s to one o f w h i c h every Edo b e l o n g s .

S t r o n g t i e s o f a f f e c t i o n e x i s t between a person and the maternal

kin. W i t h i n the compound f a m i l y s t r o n g e r t i e s u s u a l l y e x i s t between full

s i b l i n g s t h a n between those who have d i f f e r e n t mothers.

C. VILLAGE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

The v i l l a g e i s the b a s i c p o l i t i c a l u n i t i n the B e n i n kingdom.

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g i t i s the w i d e s t u n i t f o r age-grade o r g a n i z a t i o n , the

m i n i m a l l a n d - h o l d i n g u n i t , the s m a l l e s t group w h i c h can have a h e r e d i t a r y

 - 49 -

chief, the s m a l l e s t t r i b u t e u n i t , and a l s o the c o o p e r a t i v e u n i t f o r house-

building.

Each v i l l a g e i s a compact s e t t l e m e n t though most are d i v i d e d into

wards (idunmwun) w h i c h may be s e p a r a t e d from each o t h e r by s m a l l patches

of bush. Each ward c o n s i s t s o f one or more extended f a m i l i e s l i v i n g i n

c l o s e p r o x i m i t y and r e c o g n i z i n g the a u t h o r i t y o f the o l d e s t man, o r , in

exceptional cases, of a hereditary c h i e f . Wards c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i n g l e

extended f a m i l y are typical.

In the B e n i n v i l l a g e s the male p o p u l a t i o n at any g i v e n time i s

h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r a t i f i e d i n t o three age-grades. The i r o g h a e i s entered

by boys i n t h e i r e a r l y teens and they perform v a r i o u s communal t a s k s such

as c l e a r i n g paths to the s t r e a m s . The i g h e l e , which i s d i s a p p e a r i n g i n

modern v i l l a g e s , i s the grade o f a d u l t men who perform the h e a v i e r and

more s k i l l e d communal t a s k s . They were f o r m e r l y the e x e c u t i v e arm o f

p o l i t i c a l and j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n the v i l l a g e and the p o t e n t i a l

fighting force. The e d i o n are the e l d e r s who are exempt from communal

l a b o u r and who form the v i l l a g e c o u n c i l f o r p o l i t i c a l and j u d i c i a l pur-

poses. In o t h e r c o n t e x t s the e d i o n r e f e r to the c o l l e c t i v e dead o f a

v i l l a g e or o t h e r c o r p o r a t e group.

D. AUTHORITY IN THE VILLAGE

; < There are two k i n d s o f v i l l a g e headman, h e r e d i t a r y and non-here-

ditary. The n o n - h e r e d i t a r y headman (odionwere) i s found i n a l l v i l l a g e s

and age i s the p r i n c i p l e f a c t o r i n h i s a p p o i n t m e n t . Not a l l v i l l a g e s have

an h e r e d i t a r y headman (onogie) and, on the o t h e r hand, the h o l d e r o f such

 - 50 -

an o f f i c e may r u l e over a number o f v i l l a g e s which thus c o n s t i t u t e a chief-

dom; c o n v e r s e l y a ward w i t h i n a v i l l a g e may have i t s own o n i g i e . The

office i d e a l l y passes from e l d e s t son to e l d e s t son l i k e a l l h e r e d i t a r y

offices i n the B e n i n kingdom.

I n v i l l a g e s w i t h o u t enig^ie ( p i . o n i g i e ) meetings o f the v i l l a g e

c o u n c i l t a k e p l a c e e i t h e r at the house o f the odionwere o r i n a s p e c i a l

meeting-house, ogwedion, w h i c h c o n t a i n s the s h r i n e o f the c o l l e c t i v e dead

( e d i o n ) o f the v i l l a g e . Every v i l l a g e has an ogwedion l o c a t e d i n a c l e a r e d

space at the e n t r a n c e to or i n the m i d d l e o f the v i l l a g e . The v i l l a g e

c o u n c i l i s made o f the onogie (where p r e s e n t ) , the odionwere and the mem-

b e r s o f the e d i o n a g e - g r a d e . A p a r t from i t s j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n s the council

discusses such t o p i c s as the c o l l e c t i o n o f t r i b u t e ( f o r m e r l y ) , o r , nowa-

d a y s , o f t a x ; the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e t a s k s and o f c u l t festivals;

the performance o f s a c r i f i c e s f o r the good o f the community and the dele-

gation of representatives to c o n s u l t d i v i n e r s on b e h a l f o f the community

o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n i t ; r e l a t i o n s w i t h and i n s t r u c t i o n s from the central

a u t h o r i t y ; c o n t r i b u t i o n s to funds b o t h f o r p u b l i c purposes and to assist

members o f the v i l l a g e who are i n d i f f i c u l t i e s ; and, a t the p r e s e n t d a y ,

the b u i l d i n g and upkeep o f s c h o o l s , and dispensaries.

E. CHIEFDOMS AND VILLAGE-GROUPS

P e t t y chiefdoms c o n s i s t i n g o f two or more v i l l a g e s owing a l l e g i a n c e

to a h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f are found i n most p a r t s o f the kingdom but are most

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i t s eastern r e g i o n . In the c e n t r e , n o r t h , and west

t h e r e i s a tendency f o r v i l l a g e s to be independent o f each o t h e r and t o

 - 51 -

d e a l as s e p a r a t e u n i t s w i t h the c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y i n B e n i n C i t y . A t the

p r e s e n t day t h e r e i s a tendency f o r h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s to l o s e t h e i r

a u t h o r i t y i n v i l l a g e s w h i c h are t r i b u t a r y to them, and f o r each v i l l a g e

t o become an autonomous u n i t w i t h i n the kingdom.

F. THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF BENIN CITY

Though the i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f B e n i n C i t y and the c e n t r a l state

o r g a n i z a t i o n i s v e r y complex, a b r i e f o u t l i n e w i t h be s u f f i c i e n t f o r our

purpose. Benin i t s e l f i s d i v i d e d i n t o two h a l v e s . In one h a l f (Ogbe)

l i v e the Oba and h i s c o u r t and the p a l a c e c h i e f s and i n the o t h e r (Oren'

okhwa) the town c h i e f s . The two h a l v e s are f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o more than

f o r t y wards. Each o f the members has s p e c i a l d u t i e s to perform to the Oba.

L e a d e r s h i p i n the ward i s a s c r i b e d on a v a r i e t y o f p r i n c i p l e s . Some have

odionwere who are chosen i n the same way as those i n the villages,

o t h e r s are headed by h e r e d i t a r y o r n o n - h e r e d i t a r y t i t l e - h o l d e r s o r by

leaders ( i k a o ) a p p o i n t e d by o r w i t h the a p p r o v a l o f the Oba.

A. There are t h r e e o r d e r s o f c h i e f s who stand out from the r e s t i n

terms o f rank and degree o f a u t h o r i t y . They a r e :

1. The Uzama n ' l h i r o n — t h e seven Uzama—whose t i t l e s , i n order of

r a n k , are O l i h a , Edbhen, Ezomo, E r o , Eholo n ' I r e , O l o t o n , and

Edaiken. A l l seven t i t l e s are h e r e d i t a r y ; the f i r s t s i x descend

on the death o f the h o l d e r to h i s e l d e s t s u r v i v i n g son who must,

however, be c e r e m o n i a l l y i n s t a l l e d at the Oba's p a l a c e . The

c h i e f duty o f the Uzama as a body i s the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f the new

Oba.
 - 52 -

2. The Eghaevo n ' O r e are the town c h i e f s as d i s t i n c t from the

palace c h i e f s . There are n i n e t e e n Eghaevo n ' O r e titles.

3. The Eghaevo n'Ogbe or p a l a c e c h i e f s are the s e n i o r officials

o f the Oba's h o u s e h o l d . There are 29 o f these t i t l e s and none

is hereditary.

There are t h r e e p a l a c e a s s o c i a t i o n s (otu-eguae). Each has s p e c i a l

d u t i e s which i t s members perform i n the r o y a l h o u s e h o l d . F o r example,

the members o f Iwebo are i n charge o f the Oba's wardrobe and the state

r e g a l i a , and make r e p a i r o f the c o r a l bead garments and ornaments which v ~ ,

are the mark o f h i g h r a n k .

B. The P a l a c e as a P o l i t i c a l and Ceremonial Centre

The Oba's p a l a c e (eguae Oba) was the c e n t r e of the p o l i t i c a l and

c e r e m o n i a l l i f e o f the B e n i n p e o p l e . Its i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n was com-

p l e x and i t s p o p u l a t i o n l a r g e , c o n s i s t i n g as i t d i d o f the Oba and h i s

many a t t e n d a n t s and h i s numerous w i v e s and c h i l d r e n .

C. The Oba

The most i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f the Edo p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e was the

divine kingship. The m y s t i c a l a s p e c t o f the d i v i n e k i n g s h i p p r o v i d e d the

i d e o l o g i c a l k e y s t o n e o f the p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . The c o n t i n u i t y and i n t e g r i t y

o f the p o l i t y depended upon two t h i n g s . F i r s t , the commitment o f a l l

sectors o f the p o p u l a t i o n to the b e l i e f t h a t t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g depended on

the p r o p e r deployment o f the Oba's o w n . ' d i v i n e e n e r g y ' , and o f h i s r i t u a l

a u t h o r i t y as the i n t e r m e d i a r y w i t h h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s ; and secondly; upon t h e i r

acceptance o f the need f o r the k i n g , c h i e f s , and people to cooperate in

 - 53 -

e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e s e f u n c t i o n s were f r u i t f u l l y deployed. Every t i t l e had

i t s r i t u a l r o l e s and the h i g h e r a c h i e f ' s r a n k , the more indispensable

h i s r i t u a l functions (Bradbury 1968: 2 0 0 ) . The Oba had to m a i n t a i n a

b a l a n c e between the competing groups and i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n the political

elite.

P o l i t i c a l r o l e s i n the B e n i n Kingdom have never been c o n c e i v e d o f

i n terms o f the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f descent groups (1968: 1 9 5 ) . What

c o n s t i t u t e d the e n d u r i n g framework o f government was 'an e l a b o r a t e con-

f i g u r a t i o n o f u n i t a r y and segmented o r d e r s , graded a s s o c i a t i o n s , and

t i e r e d and opposed h i e r a r c h i e s , w i t h the p o l i t i c o - d i v i n e k i n g s h i p at its

centre (1968: 1 9 7 ) . T h i s , t h e n , was the arena i n w h i c h the p o l i t i c a l game

was p l a y e d . T h i s o p p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the Edo p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e was r i t u a l -

ized. For example, the Uzama or h e r e d i t a r y n o b l e s had t h e i r r o l e sanctioned

i n t h a t they had to w o r s h i p b e f o r e the s h r i n e o f the edion-uzama, the

c o l l e c t i v e predecessors. Bradbury s t a t e s t h a t t h i s was e s s e n t i a l for the

n a t i o n ' s w e l l - b e i n g (1967: 1 3 ) . Even the o p p o s i t i o n between the Oba and

the Uzama was g i v e n r i t u a l e x p r e s s i o n i n the i r o n r i t e w h i c h formed p a r t

o f the f e s t i v a l o f the Oba's f a t h e r (Ugie-Erha-Oba). T h i s r i t e takes the

form o f a pantomimic b a t t l e i n w h i c h the Uzama, a f t e r c h a l l e n g i n g the Oba

by showing h i m h i s a r c h a i c crowns, i s defeated by the Oba's l o y a l w a r r i o r s

(1967: 15).

The Oba's r e l a t i o n s h i p to the town c h i e f s was a l s o p l a y e d out i n

ritual.

For example, when the Town C h i e f s , swords i n hand, danced homage to

the k i n g they were shadowed by h i s p a l a c e r e t a i n e r s , swords u p r a i s e d
as i f to s t r i k e them down s h o u l d they a t t a c k h i m . U n l i k e the Uzama,
who were the h e r e d i t a r y n o b l e s , the Town C h i e f s were commoners who,
by t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e and the Oba's f a v o u r , had r i s e n to p o s i t i o n s o f
power. The Town C h i e f s a l s o had to perform a r i t e known as zematon,
 - 54 -

w h i c h was an act o f p u r i f i c a t i o n and a renewal and r e l e a s e o f the

Oba's m y s t i c a l power. That i t had to be performed by the four
Eghaevbo i s one m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a c o n s t a n t m o t i f i n B e n i n r i t u a l ,
namely t h a t the Oba and the Edo are i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m y s t i c a l
interdependence. In many c o n t e x t s , t h i s mutual dependence i s e x p r e s -
sed through a c t s o f r i t u a l communion between the Oba and h i s p r e -
d e c e s s o r s , on the one h a n d , the and people and t h e i r dead, on the
o t h e r ; but the n o t i o n u n d e r l y i n g the zematon i s t h a t the m y s t i c a l
power o f the l i v i n g k i n g has i t s complement i n the l i v i n g community
(1968: 2 5 - 6 ) .

Thus even though t h e r e was a sense i n w h i c h the Oba was opposed t o the

Uzama and E d i o n - E d o to E d i o n - O b a . the d i v i n e k i n g u n i t e d these opposing

forces in himself. The b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f a l l l a y i n the maintenance o f

a b a l a n c e o f power between the Town C h i e f s and the P a l a c e (1967: 2 7 ) .

The d i v i n e k i n g s h i p , t h e r e f o r e , played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n u n i f y i n g not

o n l y the f a c t i o n s and o p p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n the p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , but also

bound the d i v e r s i t y o f d i v i n i t i e s and c u l t s i n t o one s y s t e m . For the

w o r s h i p o f past k i n g s was i n t e r w o v e n i n c o n t r a p u n t a l fashion with the

worship of various categories o f the dead, at a l l l e v e l s c b f the social

system. And the l o c a l c u l t s o f n a t u r e and f r e e d i v i n i t i e s were i n c o r -

p o r a t e d by o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and m y t h o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s into a state pantheon

i n w h i c h the Oba as " k i n g of dry l a n d " was i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Olokun as "king

o f the w a t e r s " (1967: 3 2 ) .

To sum u p , mutual r i t u a l o b l i g a t i o n s , s a n c t i o n e d by the general

w o r l d - v i e w , served to c o u n t e r d i s r u p t i v e t e n d e n c i e s i n the p u r s u i t o f c o n -

flicting political interests. Every p o l i t i c a l r o l e i m p l i e d r i t u a l r o l e s .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r i g h t s , and p r i v i l e g e s among the complex h i e r a r c h i e s

of o f f i c i a l d o m received constant e x p r e s s i o n i n an e n d l e s s s e r i e s of palace

rituals. The c o n t i n u i t y o f the s t a t e and the s a n c t i t y o f i t s institutions

were r e i t e r a t e d i n r i t u a l by l i n k i n g each s i g n i f i c a n t o f f i c e and i n s t i t u t i o n

w i t h the k i n g who had c r e a t e d i t o r shown i t s p e c i a l f a v o u r , and by g i v i n g

 - 55 -

i t a p a r t to p l a y i n the r i t e s addressed to h i m .

In the modern p o l i t i c a l e r a , the Oba and h i s p a l a c e do not p l a y as

s i g n i f i c a n t a p a r t i n p o l i t i c s as they used t o . As Bradbury has said:

'After 1951 the p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e l a y between named, e n d u r i n g local

parties a f f i l i a t e d to n a t i o n a l i s t p a r t i e s c o n t e s t i n g f o r power at the

r e g i o n a l and f e d e r a l l e v e l s ' (1968: 2 5 0 ) . In the modern e r a , then, the

Edo p o l i t i c a l system has s h i f t e d to a p a r t y - b a s e d system where power i s

determined l a r g e l y by knowledge o f modern p o l i t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s and skills

patterned a f t e r Western m o d e l s . F o r m e r l y most o f the Oba's time was taken

up i n s t a t e r i t u a l s , o f w h i c h the most important were the annual s a c r i -

fices to h i s a n c e s t o r s and t o h i s own h e a d . H i s head i s equated w i t h h i s

good o r bad f o r t u n e and w i t h the w e l l - b e i n g o f the kingdom, and the s a c r i -

f i c e s to i t are f o l l o w e d by the t r e a t m e n t o f a l l p a r t s o f h i s body w i t h

m e d i c i n e s d e s i g n e d to s t r e n g t h e n him the coming y e a r . The most important

s t a t e r i t u a l takes p l a c e around mid-December at the Oba's p a l a c e (Igwe

Festival). A p a r t from the s t a t e r i t u a l s i n B e n i n C i t y the Oba m a i n t a i n s

c o n t r o l o v e r the c u l t s o f h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s . These c u l t s are d i r e c t e d to

the s p i r i t s o f former heroes i n the s t a t e and i n a few cases t o p a r t i c u l a r

aspects of past k i n g s . The dates o f annual f e s t i v a l s i n t h e i r honour must

be approved by the Oba, who f r e q u e n t l y p r o v i d e s r e g a l i a and sacrificial

offerings and i n the case o f the more i m p o r t a n t ones sends someone to

represent him. He f i x e s , t o o , the dates f o r the performance o f the annual

rites i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h domestic c u l t s at a l l o f w h i c h the f i n a l p r a y e r is

f o r the Oba h i m s e l f .

S u c c e s s i o n to the k i n g s h i p i s by p r i m o g e n i t u r e , the s e n i o r son

v a l i d a t i n g h i s c l a i m by p e r f o r m i n g h i s f a t h e r ' s mortuary r i t e s and h a v i n g

 - 56 -

himself i n s t a l l e d by the Uzama at the s i t e o f the p a l a c e o f Eweka I .

The Oba's c o u r t was f o r m e r l y most e l a b o r a t e , w i t h hundreds of retainers

l i v i n g i n the p a l a c e . Economic support f o r the p a l a c e o r g a n i z a t i o n and

s t a t e r i t u a l s came from a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s . Regular t r i b u t e o f food-

s t u f f s was l e v i e d t w i c e y e a r l y on a l l v i l l a g e s i n the kingdom and i n

t r i b u t a r y areas and the Oba c o u l d c a l l upon any v i l l a g e to p r o v i d e l a b o u r

for such t a s k s as b u i l d i n g and r e p a i r i n g the palace.

In the l a s t a n a l y s i s the b a s i s o f the Oba's power appears to l i e i n

the t r a d i t i o n a l m y s t i c a l v a l u e s a t t a c h i n g to the s a c r e d i n s t i t u t i o n o f

k i n g s h i p and to the e g u a e : ( p a l a c e ) . I n d i v i d u a l s a l l over the kingdom c l a i m

to b e l o n g to one or o t h e r o f the p a l a c e a s s o c i a t i o n s and the highest

p o s i t i o n to w h i c h anyone can a s p i r e i s t o be ' n e x t to the Oba. 1

D. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Oba's T e r r i t o r i e s

The whole t e r r i t o r y r u l e d by the Oba b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e the

B e n i n kingdom was f o r m e r l y d i v i d e d i n t o a l a r g e number o f t r i b u t e units.

A c h i e f d o m , v i l l a g e - g r o u p , v i l l a g e , w a r d , and any c o m b i n a t i o n o f these and

even c o l l e c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s d i s p e r s e d between the d i f f e r e n t wards o f

a v i l l a g e might c o n s t i t u t e a single u n i t . The t r a d i t i o n a l administrative

system i s now d e f u n c t , though i n the few cases where t r i b u t e u n i t s were

associated with hereditary titles some t i e s o f l o y a l t y r e m a i n .

E. The S t a t e C o u n c i l

In the p a s t most o f the d a y - t o - d a y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the kingdom

appears to have been conducted by p r i v a t e c o n s u l t a t i o n and n e g o t i a t i o n

between the Oba and the s e n i o r t i t l e - h o l d e r s . For more important m a t t e r s ,

 - 57 -

such as the p r o m u l g a t i o n o f new l a w s , the d e c i s i o n to conduct w a r s , the

f i x i n g o f important f e s t i v a l d a t e s , the c r e a t i o n o f new t i t l e s , the

r a i s i n g o f s p e c i a l l e v i e s , and the t a k i n g o f r i t u a l measures to prevent

epidemics, e t c . a full c o u n c i l was c a l l e d . Today B e n i n i s administered

by a number o f M i n i s t r i e s : F i n a n c e , L o c a l Government, Community Develop-

ment, e t c . The Oba and h i s c o u r t now f u n c t i o n more as g u a r d i a n s of the

s p i r i t u a l o r d e r and s p i r i t u a l w e l l - b e i n g o f B e n i n , than as administrators

o f the economic and p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s o f the kingdom.

F. Land Tenure

All the l a n d o f the B e n i n kingdom i s s a i d , by the Edo, to b e l o n g

to the Oba. But such statements r e f e r p r i m a r i l y to h i s p o s i t i o n as the

p o l i t i c a l r u l e r o f the t e r r i t o r y r a t h e r than to h i s a c t u a l c o n t r o l over

the use o f the l a n d . The l a n d i s v e s t e d i n him as t r u s t e e f o r the whole

p e o p l e and h i s ownership o f i t i n t h i s sense i s s y m b o l i z e d at the instal-

l a t i o n o f each new Oba when a f t e r a mock b a t t l e to c a p t u r e the c i t y C h i e f

Ogiamwen put o i l i n t o h i s p a l m . Today as the p r e s i d e n t o f the N a t i v e

A u t h o r i t y , he e x e r c i s e s c o n t r o l over the o c c u p a t i o n and use o f l a n d and

resources i n B e n i n D i v i s i o n by s t r a n g e r s .

O u t s i d e B e n i n C i t y the v i l l a g e i s the t y p i c a l l a n d - h o l d i n g u n i t ,

though i n many cases no b o u n d a r i e s between the t e r r i t o r i e s of different

v i l l a g e s are r e c o g n i z e d . No r i g h t s i n f a l l o w land are r e c o g n i z e d . It

r e v e r t s t o the community once a man has c l e a r e d l a n d , p l a n t e d i t over two

or t h r e e y e a r s . An Edo who wishes to farm on l a n d o f a v i l l a g e o t h e r

than h i s own must seek the p e r m i s s i o n o f the o n i g i e or odionwere to do s o .

In p r a c t i c e , farms seem to have been e s t a b l i s h e d i n two main ways. First,

 - 58 -

they c o u l d make an arrangement w i t h the headman o f an e x i s t i n g v i l l a g e to

s t a t i o n t h e i r farm-workers t h e r e and to farm on the v i l l a g e l a n d . Alter-

n a t i v e l y a w e a l t h y c h i e f w i t h many s l a v e s might c l e a r v i r g i n f o r e s t out-

s i d e the c o n t r o l o f any v i l l a g e and e s t a b l i s h a camp t h e r e to house h i s

s l a v e s and o t h e r dependents. They too were a l l o w e d to c u l t i v a t e on t h e i r

own and the s l a v e s o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n would e v e n t u a l l y purchase their

e m a n c i p a t i o n and the camp would develop i n t o a v i l l a g e w i t h the u s u a l

type o f v i l l a g e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

The c u l t i v a t i o n o f permanent crops has brought about some changes

i n the t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f l a n d r i g h t s t h o u g h , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , i t has

n o t r e s u l t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l ownership o f the l a n d . Wealthy men have large

r u b b e r and o i l - p a l m p l a n t a t i o n s and v i l l a g e s have been encouraged by the

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h communal l a b o u r p l a n t a t i o n s but t h e s e were

e v e n t u a l l y c o n v e r t e d to i n d i v i d u a l o w n e r s h i p .

T r a d i t i o n a l l y the a l l o c a t i o n o f house s i t e s i n B e n i n C i t y was i n

the hands o f the Oba, who w o u l d , however, u s u a l l y c o n s u l t the c h i e f s or

e l d e r s o f the ward i n w h i c h the proposed b u i l d i n g was t o take p l a c e . To-

day an Edo who wishes to a c q u i r e a s i t e must seek the recommendation o f the

e l d e r s o f the ward i n w h i c h i t i s l o c a t e d a f t e r h a v i n g i t surveyed and a

p l a n made by the N a t i v e A u t h o r i t y S u r v e y o r .

IV. THE LIFE CYCLE

A. BIRTH

For the b i r t h o f her f i r s t c h i l d a woman o f t e n r e t u r n s to her mother

 - 59 -

and she may do so f o r subsequent o n e s . When she i s known t o have c o n c e i v e d

h e r husband may o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s t o her f a t h e r ' s and h i s own a n c e s t o r s and

t o o t h e r s p i r i t s o r d i v i n i t i e s under whose protection(th?e c h i l d i s b e l i e v e d

to be. The woman i s t r e a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n m e d i c i n e s , wears s p e c i a l amulets

and d r e s s e s her h a i r i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a t t e r n s . The c h i l d i s washed w i t h

sand and p a l m - o i l to ensure t h a t i t w i l l not s m e l l when i t grows u p , and

w i t h w a t e r , and the mother h e r s e l f i s washed i n the b a c k y a r d . The um-

b i l i c a l c o r d i s p l a n t e d i n the ground w i t h the seed o f the k o l a or c o c o a -

nut t r e e i n the hope t h a t the c h i l d w i l l grow l i k e the t r e e . The p l a c e n t a

i s b u r i e d i n s i d e or o u t s i d e the house and g r e a t c a r e i s t a k e n t o make the

h o l e b i g enough f o r i t t o spread out e v e n l y .

About t h r e e months a f t e r the b i r t h and woman washes, puts fine

c l o t h e s on h e r s e l f and the b a b y , and takes i t t o the market where she

makes o f f e r i n g t o the e d i o n o f the m a r k e t . S h o r t l y afterwards she takes

the c h i l d to the r i v e r and makes o f f e r i n g s t o the d i v i n i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

it.

B. NAMING CEREMONIES

The r i t e s accompanying the naming o f a c h i l d (izomo) v a r y ' c o n s i d e r -

a b l y , b u t n o r m a l l y t a k e p l a c e on the s e v e n t h day a f t e r the b i r t h . In the

morning the f a t h e r or h i s f a t h e r or s e n i o r b r o t h e r p r e s e n t s the c h i l d to

his a n c e s t o r s , making o f f e r i n g s and p r a y i n g t h a t i t w i l l grow up s a f e l y .

The baby i s u s u a l l y lowered a number o f times over the a l t a r o f the ances-

tor. In some cases a s p e c i a l m e d i c i n e i s prepared some o f which i s rubbed

on the c h i l d and the r e s t i n c l u d e d i n an amulet w h i c h i t w i l l wear throughout

 - 60 -

its life. In many f a m i l i e s the women o f the h o u s e h o l d c a l l in their

n e i g h b o u r s to h o l d a dance the same e v e n i n g . The s e n i o r woman p r e s e n t

prays to the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s p i r i t s f o r the c h i l d ' s w e l l - b e i n g and its

head i s touched to the ground seven times i n t o k e n o f i t s s u b m i s s i o n t o

them. Names are g i v e n by the f a t h e r and by anyone e l s e who cares to do

so. Yams w h i c h were p l a c e d by the c h i l d ' s head on the bed on the day o f

b i r t h are d i v i d e d between the women p r e s e n t , the head o f one o f them

b e i n g r e s e r v e d t o the woman who f i r s t washed it.

C. INFANCY TO ADOLESCENCE

Up to the age o f s i x or seven boys and g i r l s p l a y t o g e t h e r . At

seven o r e i g h t the boys b e g i n to accompany t h e i r f a t h e r s r e g u l a r l y to the

farm and g r a d u a l l y l e a r n male s k i l l s . G i r l s go w i t h t h e i r mothers and

elder sisters to the farm to f e t c h water and wood and to m a r k e t ; they

q u i c k l y l e a r n to c a r r y s m a l l loads on t h e i r h e a d s . The c i r c u m c i s i o n o f

boys takes p l a c e i n i n f a n c y o r e a r l y c h i l d h o o d . This i s s t i l l practised

by a l l E d o s . C l i t o r i d e c t o m y o f g i r l s a l s o took p l a c e a t i n f a n c y , but its

practice is f a l l i n g i n t o abeyance. There are no p u b e r t y r i t e s for either

sex.

D. MARRIAGE

The t r a d i t i o n a l process o f m a r r i a g e was as follows.

1. . Imwu-omo: the ' a s k i n g f o r the c h i l d . ' When a baby g i r l i s born

s u i t o r s may b e g i n to approach her p a r e n t s f o r her h a n d , s e n d i n g

 - 61 -

t o them a l o g o f wood and a b u n d l e o f yams. When the father

o f the g i r l , w i t h the a p p r o v a l o f h i s own f a t h e r o r s e n i o r

b r o t h e r , has chosen a s u i t a b l e mate, he informs h i m o f the

date o f the formal b e t r o t h a l . The s u i t o r them prepares gifts

w h i c h i n some v i l l a g e s c o n s i s t of a j a r o f p a l m - w i n e , two t r a y s

o f s l i c e d coconut w i t h two k o l a n u t s on each and 2s. These

are t a k e n t o the a l t a r o f the g i r l ' s p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s to

n o t i f y them o f the b e t r o t h a l .

2. A f t e r t h i s has been done, the s u i t o r must g i v e s e r v i c e (uganmwen)

to h i s p r o s p e c t i v e p a r e n t s - i n - l a w , g i v i n g p r e s e n t s o f yams to

the f a t h e r and mother each y e a r , h e l p i n g the former on h i s farm,

p r o v i d i n g the mother w i t h f i r e w o o d . Today t h e s e 'services'

o f t e n take the form o f p e r i o d i c g i f t s o f money and c l o t h .

3. The anyo-imiomo: the 'wine o f r e c e i v i n g the c h i l d . ' When a

date has been f i x e d the s u i t o r prepares more g i f t s o f w i n e ,

k o l a , and coconut as f u r t h e r o f f e r i n g s to the a n c e s t o r s o f the

girl to n o t i f y them t h a t the m a r r i a g e i s about to take p l a c e

and to ask f o r t h e i r h e l p i n making i t a f r u i t f u l and prosperous

one. A t t h i s stage the groom w i l l make the marriage-payment

to the g i r l ' s f a t h e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h g i f t s f o r the mother and

for the ' p e o p l e i n the h o u s e . ' The m a r r i a g e i s s e a l e d by the

payment o f 2s. w h i c h i s c a l l e d anyo-imiomo.

4. I r h i o h a r i e : ' t a k i n g the b r i d e to her h u s b a n d . ' The latter's

r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s g a t h e r at h i s house to dance and s i n g .

Meanwhile the g i r l i s conducted by her b r o t h e r s , sister, and

friends, c a r r y i n g her p r o p e r t y , to the husband's h o u s e . On

 - 62 -

a r r i v a l the b r i d e , f e i g n i n g s h y n e s s , i s p l a c e d i n her husband's

l a p by her b r o t h e r . The husband's senior wife, i f he has any,

o f some o t h e r woman i n the house b r i n g s a bowl o f water i n

w h i c h money o r c o w r i e s have been p l a c e d and washes the b r i d e ' s

hands. T h i s r i t e s y m b o l i z e s the acceptance o f h e r i n t o the

h o u s e h o l d and the money expresses the hope t h a t the m a r r i a g e

w i l l be a f r u i t f u l one. She i s then l e d away t o be bathed and

t o eat a s o l i t a r y m e a l . The husband t h e n e n t e r t a i n s the b r i d e ' s

p a r t y and makes g i f t s to them, some f o r themselves and some to

t a k e back to h i s p a r e n t ' s - i n - l a w . The b r i d a l p a r t y l e a v e s and

the husband c o n t i n u e s to e n t e r t a i n h i s own p e o p l e w i t h feasting

and d a n c i n g .

Two days l a t e r the husband goes to thank the p a r e n t s o f

h i s b r i d e and i s e n t e r t a i n e d by them. On the seventh day after

the b r i d e ' s a r r i v a l her mother comes t o see h e r , and to demand

the c l o t h on w h i c h the p a i r s l e p t on the f i r s t n i g h t . If the

g i r l proved t o be a v i r g i n the c l o t h i s g i v e n to the mother and

she r e c e i v e s p r e s e n t s i n cash and i s e n t e r t a i n e d by the husband.

The same day the b r i d e c l e a n s the w a l l s o f the husband's

a n c e s t o r s h r i n e and p r a y e r s are s a i d f o r h e r . I t i s on t h i s

day too t h a t she e n t e r s the k i t c h e n and cooks f o r the f i r s t t i m e .

Today, B e n i n c h i l d b e t r o t h a l i s d y i n g o r has d i e d o u t . The g e n e r a l

p a t t e r n o f the m a r r i a g e ceremony r e m a i n s , w i t h a l t e r a t i o n s depending on

o n e ' s a l l e g i a n c e to one o f the many C h r i s t i a n denominations i n B e n i n C i t y .

A woman can d i v o r c e her husband s i m p l y by r e p a y i n g the marriage-payment i n

the N a t i v e c o u r t or by f i n d i n g a l o v e r who i s w i l l i n g to pay i t f o r h e r .

 - 63 -

The husband w i l l u s u a l l y make a c l a i m f o r refund o f the a d d i t i o n a l money

t h a t he has spent on h e r .

E. DEATH AND MORTUARY R I T E S 4

Mortuary r i t e s d i f f e r a c c o r d i n g t o c l a n , l o c a l i t y , and the status

and rank o f the d e c e a s e d . F o r the Edo the i d e a l i s t h a t the p a r e n t s s h o u l d

predecease t h e i r c h i l d r e n and s e n i o r s i b l i n g s t h e i r j u n i o r s . Children of

the deceased s h o u l d perform the mortuary r i t e s , w i t h the s e n i o r son p l a y i n g

the l e a d i n g r o l e , and no p e r s o n p l a y s an a c t i v e p a r t i n the r i t e s f o r some-

one j u n i o r to h i m s e l f . I n B e n i n C i t y , at the p r e s e n t day, most b u r i a l s

take p l a c e i n the p u b l i c c e m e t e r i e s and o n l y v e r y prominent people may

be b u r i e d , w i t h the Oba's p e r m i s s i o n , i n t h e i r h o u s e s . No p e r s o n o t h e r

t h a n the Oba may be b u r i e d i n the Ogbe s e c t i o n o f the town.

When f u l l mortuary r i t e s are accorded they take seven days i n the case

o f o r d i n a r y people and f o u r t e e n f o r the Oba and some i m p o r t a n t c h i e f s . They

may be performed i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r the decease o r , i f the s e n i o r son i s too

young or cannot a f f o r d the n e c e s s a r y expense, be d e l a y e d i n d e f i n i t e l y .

Some mortuary r i t e s may t a k e p l a c e twenty y e a r s a f t e r interment. The

f o l l o w i n g i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the main stages o f the mortuary r i t e s for

an o r d i n a r y a d u l t man w i t h sons.

1. When a death i s confirmed the p e o p l e i n the house and o t h e r

r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s b e g i n to weep and w a i l . The body i s t a k e n o u t s i d e

For a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f Edo mortuary r i t e s see ' F a t h e r s , E l d e r s ,

and Ghosts i n Edo R e l i g i o n , " i n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Approaches to the Study o f
R e l i g i o n ( e d . by M . B a n t o n ) , p p . 1 2 7 - 1 5 3 . A . S . A . Monograph N o . 3 , New
York: Frederick A . Praeger.
 - 64 -

and washed, then l a i d on a bed i n s i d e the h o u s e . The h a i r and

n a i l s are cut and i f the mortuary r i t e s are n o t to take p l a c e

i m m e d i a t e l y , are p r e s e r v e d by the s e n i o r s o n , u s u a l l y i n a b l o c k

of ' c h a l k . ' A goat i s s a c r i f i c e d and the body a n n o i n t e d w i t h

blood. The corpse i s then adorned w i t h b r a c e l e t s o f c o w r i e s

and a w h i t e c l o t h and a f e a t h e r i s s t u c k i n t o the h a i r . If

the grave i s i n the cemetery the c h i l d r e n o f the deceased go

t h e r e i n p r o c e s s i o n w i t h the c o r p s e , s i n g i n g seven s p e c i a l

b u r i a l songs and s c a t t e r i n g c h a l k , s a l t , and c o w r i e s on the way.

A hen i s k i l l e d and i t s b l o o d used to wash from the f e e t o f the

mourners those i m p u r i t i e s and r i t u a l dangers a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

the grave.

I f the f u l l mortuary r i t e s are to be performed immediately

these r i t e s c o n s t i t u t e the f i r s t d a y . O t h e r w i s e the seven-day

mortuary b e g i n s w i t h o n l y members o f the deceased lineage per-

forming the iwaorinmwin (the l a y i n g out o f the c o r p s e ) . The

n a i l s and h a i r w h i c h have been p r e s e r v e d from the dead man

are t i e d , w i t h c h a l k , s a l t , and c o w r i e s , i n a w h i t e c l o t h into

which a white feather is inserted. Over t h i s b u n d l e , w h i c h

r e p r e s e n t s the c o r p s e , a goat i s s l a u g h t e r e d . The seven b u r i a l

songs are sung and the body i n t e r r e d .

2. Izakhwe: the c e r e m o n i a l p r o c e s s i o n around the town. The s e n i o r

son s l a u g h t e r s a cow o r goat on the t h r e s h o l d o f the house f o r

the e r h a s p i r i t s o f the f a m i l y on the t h i r d d a y . Then he and

each o f h i s b r o t h e r s and b r o t h e r s - i n - l a w and, sometimes, h i s

a d u l t sons and daughters o f t h e i r husbands, place themselves

 - 65 -

at the head o f groups o f dependents and f r i e n d s which march

around the town i n o r d e r o f s e n i o r i t y o f t h e i r l e a d e r s , to

the accompaniment o f b u r i a l and o t h e r songs i n honour o f the

dead.

3. Isoton: On the f i f t h day t h e r e i s another p r o c e s s i o n . This

time the l e a d e r o f each group has a box (okun) d e c o r a t e d w i t h

a r e d c l o t h and bradd adornments w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s the p r o s -

p e r i t y o f the deceased and the r e s p e c t accorded h i m . The

l e a d e r takes w i t h h i m o f f e r i n g s (oton) the main components o f

w h i c h are a g o a t , a calabash o f . o i l , basket of cocoanuts, seven

k o l a n u t s , a mat, and a w h i t e c l o t h . On r e t u r n to the house

each mourner p r e s e n t s h i s o t o n to the assembled e l d e r s o f the

l i n e a g e , who i n s p e c t them t o see i f they are c o m p l e t e ; i f not

a sum o f money i s o f f e r e d i n as a substitute.

4. Ikpowia: A. dance b e g i n s on the e v e n i n g o f the f o l l o w i n g day

which w i l l continue u n t i l daybreak. A p e r s o n , chosen by d i v i n a -

tion, i s d r e s s e d up i n f i n e c l o t h e s to r e p r e s e n t the deceased.

D u r i n g the n i g h t he s i t s on a bench i n the house w h i l e a l l h i s

descendants come, and, through a spokesman a s s u r e s them t h a t

the deceased w i l l c o n t i n u e to look a f t e r them from erimwin

(the s p i r i t w o r l d ) as he has done on e a r t h . T h i s done 'the

father' dances w i t h h i s c h i l d r e n f o r the l a s t time.

5. A t dawn the p e o p l e , l e d by the f a t h e r , go i n p r o c e s s i o n to a

nearby a r e a o f bush where a framework o f s t i c k s , covered w i t h

a c l o t h , has been e r e c t e d . When the s t r u c t u r e collapses, its

components are thrown away. T h i s r i t e , known as the isuerhanfua

 - 66 -

( t h r o w i n g away the s t i c k s ) , s y m b o l i z e s the f i n a l disposal of

the remains o f the deceased and the c a s t i n g o f f o f r i t u a l im-

p u r i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h death from the mourners. The subse-

quent s t a t e o f r i t u a l p u r i t y i s e x p r e s s e d i n the song ' I t is

c o o l l i k e the bush near the r i v e r ' which accompanies the home-

ward p r o c e s s i o n . As the mourners r e a c h the house a mortar is

fired to induce the 'father's' s p i r i t to. come home and h i s

representative t r a c e s a l i n e w i t h powdered c h a l k to the shrine

where he w i l l be w o r s h i p p e d .

6. A few hours 1
l a t e r the ("senior son and h i s f a t h e r ' s senior sur-

v i v i n g b r o t h e r perform the r i t e known as ukonmwen ( p l a n t i n g )

• *

i n which c a r v e d s t i c k s (ukhurhe) are p l a c e d u p r i g h t on the

a l t e r o f the d e c e a s e d . A goat i s s a c r i f i c e d and o t h e r offerings

made and the 'father' i s asked to c o n t i n u e to come t h e r e and

eat w i t h h i s ' c h i l d r e n ' who come i n t h e i r t u r n to pray f o r

t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r spouses, and t h e i r dependents.

A p a r t from these mortuary r i t e s w h i c h are the c o n c e r n o f the d e c e a s e d ' s

s i b l i n g s and descendants h i s membership o f o t h e r k i n d s o f groups i s a l s o

s i g n i f i e d after h i s death. Thus a goat must be p r e s e n t e d by the s e n i o r son

to the people o f the v i l l a g e f o r s a c r i f i c e f o r the e d i o n s p i r i t s and to the

members o f any c u l t - g r o u p o r t i t l e - a s s o c i a t i o n o r o r d e r o f which he was a

member. The mortuary r i t e s o f the Oba f o l l o w the same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n but

are much more elaborate.

 CHAPTER I I I

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDO COSMOLOGY

I. INTRODUCTION

As we have seen i n Chapter I , w r i t e r s such as E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d (Nuer

R e l i g i o n ) and L i e n h a r d t ( D i v i n i t y and E x p e r i e n c e ) have a n a l y z e d the cos-

mologies o f the N i l o t i c Nuer and D i n k a r e s p e c t i v e l y . Both peoples believe

i n a supreme D i v i n i t y as w e l l as o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s . ' ' " These d i v i n i t i e s ,

however, are not seen as b e i n g s h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e , but as re-

f r a c t i o n s o f the one s p i r i t who i s p e r v a s i v e i n the w o r l d .

The v a r i o u s d i v i n i t i e s i n the Edo cosmology are not s i m p l y r e f r a c -

t i o n s o f the a t t r i b u t e s of a universal s p i r i t . They are c a t e g o r i e s of

b e i n g h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e who can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from each

other.

The Edo w o r l d i s b i p a r t i t e . Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d t o be the founder

o f the d i v i n i t y - o r d e r (erimwin) and the c r e a t o r o f the w o r l d o f man and

n a t u r e (a g b o n) . A l l o f the d i v i n i t i e s l i v e i n e r i m w i n and communicate

w i t h man who l i v e s i n agbon. The Edo cosmology i s h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c -

tured. The s t a t u s and r o l e o f the d i v i n i t i e s i s b e l i e v e d to have been set

by Osanobua who has c r e a t e d a l l t h i n g s . He has d e l e g a t e d v a r y i n g degrees

I w i l l use the term d i v i n i t y throughout t h i s w o r k . Many w r i t e r s

use o t h e r t e r m i n o l o g y such as gods, s p i r i t s , d e i t i e s and super-human
b e i n g s . By d i v i n i t y I w i l l mean any o f the Edo e n t i t i e s b e l i e v e d to d w e l l
i n erimwin.
 - 68 -

of power to the d i v i n i t i e s , g i v i n g them p a r t i c u l a r spheres o f i n f l u e n c e

i n agbon. In the p r o v i d e d c h a r t (Diagram 1 ) , i t can be seen t h a t some

d i v i n i t i e s are a t t a c h e d to a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l u n i t , d e f i n e d by membership

i n a lineage or v i l l a g e - u n i t . Other d i v i n i t i e s are f r e e . The usage o f

the term f r e e does not mean t h a t they are not served by a c u l t ; i t i s just

t h a t the c u l t i s not coterminous w i t h a predetermined s o c i a l u n i t . Esu and

and azen are a l s o f r e e , but are not served by any c u l t .

Each of. tfhe d i v i n i t i e s has h i s a l l o t t e d p l a c e i n the cosmology.

A c c o r d i n g t o Bradbury (1957: 52) t h e r e are four c a t e g o r i e s o f b e i n g i n the

2

Edo c o s m o l o g y .

1. D i v i n i t i e s who have never been i n c a r n a t e d as human b e i n g s .

2. S p i r i t s o f the departed.

3. H e r o - d i v i n i t i e s associated with n a t u r a l features o f the e n v i r o n -

ment .

4. P e r s o n a l s p i r i t s and powers.

Category 1

Osanobua, O l o k u n , Ogun, Ogiuwu, Obiemwen, Osun and E s u . Although

none o f these d i v i n i t i e s has ever been i n c a r n a t e d as human b e i n g s , we need a

f u r t h e r means o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g them. Olokun and Ogun are two o f the most

important d i v i n i t i e s i n the Edo r e l i g i o n . Both o f these b e i n g s c o u l d be

differentiated from the o t h e r s by v i r t u e o f t h e i r a b i l i t y to possess the

priest (ohen). Osanobua has never been known to possess any man.

I would a c c e p t t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y scheme w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n s . Brad-

b u r y ' s c h o i c e o f ' i n c a r n a t i o n ' may be somewhat m i s l e a d i n g . For i n c a r n a t i o n
i m p l i e s t h a t a s p i r i t u a l b e i n g becomes man. No d i v i n i t y i n the Edo c o s -
mology has ever done t h a t ; the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s were once men, l a t e r becoming
spirit.
 - 69 -

THE EDO COSMOLOGY

NAME OF MEANING OF ATTRIBUTES OF SYMBOLIC SPHERE OF ASSOCIATION ASSOCIATION CULTIC RELIGIOUS DIVINITY AS
DIVINITY NAME DIVINITY REPRESENTATION INFLUENCE WITH FEATURES WITH UNITS OF FOLLOWING FUNCTIONARY THE OBJECT OF
OF THE NATURAL THE SOCIAL (OHEN) SACRIFICE
ENVIRONMENT STRUCTURE AND OFFERINGS
Osanobua Creator of O m n i s c i e n t , omni- I n the p a s t Osanobua Upholder o f
potent r u l e r of was r e p r e s e n t e d by s o c i a l and
the cosmos O b a - f i g u r e s and a moral order
s m a l l heap o f sand i n Edo k i n g -
None None Yes Yes Yes
with a stick in its dom
o n l y food
midst t i e d w i t h a offerings
s t r i p of c l o t h

Olokun Divinity of Favoured son o f An O b a - f i g u r e s u r - Giver of The sea None Yes Yes Yes
the sea Osanobua. Peac- rounded by s e r v a n t s health,
able, gentle the c o l o u r w h i t e w e a l t h and
and good children

Ogun D i v i n i t y of F u r i o u s , tem- Anything metal; A r b i t e r of None None None None Yes

metal permental and the c o l o u r r e d justice.
c a p a b l e o f des- tutelary div-
t r u c t i v e acts i n i t y for
i r o n workers

Esu Divinity D i r t y , black Thorn s t i c k o r a Disrupts indi- None None None None Yes
who does and u g l y . s m a l l wooden d o l l ; v i d u a l and
evil Capable o f the c o l o u r b l a c k s o c i e t a l har-
destructive mony
acts

Hero- Names o f Attributes vary V a r i e s from d i v i - Welfare of Particular Served None Yes Yes
divini- hero-divi- from d i v i n i t y n i t y to d i v i n i t y particular features of exclusi-
ties n i t i e s are to d i v i n i t y villages environment v e l y by
synonymous particularly village
with a fea- rivers units
t u r e o f the
n a t u r a l en-
vironment

Ogauwu King of Formerly a None P r e s e n t s the None None None None None
death furious being s o u l s o f Edo
to Osanobua

Ob iemwen None A s s i s t s Olokun None None None None None

Osun D i v i n i t y of None (?) Empowers None None Usually Some V i l - Object o f

Medicine Medicines l i m i t e d to l a g e s have sacrifice
domestic recognized during
spheres ohenOsun annual r i t e
(ihuan-Osun)

Edion Collective Similar in a t t r i - Ukhurhe s t a f f s W e l f a r e o f the None Served ex- None None Yes
predecessors b u t e s to the l i v - and b r a s s heads collectivity clusively Living
o f a group ing edion eg. v i l l a g e - by c o l l e c - odionwere
unit tivities performs
priestly
function
Erha Named Similar in Ukhurhe s t a f f s W e l f a r e o f the None Served ex- None None Yes
departed a t t r i b u t e s to and b r a s s heads patrilineage clusively L i v i n g erha
father the l i v i n g erha by p a t r i - performs
lineage priestly
function
Azen B e i n g who Anti-social, Items a s s o c i a t e d Disrupt health Meet i n the None None None Yes
has the ab- Destructive w i t h the l e f t and harmony o f iroko tree Obonoyada
i l i t y to de- and e v i l Edo Rave'special
t a c h essence knowledge
( o r i o n ) from
body
Ehi Spiritual Similar in a t t r i - None Welfare of None Served ex- None None Yes
counterpart b u t e to c o u n t e r - earthly clusively
who l i v e s i n p a r t i n agbon counterpart by e a r t h l y
erimwin counterpart

Diagram 1
 - 70 -

Osanobua, 01okun, Ogun and Osun are a l l s e r v e d by o h e n . Esu i s n o t . Yet

o f the four d i v i n i t i e s j u s t m e n t i o n e d , o n l y Osun i s l i m i t e d t o a domestic

sphere. Osun has not become the c e n t r e o f c u l t s a p p e a l i n g to a wide

audience. Osanobua and 01okun are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h a t promotes

harmony i n the Edo c u l t u r e . In c o n t r a s t to the n a t u r e o f Osanobua and

01okun, Ogun i s temperamental and d e s t r u c t i v e . Oloktin i s never linked

w i t h a n y t h i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e v i l or d e a t h . And Esu i s never l i n k e d w i t h

anything good. T h u s , though a l l the d i v i n i t i e s i n c a t e g o r y 1 have i n

common the f a c t t h a t they were never human, t h e i r n a t u r e s and attributes

differ considerably.

Category 2

S p i r i t s o f the d e p a r t e d . T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s u s e f u l and Bradbury

makes the d i s t i n c t i o n between the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s ( e d i o n ) and the

i n d i v i d u a l ancestors (erha). Bradbury (1957: 56) d i s t i n g u i s h e s s i x c o l -

lectivities: the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s o f a g r o u p , a w a r d , an extended

f a m i l y , past w o r s h i p p e r s o f a d i v i n i t y , a p a l a c e a s s o c i a t i o n and the e d i o n

of a l l Edo.

Category 3

Hero-divinities. By h e r o i c i s meant the d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f super-

natural c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s during l i f e l i v e d i n agbon (the w o r l d o f man and

nature). The h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s were r e c o g n i z e d by the Edo but were not

acclaimed. They were i n c a r n a t e d (transformed i s p r o b a b l y more accurate)

because o f t h e i r s u p e r n a t u r a l powers. O v i a , Okhauhe, A k e , O d i g g i are a

few o f such transformed spirits.

 - 71 -

Category 4

P e r s o n a l s p i r i t s and powers. T h i s c a t e g o r y p r o v i d e s the most

difficulty i n any a n a l y s i s o f the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m . The concept o f

a s p i r i t u a l counter p a r t ( E h i ) i s common to a number o f c u l t u r e s i n West

Africa. V . Uchendu i n h i s enthnography The Igbo o f Southeast N i g e r i a

(1965: 16) mentions the concept o f E h i . M . F o r t e s has a l s o w r i t t e n at

l e n g t h on t h i s s u b j e c t i n Oedipus and Job i n West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n (1959:

19-24). The Edo b e l i e f i n E h i can o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d i n the l i g h t o f

o t h e r d a t a on the Edo concepts o f the p e r s o n a l i t y . E s s e n t i a l l y every

i n d i v i d u a l i s thought o f as h a v i n g two p a r t s : the l i v i n g p e r s o n i n agbon

3
and the s p i r i t u a l c o u n t e r p a r t Ehi who i s i n e r i m w i n . An Ehi is believed
• •
4
by the Edo to i n t e r c e d e on t h e i r b e h a l f b e f o r e Osanobua. Sacrifices are

o f f e r e d to an E h i as the Edo t r y t o i n f l u e n c e the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r life.

The Edo a l s o o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e i r head (uhumwun). The head is

r e c o g n i z e d by the Edo to be the s e a t o f judgment. A man i s spoken o f as

h a v i n g a 'good h e a d ' or a 'bad h e a d ' a c c o r d i n g to h i s f a t e o r f o r t u n e in

life.

The Edo a l s o have another u n u s u a l s a c r i f i c e . The arm (obo) is

b e l i e v e d t o be the seat o f the power o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i n g s (etin). Brad-

bury s t a t e s t h a t i t s 'worship i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of w a r r i o r s

The i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e i s used to i n d i c a t e t h a t E h i i s not a

u n i t a r y b e i n g l i k e 01okun or Ogun. There are many E h i . 'Thus the e x p r e s -
s i o n ' E h i d i d ' c o u l d o n l y be used by an i n d i v i d u a l Edo r e f e r r i n g to h i s
own E h i .
4
I w i l l i n c l u d e n o n - b l o o d o f f e r i n g s i n the r u b i c s a c r i f i c e . There
are a number o f d i f f e r e n t types o f s a c r i f i c e : meal o r d r i n k o f f e r i n g s ,
g i f t s , v o t i v e , p r o p i t i a t o r y , s u b s t i t u t i o n a r y and p r e v e n t i v e (See Idowu
1962: 118-124 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f Yoruba s a c r i f i c e s ) .
 - 72 -

but i s a l s o p r a c t i c e d by o t h e r w e a l t h y and h i g h - r a n k i n g p e r s o n s ' (1957:

38). I n p r a c t i c e the Edo seem to be s a c r i f i c i n g to t h e i r uhumwun, but

when I q u e s t i o n e d informants I found t h a t t h e r e i s an a c t u a l e n t i t y in

e r i m w i n who i s the r e c i p i e n t o f the s a c r i f i c e . Of a l l the sacrifices

made to the v a r i o u s d i v i n i t i e s , those o f f e r e d to an uhumwun and an obo

are the most ambiguous.

Bradbury does not i n c l u d e the w i t c h e s (azen) i n any o f these f o u r

categories . F o r my purposes I have found i t u s e f u l to i n c l u d e them i n the

Edo cosmology. A l t h o u g h human by d a y , the azen p a r t i c i p a t e i n erimwin

d u r i n g the n i g h t . They move from one l e v e l o f e x i s t e n c e to another without

b e i n g permanently f i x e d in either. T h i s i s not the case w i t h the erha

( s p i r i t s o f the departed father) who now r e s i d e permanently in erimwin.

The a z e n ' s a b i l i t y t o move from one l e v e l and back a g a i n w i l l be seen as

important when we examine the Edo i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the azen.

C l a s s i f y i n g by B r a d b u r y ' s scheme, t h e n , omits the azen and does not

adequately differentiate the d i v i n i t i e s i n c l u d e d w i t h i n c a t e g o r y 1. Nor

does Bradbury i n c l u d e Esu i n any o f the categories.

II. CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE EDO DIVINITIES

A. OSANOBUA: THE SUPREME KING AND CREATOR OF ALL THINGS

1. Meaning o f Name

There are many names f o r the supreme d i v i n i t y . The minimal lin-

g u i s t i c u n i t used by the Edo i s O s a . When t h i s i s combined w i t h d e s c r i p t i v e

 - 73 -

w o r d s , the Edo are a b l e to c h a r a c t e r i z e f a c e t s o f h i s n a t u r e . The word

Osanobua i s now most commonly used f o r the supreme d i v i n i t y and conveys

the i d e a o f one who i s the u l t i m a t e source o f a l l t h i n g s i n erimwin and

agbon.

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the Divinity

Osanobua i s the source of a l l l i f e , the one who determines the

u l t i m a t e d e s t i n y o f the E d o , o m n i s c i e n t and o m n i p o t e n t . He i s i n no way

associated with anything e v i l .

3. Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

I n the p a s t Osanobua was r e p r e s e n t e d by Oba f i g u r e s and by a s m a l l

heap o f sand w i t h a s t i c k i n the m i d s t o f i t . I n present day B e n i n , the

o u t s i d e o f the H o l y Aruosa ( s h r i n e o f Osa) has the f l u t e d p a t t e r n o f

a r c h i t e c t u r e used o n l y by the Oba. Above the e n t r a n c e to the s h r i n e are

the ada and eben ( c e r e m o n i a l s w o r d s ) , a l s o symbols o f r o y a l t y . I n one

Olokun s h r i n e (aruOlokun) 01okun was r e p r e s e n t e d as a k i n g surrounded by

numerous a t t e n d a n t s and images o f o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s . One o f the represen-

t a t i o n s , c a r v e d out o f wood and p l a c e d near Olokun was t h a t o f Osanobua.

Now a l l Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Osanobua i s not s u b s e r v i e n t to O l o k u n . The

p l a c i n g o f Osanobua i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to Olokun i n d i c a t e s who the Edo t h i n k

i s most important and most approachable i n the s o l v i n g o f t h e i r p r o b l e m s .

A number o f p r o v e r b i a l statements are used t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h i s fact.

That Olokun seems to have superseded Osanobua i n r i t u a l focus i s e x p l a i n e d

 - 74 -

by c i t i n g the Edo p r o v e r b : 'Happy i s he whose c h i l d has been a b l e to,

improve' or 'Happy i s the c h i l d who has been a b l e to surpass h i s father.'

The statement Omosorhae-erihen sums up the Edo b e l i e f . 'Olokun assumes

the power o f g o d . '

4. Sphere o f Influence

In the mythology Osanobua i s p i c t u r e d as a k i n g , l i v i n g i n splendour

w i t h many w i v e s and c h i l d r e n : among h i s c h i l d r e n are o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s and

the f i r s t k i n g s o f I f e , o t h e r Yoruba towns and B e n i n . Osanobua's c h i l d r e n ,

the d i v i n i t i e s , execute h i s purposes i n agbon. Osanobua seems p r i m a r i l y

concerned w i t h the w e l f a r e o f the e n t i r e Edo kingdom. It is inaccurate

to t h i n k , therefore, t h a t Osanobua i s 'deus o t i o s u s . ' The Edo b e l i e v e

t h a t Osanobua m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f not o n l y through the c r e a t i o n o f l i f e , but

a l s o through h i s m i n i s t e r s : the l e s s e r divinities.

5. Cultic Following

H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e r e was no c u l t a t t a c h e d to Osanobua. But i n r e c e n t

y e a r s Osanobua has been served at the H o l y A r u o s a Church i n B e n i n C i t y .

6. Religious Functionaries

I n contemporary Edo c u l t u r e t h e r e are two ohen who o f f i c i a t e at the

weekly s e r v i c e s h e l d at the A r u o s a . They have been s p e c i a l l y chosen f o r

this task.
 - 75 -

7. Osanobua as the Object of Sacrifice

In the past blood sacrifices were made, but in contemporary Edo

culture Osanobua receives only thank offerings in the form of various

foodstuffs and monetary donations.

Osanobua is not associated with any particular feature of the

natural environment, nor is he identified exclusively with any units of

the social structure.

B. OLOKUN: THE POWERFUL SON OF OSANOBUA

1. Meaning of Name

Olokun is identified with the sea (okun), that is with the great

waters of the earth, which are said to have their source in the Ethiope

(Olokun) River near the town o f Urhonigbe.

2. Attributes of the Divinity

Olokun is the favoured son of Osanobua and is conceptualized as

peaceful, gentle and good.

3. Symbolic Representation'

Where Olokun is represented by mud or wooden images, he is repre-

sented as an Oba w i t h his retinue and w i v e s . The colour white is associated

with Olokun: the ohenOlokun must wear w h i t e and pieces of white chalk (taken
 - 76 -

from the r i v e r s ) adorn the a l t e r s o f Olokun shrines.

4. Sphere o f Influence

Olokun i s the b r i n g e r o f c h i l d r e n . C h i l d r e n (omo) are h i g h l y

v a l u e d i n the Edo c u l t u r e . T h i s can be i l l u s t r a t e d by c i t i n g one o f the

names g i v e n to a Edo c h i l d : Emokpae=Emokpogbe. T r a n s l a t e d t h i s means:

'It i s c h i l d r e n who r a i s e the p r e s t i g e o f the f a m i l y . ' Without c h i l d r e n

monetary w e a l t h means n o t h i n g i n the Edo c u l t u r e . Olokun i s a l s o b e l i e v e d

to be the b r i n g e r o f w e a l t h . Bradbury suggests (1957: 53) t h a t the

a s s o c i a t i o n o f Olokun w i t h w e a l t h undoubtedly owes something to the coming

o f the European t r a d i n g s h i p s a c r o s s the sea. Olokun i s a l s o b e l i e v e d to

be concerned w i t h the h e a l t h o f the Edo, one o f the main concerns reflected,

f o r example, i n a name such as Egberanmwen=Egberanmwen osere. 'Health is

supreme.' O l o k u n ' s sphere o f i n f l u e n c e i s to purvey b l e s s i n g to the Edo:

h e a l t h , w e a l t h and c h i l d r e n .

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h F e a t u r e s o f the N a t u r a l Environment

Olokun i s s a i d to d w e l l i n the s e a , t h a t i s , i n the g r e a t waters o f

the e a r t h w h i c h are s a i d to have t h e i r source i n the E t h i q p e (Olokun)

River. I n t o t h i s r i v e r , w h i c h r i s e s near the town o f Urhonigbe i n the

s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r o f the kingdom, a l l the r i v e r s o f the w o r l d are b e l i e v e d

to f l o w ; its immediate t r i b u t a r i e s are i d e n t i f i e d as O l o k u n ' s wives (Brad-

bury 1957: 53).

 - 77 -

6. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l Structure

There are o n l y two or t h r e e v i l l a g e s who w o r s h i p Olokun c o r p o r a t e l y .

The town o f U r h o n i g b e , the main c e n t r e o f the c u l t , and Ughoton, the o l d

p o r t o f B e n i n , have an annual f e s t i v a l i n honour o f O l o k u n . Otherwise,

Olokun i s worshipped by i n d i v i d u a l s b e f o r e t h e i r own domestic a l t a r s or

by a c u l t c e n t e r i n g around an i n f l u e n t i a l p r i e s t e s s or priest.

7. C u i t i c Following

Bradbury s t a t e s (1957: 53) t h a t e v e r y woman i n a house has her own

small a l t a r . In a sense every woman who has h e r own a l t a r installed is

a priestess of Olokun. Some, however, are r e c o g n i z e d to have more i n f l u e n c e

w i t h the d i v i n i t y than o t h e r s and become the focus o f a c u l t , which meets

r e g u l a r l y t o honour the divinity.

8. Religious Functionaries

The head p r i e s t e s s (ohen) o f Olokun l i v e s at U r h o n i g b e . Although it

is t r u e t h a t many women have t h e i r own domestic a l t a r s , t h e r e are some

women who come to be s p e c i a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as p r i e s t e s s e s having influence

w i t h the d i v i n i t y . T h e i r a l t a r s w i l l c o n t a i n some i t e m / s o b t a i n e d from

the main s h r i n e at Urhonigbe and people w i l l come to them f o r the u g i O l o k u n

as w e l l as f o r a s s i s t a n c e in their affairs.

9. Olokun as the Object o f Sacrifice

Olokun i s the o b j e c t o f s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g s o f a b l o o d l e s s and

 - 78 -

blood type.

C. OGUN: THE ARBITER OF JUSTICE

1. Meaning o f Name

One who c o n t r o l s o r r u l e s metal ( t h e god o f i r o n ) .

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the D i v i n i t y

Ogun i s o f a f u r i o u s , temperamental c h a r a c t e r . He i s b e l i e v e d t o

be capable o f d e s t r u c t i v e a c t s .

3. Symbolic Representation

Ogun i s s y m b o l i z e d by a n y t h i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e t a l . F o r example,

the aruOgun i s covered w i t h p i e c e s o f s c r a p m e t a l . I n some cases an a r u

w i l l be demarcated by a s i n g l e i r o n s t a k e d r i v e n i n t o t h e ground.

4. Sphere o f I n f l u e n c e

The name 'pioneer d i v i n i t y ' has been g i v e n t o Ogun. The Edo b e l i e v e

t h a t i t i s Ogun who feeds t h e o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s and makes t h e way c l e a r

f o r i n d i v i d u a l Edo t o l i v e h a r m o n i o u s l y and s u c c e s s f u l l y . A l l Edo know

the power o f Ogun who vents h i s f u r y on people g u i l t y o f u n j u s t a c t s .

 - 79 -

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l Structure

S i n c e Ogun i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a n y t h i n g m e t a l , he has become the

tutelary s p i r i t o f anyone i n any way a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e t a l w o r k . The

m e t a l g u i l d s i n the o l d days worked under h i s g u i d a n c e . And the p r e s e n t

day smiths w o r k i n g on Igun S t r e e t i n B e n i n C i t y c o n s i d e r Ogun to be their

tutelary d i v i n i t y . They have an aruOgun i n t h e i r f o r g e s ; the aru b e i n g

demarcated by a c o l l e c t i o n o f scrap p i e c e s o f m e t a l heaped t o g e t h e r on top

of an a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 ' by 3 ' mud s h r i n e . Informants have t o l d me t h a t

anyone w o r k i n g w i t h b r a s s , bronze o r i r o n does not need to s a c r i f i c e to

Ogun w i t h the h e l p o f a p r i e s t w h i c h i s the u s u a l p a t t e r n f o r the commoner.

Truck d r i v e r s are q u i t e o f t e n devotees o f Ogun s i n c e t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d is

dependent upon m e t a l ( t h e i r t r u c k s ) , a l l o f w h i c h Ogun i s s a i d to own.

6. Cuitic Following

Ogun i s not merely served by s p e c i a l c a t e g o r i e s o f people w i t h i n

the c u l t u r e . There are many Ogun s h r i n e s throughout B e n i n C i t y . Like

O l o k u n , v a r i o u s p e o p l e w i l l a t t a c h themselves to a p a r t i c u l a r ohen thus

forming a c u l t . Most Edo n o n - C h r i s t i a n s w i l l have t h e i r own domestic

s h r i n e b e f o r e which they w i l l o f f e r p r a y e r s to Ogun. The s i m p l e s t aruO-

gun i s an i r o n s t a k e d r i v e n i n t o the g r o u n d . However, most c u l t s will

have a s h r i n e house.

7. Religious Functionaries

Ogun i s served by ohen who are b e l i e v e d by the Edo to be chosen

 - 80 -

by Ogun. Once chosen they undergo some t r a i n i n g and then b e g i n s e r v i n g

Ogun by p e r f o r m i n g s a c r i f i c e s and the ugiOgun every f i v e days.

8. Ogun as an Object o f S a c r i f i c e

Ogun i s the o b j e c t of s a c r i f i c e s , both o f a b l o o d l e s s and b l o o d

type.

D. ESU: THE ENEMY OF OSANOBUA AND MAN

1. Meaning o f the Name

I am not c l e a r on the etymology o f E s u . G e n e r a l l y , we can say that

Esu means one who i s a s s o c i a t e d with e v i l .

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the Divinity

Esu i s d i r t y , b l a c k and u g l y . He i s b e l i e v e d by the Edo to be a

c a p r i c i o u s d i v i n i t y who, u n l i k e Ogun, enjoys d e s t r o y i n g and harassing

man.

3. Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

Esu i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a t h o r n s t i c k , or a s m a l l c a r v e d d o l l , and is

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c o l o u r b l a c k . The aruEsu i s p a i n t e d b l a c k and many o f

the s a c r i f i c i a l items o f f e r e d to Esu are black.

 - 81 -

4. Sphere o f Influence

As the enemy o f Osanobua and the E d o , Esu i s opposed to the

harmonious f u n c t i o n i n g o f the Edo c u l t u r e . The Edo t r y t o keep him at

a d i s t a n c e and would never t h i n k o f s i n g i n g h i s p r a i s e s . S a c r i f i c e s are

offered to Esu i n o r d e r to appease h i m , o r to persuade him to work e v i l

a g a i n s t an enemy. A l l n o n - C h r i s t i a n Edo w i l l have an a l t a r f o r Esu at

the f r o n t o f t h e i r h o u s e . The Edo say t h a t the aruEsu i s p l a c e d o u t s i d e

so t h a t Esu w i l l come to the aru,-partake o f the o f f e r i n g and go away

l e a v i n g those i n s i d e the house unharmed.

5. Esu as the Object o f Sacrifice

I have a l r e a d y mentioned t h a t Esu i s the o b j e c t o f s a c r i f i c e . Un-

l i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Esu i s seldom thanked f o r a n y t h i n g he might

happen to d o .

Esu i s not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any f e a t u r e o f the n a t u r a l environment,

nor i s he a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n i t s o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . There are no

c u l t s f o l l o w i n g Esu and t h e r e are no t r a i n e d r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n a r i e s to

serve him.

E. THE HERO-DIVINITIES: TRANSFORMED HUMANS

1. Meaning o f the Name/s

The h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s are m y t h i c a l or s e m i - m y t h i c a l f i g u r e s o f the

p a s t who are b e l i e v e d to have t u r n e d i n t o n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f the environment

 - 82 -

(usually r i v e r s ) . The name o f the d i v i n i t y i s u s u a l l y synonymous w i t h

the name g i v e n t o the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e o f the environment.

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the Divinity/ies

F u l l d a t a i s l a c k i n g h e r e ; Okhauhe,~* f o r example, has similar

attributes to Olokun a l t h o u g h Okhauhe i s b e l i e v e d to have a more f u r i o u s

nature.

3. Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

The d i f f e r e n t d i v i n i t i e s are r e p r e s e n t e d symbolically. Using

Okhauhe as an example, he i s r e p r e s e n t e d symbolically w i t h rocks taken

from the Okhauhe R i v e r .

4. Sphere o f Influence

The h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s act as guardians o f the village.

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Features o f the N a t u r a l Environment

A l l h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h some f e a t u r e o f the natural

environment. O v i a , Okhauhe, Ake are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i v e r s .

I was i n the process o f s t u d y i n g the h e r o - d i v i n i t y Okhauhe but

due to the c i v i l war I was u n a b l e to conclude my r e s e a r c h .
 - 83 -

6. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l Structure

The most i m p o r t a n t f a c t about the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s i s t h a t they are

served almost e x c l u s i v e l y by a v i l l a g e or a group o f v i l l a g e s s i t u a t e d

near the h e r o - d i v i n i t y ' s p l a c e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Occasionally there i s

some c o o p e r a t i o n between v i l l a g e s i n the sense t h a t the p r i e s t or t h e i r

representatives from one v i l l a g e w i l l v i s i t another v i l l a g e s e r v i n g the

same h e r o - d i v i n i t y when a f e s t i v a l ( u g i e ) i s i n p r o g r e s s .

Bradbury g i v e s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f O v i a , one o f the b e s t known

h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s i n Edoland. O v i a i s s a i d to be the m y t h i c a l w i f e o f a

k i n g who melted i n t o a r i v e r out o f g r i e f at b e i n g accused by her c o - w i v e s

o f b r i n g i n g i l l upon her husband. O v i a i s the name o f the l a r g e s t r i v e r

i n the B e n i n kingdom though many v i l l a g e s p r a c t i c i n g the c u l t have no

p a r t i c u l a r connection with i t . I t i s p o p u l a r l y known as 'Ovia j u j u . 1

One o f the b e s t known ceremonies a s s o c i a t e d w i t h O v i a i s the O v i a

masquerade. Once a year most o f the men i n the v i l l a g e go i n t o s e c l u s i o n

i n the groves around the s h r i n e f o r p e r i o d s up to two months. They emerge

p e r i o d i c a l l y c o m p l e t e l y masked except f o r t h e i r f e e t . These marked

f i g u r e s are known as e r i m w i n - O v i a and are thought to r e p r e s e n t the spirits

o f the past w o r s h i p p e r s o f O v i a . Each masquerader impersonates h i s most

r e c e n t l y deceased p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r . The f i r s t dance i s h e l d b e f o r e

the s h r i n e o f O v i a , the second and t h i r d i n f r o n t o f the houses o f the

two O v i a p r i e s t s and the r e s t f o r the v i l l a g e as a whole or i n o t h e r

v i l l a g e s t o which they have been invited.

The male w o r s h i p p e r s are graded a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r to those o f

the v i l l a g e age grades though the p e r s o n n e l o f the c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e c u l a r

and r i t u a l grades i s not n e c e s s a r i l y i d e n t i c a l . Women are b a r r e d from

the O v i a groves except on two o c c a s i o n s . T h e i r duty i s to keep the men

w e l l fed and to s i n g at n i g h t and i n the morning f o r t h e i r safety, for

they are b e l i e v e d to be on the t h r e s h o l d between agbon and e r i m w i n and

therefore i n great danger. It i s the women who f i n a l l y k i l l off the

e r i m w i n - O v i a by t h r o w i n g c l o t h s over t h e i r h e a d s , thus e n s u r i n g the return

o f the men to the r e a l w o r l d .

7. Cuitic Following

The s e r v i c e o f the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s i s r e s t r i c t e d to particular

v i l l a g e s or continguous v i l l a g e s near the p l a c e o f the d i v i n i t y ' s t r a n s -

formation. For example, t h e r e are no c u l t s o f O v i a or Okhauhe i n B e n i n

City. I f an Edo wanted t o i n t e r a c t w i t h O v i a he would have to t r a v e l to

the a r u O v i a l o c a t e d i n the v i l l a g e s e r v i n g t h a t d i v i n i t y . Ovia-worship,

l i k e the w o r s h i p o f Olokun and Ogun, i s not c o n f i n e d to the y e a r l y u g i e .

Every f i f t h day the p r i e s t s go to the s h r i n e t o make o f f e r i n g s . Indivi-

d u a l s go to them w i t h r e q u e s t s t h a t they make s p e c i a l p r a y e r s and, in

p a r t i c u l a r , women who d e s i r e c h i l d r e n seek t h e i r a i d i n making o f f e r i n g s

to O v i a w i t h promises to p r o v i d e f u r t h e r sacrifices i f t h e i r prayers are

answered.

8. Religious Functionaries

Each h e r o - d i v i n i t y i s served by an o h e n .
 - 85 -

F. THE ANCESTORS: SPIRITS OF THE DEPARTED

S p i r i t s o f the d e p a r t e d f a l l i n t o two c l a s s e s . F i r s t , there i s the

domestic a n c e s t o r c u l t . Here i t i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l g e n e a l o g i c a l l y d e f i n e d

a n c e s t o r ( e r h a / i y e ) who i s t h e o b j e c t o f r i t u a l a c t i o n . Secondly, there

are t h e c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s o r p r e d e c e s s o r s o f a group ( e d i o n ) .

I. The Erha

1. Meaning o f Name

Erha i s Edo f o r f a t h e r and r e f e r s t o t h e named d e p a r t e d f a t h e r who

now d w e l l s i n e r i m w i n ; i y e i s Edo f o r mother. Of t h e two t h e d e p a r t e d

e r h a i s by f a r t h e most i m p o r t a n t .

2. A t t r i b u t e s of the D i v i n i t y

The d e p a r t e d e r h a i s c o n c e i v e d as s t a n d i n g i n much the same r e l a t i o n

t o h i s descendants as does t h e head o f t h e extended f a m i l y i n agbon.

3. Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

The a l t a r o f t h e e r h a (aruerha) i s d e c o r a t e d w i t h Ukhurhe s t a f f s

and wooden o r b r a s s heads w h i c h r e p r e s e n t t h e d e p a r t e d f a t h e r . I f a man

d i e s who was a l s o a s e n i o r s o n , an a d d i t i o n a l ukhurhe w i l l be added t o

the e x i s t i n g a l t a r , o t h e r w i s e t h e l i v i n g s e n i o r son w i l l b e g i n h i s own a l t a r .

 - 86 -

4. Sphere o f Influence

The erha a c t s as the g u a r d i a n o f the l i n e a g e w h i c h i n v o l v e s p u n i s h i n g

such o f f e n s e s as i n c e s t , a d u l t e r y , s t e a l i n g and q u a r r e l l i n g .

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l Structure

The e r h a are a s s o c i a t e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h the p a t r i l i n e a g e . Bradbury

n o t e s (1957: 54) t h a t i n accordance w i t h the r u l e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e , and

s i n c e i d e a l l y every man s h o u l d have a s e n i o r s o n , t h e r e i s a l i k e l i h o o d

o f f i s s i o n o f the a n c e s t o r - w o r s h i p p i n g u n i t . The e f f e c t i v e ancestor-

w o r s h i p p i n g u n i t i n c l u d e s the youngest c h i l d r e n and the s u r v i v i n g brothers

and s i s t e r s o f the e r h a - - a p p r o x i m a t e l y two to four g e n e r a t i o n s i n depth.

6. Religious Functionary

The s e n i o r son o.fythe departed erha i s the one who performs the

f u n c t i o n o f m e d i a t i n g the departed erha.

7. The E r h a as the O b j e c t o f Sacrifice

The e r h a are the o b j e c t o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e s and food offerings.

II. The E d i o n

1. Meaning o f Name

The c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s or predecessors o f a group are known as

 - 87 -

edion. There are d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f e d i o n but i n t h i s study we are

p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h those e d i o n who are thought to be the original

«

o c c u p i e r s o f the v i l l a g e . The departed e d i o n are those i n d i v i d u a l s who

have a c h i e v e d the t i t l e o f o d i o n w e r e . U n l i k e the e r h a , the e d i o n are

• • •
not named.

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the Divinity/ies

L i k e the e r h a , the e d i o n are b e l i e v e d t o stand i n the same r e l a t i o n -

s h i p to the descendants as the odionwere d i d to the v i l l a g e u n i t .

3. Symbolic Representation

The e d i o n are r e p r e s e n t e d by ukhurhe s t a f f s and b r a s s heads which

are p l a c e d on the a l t a r o f the departed edion.

4. Sphere o f Influence

The e d i o n a c t as the g u a r d i a n o f the p h y s i c a l and moral w e l l - b e i n g

o f members o f the village.

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t o f the S o c i a l Structure

The e d i o n are s e r v e d e x c l u s i v e l y by the v i l l a g e u n i t . A l l villages

have e d i o n s h r i n e s (ogwedion). These s h r i n e s may a l s o s e r v e as community

meeting p l a c e s .
 - 88 -

6. Religious Functionary

The odionwere i s the one who mediates the departed e d i o n j u s t as

• • •
the e r h a mediates the departed father.

7. The E d i o n as the O b j e c t o f Sacrifice

The e d i o n are the o b j e c t o f p e r i o d i c s a c r i f i c e s o f a b l o o d and

b l o o d l e s s n a t u r e and a y e a r l y t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e .

G. THE AZEN: BRIDGE BETWEEN ERIMWIN AND AGBON

1. Meaning o f Name

The meaning o f azen i s one who has the a b i l i t y to d e t a c h h i s / h e r

essence ( o r i o n ) from the body i n o r d e r to p a r t i c i p a t e i n e r i m w i n .

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the Divinity/ies

The azen has the a t t r i b u t e s o f a h i g h l y a n t i - s o c i a l b e i n g who i s

the a n t i t h e s i s o f the Edo modal p e r s o n a l i t y .

3. Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

The azen are not r e p r e s e n t e d symbolically. However, t h i n g s o f the

left are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them ( e g . the l e f t f o o t o f a g o a t ) . And they are

 - 89 -

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h i n g s t h a t are repugnant to the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s and the

Edo t h e m s e l v e s .

4. Sphere o f Influence

The azen d i s r u p t the harmonious f u n c t i o n i n g o f the Edo s o c i e t y .

They a t t a c k the Edo at the v a l u e p o i n t s i n t h e i r c u l t u r e ( w e a l t h , h e a l t h

and f e r t i l i t y ) .

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h F e a t u r e s o f the N a t u r a l Environment

The azen do not r e s i d e permanently i n any p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , but

every v i l l a g e has i t s group o f azen who are b e l i e v e d to meet i n a p a r t i c u -

l a r t r e e d u r i n g the n i g h t .

6. Religious Functionary

The obo noyada (One who goes to the j u n c t i o n ) i s b e l i e v e d to have

• • •

s p e c i a l knowledge o f the a z e n . H i s a i d i s sought i n making s a c r i f i c e s to

the azen to persuade them t o d e s i s t i n their e v i l doing. The obo noyada

• . . .
c o u l d not be c o n s i d e r e d as a p r o f e s s i o n a l o h e n .

7. The Azen as O b j e c t s o f Sacrifice

The azen are the r e c i p i e n t s o f s a c r i f i c e and o f f e r i n g s w h i c h are

u s u a l l y p l a c e d at road j u n c t i o n s (ada) on the o u t s k i r t s o f the town.

 - 90 -

There i s no c u l t i c f o l l o w i n g o f the a z e n ; they are not i d e n t i f i e d

w i t h any p a r t i c u l a r u n i t o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e r e i s no a r u

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them.

H. E H I : DESTINY IN THE EDO TRADITIONAL RELIGION

I. Meaning o f Name

The i d e a conveyed i n the word E h i . i s t h a t o f s p i r i t u a l counterpart.

Every l i v i n g Edo has an E h i l i v i n g i n e r i m w i n .

2. A t t r i b u t e s o f the Divinity

The E h i has s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to' h i s c o u n t e r p a r t i n agbon.

3. Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

An E h i i s not s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by the Edo commoner. How-

e v e r , Bradbury notes (1957: 58) t h a t on s t a t e o c c a s i o n s the Oba wears an

image o f h i s E h i i n the form o f a d o l l .

4. Sphere o f Influence

An E h i stands b e h i n d h i s c o u n t e r p a r t i n agbon, p a r t i c u l a r l y when

the l a t t e r i s making h i s r e q u e s t to the c r e a t o r . In t h i s c a s e , an E h i

ensures t h a t h i s c o u n t e r p a r t does not f o r g e t a n y t h i n g . His essential

function, then, i s t o i n t e r c e d e on b e h a l f o f h i s c o u n t e r p a r t i n agbon

and to ensure t h a t he f u l f i l l s h i s predetermined destiny.

5. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h F e a t u r e s o f the N a t u r a l Environment

An E h i i s not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any f e a t u r e s o f the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n -

ment.

6. A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l Structure

An E h i ' s c o n c e r n i s t o t a l l y o r i e n t e d t o h i s e a r t h l y counterpart.

An E h i i s the r i t u a l focus o f i n d i v i d u a l s and never c u l t s o f collectivi-

ties.

7. Religious Functionary

The i n d i v i d u a l mediates h i s own E h i . There i s no s h r i n e associated

w i t h an E h i .

8. E h i as the O b j e c t o f Sacrifice

An E h i i s the o b j e c t o f b o t h s a c r i f i c e s and o f f e r i n g s .

I. THE WORSHIP OF OBIEMWEN AND OGIUWU

The w o r s h i p o f two d i v i n i t i e s - - O b i e m w e n and Ogiuwu--has f a l l e n into

 - 92 -

abeyance. F o r m e r l y Obiemwen was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e r t i l i t y . My informant

s a i d t h a t today Ob iemwen works w i t h Olokun as an a s s i s t a n t . No s a c r i f i c e s

are made to h i m . Ogiuwu (King o f death) was served at a s p e c i a l s h r i n e

i n the c e n t r e o f B e n i n C i t y by members o f the Oba's r e t i n u e known as

Ukebo. S a c r i f i c e s were made to Ogiuwu m a i n l y by the Oba to induce him t o

'delay.' Though Ogiuwu no l o n g e r communicates w i t h the E d o , he still

r e t a i n s a p o s i t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n the Edo cosmology.

Ogiuwu i s the r e c o r d e r o f a l l deaths and the p r e c i s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s

r e l a t i n g to d e a t h , d w e l l i n g i n a p l a c e v e r y dark and t e r r i b l e to l o o k at.

His f u n c t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t o n e - - t h a t o f the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p e r s o n ' s

p r i o n (the s o u l u a l p a r t o f the i n d i v i d u a l ) b e f o r e the supreme k i n g ,

Osanobua. Ogiuwu has n o t h i n g to do w i t h the a c t u a l event o f death and

would never be thought o f as the cause o f a p e r s o n ' s death.

The Edo C y c l e o f Death

Osanobua Erimwin

Birth Ego's o r i o n Agbon

Diagram 2

When ego d i e s , the cause o f h i s death w i l l be d i s c o v e r e d by d i v i n a -

tion. A t death e g o ' s o r i o n w i l l be t a k e n by Ogiuwu who has r e c o r d e d the

n a t u r e o f e g o ' s death and p r e s e n t e d to Osanobua. Osanobua w i l l judge ego

and w i l l then send h i m on another m i s s i o n i n t o the w o r l d . The Edo b e l i e v e

i n r e i n c a r n a t i o n : a p e r s o n must complete f o u r t e e n c y c l e s b e f o r e he finally

r e s i d e s i n erimwin permanently. Some Edo b e l i e v e t h a t e g o ' s E h i and

 - 93 -

o r i o n i n t e r c h a n g e at death and the b i r t h o f a child.

III. CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF SOME RELIGIOUS

AND MAGICAL PRACTITIONERS

A. THE OHEN

We have a l r e a d y seen t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l p r i e s t s (ohen) mediate

Osanobua, O l o k u n , Ogun and the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s . In c o n t r a s t to the e r h a

and e d i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y , the ohen are chosen by t h e i r d i v i n i t y . The p r i e s t -

hood may be i n h e r i t e d , but u n l i k e the p r i e s t l y f u n c t i o n performed by the

l i v i n g e r h a and odionwere t h i s i s not a p r e r e q u i s i t e . C o n s a n g u i n i t y to

a dead ohen i s not enough; one must be ' c h o s e n ' by the d i v i n i t y . Another

differentiating f a c t o r may be t h a t , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the ohenOsanobua,

the ohen are s e r v i n g d i v i n i t i e s who possess and c o n t r o l them at g i v e n r i t u a l

occasions. The departed s p i r i t s never possess those i n d i v i d u a l s m e d i a t i n g

them.

B. THE 0B0 NOYADA

• •

Reference has been made to the obo n o y a d a . He i s b e l i e v e d to be

i n s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the azen and, t h e r e f o r e , capable of i n f l u e n c i n g

them. He a l s o has a knowledge o f h e r b s .

C. THE OBODIN

The c u r i n g d o c t o r (obodin) must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the ohen. An

 - 94 -

ohen may have some knowledge o f the use o f herbs and m e d i c i n e s but this

does not always f o l l o w . An obo ( p l u r a l : ebo) or 'native doctor 1

may

s p e c i a l i z e i n c u r i n g , d i v i n i n g and combating a z e n . His primary f u n c t i o n ,

t h o u g h , i s to p r e p a r e m e d i c i n e s w h i c h are g i v e n t o the p a t i e n t to d r i n k ,

rubbed on the body o r i n s e r t e d as t a l i s m a n and c a r r i e d about on the per-

son. Some obo c l a i m to be a b l e to s e t b o n e s . They a l s o c l a i m t o have

power to d e a l w i t h l e p r o s y , impotency, l o v e a f f a i r s , eye s i g h t t r o u b l e and

success in trade.

D. THE DIVINER

The d i v i n e r i s the a x i s f i g u r e i n the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m . Brad-

bury subsumes the d i v i n e r under the r u b r i c magic (Bradbury 1957: 5 9 ) . There

are ' m a g i c a l ' elements i n d i v i n a t i o n , but I t h i n k t h a t the d i v i n e r must

be viewed as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m . The d i v i n e r i s

approached f o r t h r e e b a s i c reasons:

1. To d i s c o v e r what d i v i n i t y s h o u l d be i n t e r a c t e d w i t h i n o r d e r

to a c h i e v e a p a r t i c u l a r e n d . The d i v i n e r w i l l not o n l y suggest

an a v a i l a b l e d i v i n i t y , but he w i l l a l s o t e l l the supplicant

what items s h o u l d be used i n the s a c r i f i c e .

2. To d i s c o v e r what the cause o f an u n f o r t u n a t e event is.

3. To d i s c o v e r the meaning o f dream e x p e r i e n c e s .

It i s the d i v i n e r who s e t s the Edo r e l i g i o u s system i n m o t i o n . Out

of c o n c e r n and a n x i e t y t o a l l e v i a t e a d i s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n , the Edo w i l l

approach the d i v i n e r i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r which channel o f communication

i s open to them, i . e ^ w h i c h d i v i n i t y would be most open to h e a r i n g their

 - 95 -

case and most c a p a b l e o f d o i n g something about the p r o b l e m . An u n f o r t u n a t e

event such as the death o f a c h i l d w i l l cause the Edo to seek the d i v i n e r ' s

interpretation. What d i v i n i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the death (probably

e i t h e r Ogun, Esu or the a z e n ) ; what i s the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the death and

what must be done to r e g a i n the f a v o u r o f the angered d i v i n i t y . The

meaning o f dreams Cj-s: a l s o i n t e r p r e t e d by the d i v i n e r . For i n the Edo

c u l t u r e dreams are b e l i e v e d t o be one o f the means whereby d i v i n i t y breaks

into t h e i r consciousness. The d i v i n e r ' s f u n c t i o n i s to i n t e r p r e t the

c o n t e n t o f the dream: what d i v i n i t y i s s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d , what he

is s a y i n g and what response i s demanded.

The most common type o f d i v i n e r i s the ogwega. He i s t r a i n e d to

i n t e r p r e t p a t t e r n s produced by the t h r o w i n g o f a n e c k l a c e c o n t a i n i n g 16

s h e l l s w i t h a concave and convex s i d e .

;
The p o s s i b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s are

numerous and each c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s r e l a t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r problem and

divinity, a s o l u t i o n b e i n g o f f e r e d on the b a s i s o f the p a t t e r n i n g o f the

d i v i n a t o r y apparatus. In the average v i l l a g e or town t h e r e w i l l be many

i n d i v i d u a l s who c l a i m to d i v i n e , but o n l y a few w i l l g a i n a r e p u t a t i o n

as p a r t i c u l a r l y s k i l f u l l d i v i n e r s . . O t h e r s , the Edo f e e l , are charlatans.

The;ewawa d i v i n e r works by c a s t i n g a number o f s m a l l f i g u r e s o f

human b e i n g s , animals and inanimate o b j e c t s on to a p l a t t e r , interpreting

the answer a c c o r d i n g to the p a t t e r n i n which they f a l l (Bradbury 1957: 59).

I have not observed t h i s method, but Bradbury s t a t e s t h a t i t was p r a c t i c e d

by the ewaise who i n h a b i t e d a number o f wards i n B e n i n C i t y . They were

among the Oba's o f f i c i a l ' d o c t o r s ' and were s k i l f u l : i n preparing medicines

and i n making charms D i v i n e r s are u s u a l l y s k i l l e d i n the p r e p a r a t i o n s o f

medicines.
 - 96 -

Olokun ohen have t h e i r own system o f d i v i n a t i o n ( a k p e l e ) u s i n g

• • •

cowrie s h e l l s . And k o l a - d i v i n a t i o n i s p r a c t i c e d by the p r i e s t s o f Olokun

and Ogun. T h i s p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f d i v i n a t i o n i s l i m i t e d to the s a c r i f i c e

performed b e f o r e the s h r i n e . The f o u r - s i d e d k o l a i s used and a c c o r d i n g

to i t s p a t t e r n i n g , the p r i e s t w i l l be a b l e to t e l l i f the d i v i n i t y has

h e a r d the message and i f a n y t h i n g has been o m i t t e d from the sacrificial

gift.

Yoruba systems o f d i v i n a t i o n have made some i n r o a d s i n t o E d o l a n d .

Ifa d i v i n a t i o n , consisting of d i v i n a t i o n with palm-kernels, is associated

w i t h the w o r s h i p o f the d i v i n i t y O r u n m i l a . However, by f a r the most

common type o f d i v i n a t i o n i n Edoland i s the ogwega.

W i t h t h i s summary statement o f the Edo cosmology i n m i n d , I t u r n

t o the d e t a i l o f Edo d i v i n i t i e s .
 CHAPTER I V

OSANOBUA: SUPREME KING AND CREATOR OF ALL THINGS

I). THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF OSANOBUA

There are a number o f ways o f deducing what a people b e l i e v e about

a particular divinity. Through an a n a l y s i s o f the mythology the researcher

is a b l e t o d i g beneath the c o m p l e x i t i e s and even a b s u r d i t i e s o f myth i n

o r d e r to p e r c e i v e what i s the ' t r u t h ' ' ' about a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y .

1
For-

t u n a t e l y t h e r e are a number o f p r i n t e d documents connected w i t h the f o u n -

d i n g o f the H o l y A r u o s a Church (See Oba o f B e n i n 1946a; 1946b; 1 9 4 6 - 8 ) .

These w r i t i n g s c o n t a i n a number o f Edo myths about Osanobua. I will

attempt to a n a l y z e them as one means o f a r r i v i n g at the Edo representation

of Osanobua.

Another i m p o r t a n t means o f a s c e r t a i n i n g what the Edo t h i n k about

the H i g h God i s through an a n a l y s i s o f the names the Edo g i v e to their

children. M . O m i j i e w r i t i n g i n N i g e r i a M a g a z i n e ' s L i t e r a r y Supplement

(1968: 40) states:

B i n i names r e f l e c t the B i n i t h o u g h t — e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e they express

i n most cases v e r y many i d e a s , b e l i e f s and maxims. B i n i names a r e ,
t h e r e f o r e , expressed p r o v e r b i a l l y , and I choose t o c a l l them so f o r
want o f a b e t t e r term: Proverb-Names.

Myths are man's attempt to get at the 'meaning o f t h i n g s ' ; to

grasp the t o t a l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e . They are not t r i v i a l or a b s u r d . Myth
r e l a t e s to t h a t w h i c h i s ' e t e r n a l l y t r u e . ' P a u l T i l l i c h (1957: 49) has
w r i t t e n t h a t myth ' i s the c o m b i n a t i o n o f symbols o f our u l t i m a t e c o n c e r n . . .
There i s no s u b s t i t u t e f o r the use o f symbols and myths: they are the
language o f f a i t h . '
 - 98 -

U n l i k e N o r t h American names, A f r i c a n names have profound meaning and

significance. K . C r a g g , w r i t i n g on ' C h r i s t i a n symbolism and the African

m i n d , ' has noted t h a t 'names, i n the w h i t e w o r l d , are no more t h a n what

men "are c a l l e d . " Not so i n A f r i c a where they are what men a r e ' (1968:

150). For our purposes the name f u n c t i o n s as a r e c o r d e r o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s

p e r c e p t i o n o f the a c t i v i t y o f d i v i n i t y . A name w i l l be g i v e n not o n l y as

a t r i b u t e to a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y but a l s o as an i n d i c a t o r t h a t the

d i v i n i t y has spoken o r i n t e r v e n e d i n Edo a f f a i r s . The name can be g i v e n

t o r e f l e c t an E d o ' s predicament at a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l time (eg.

f a m i l i a l c o n f l i c t ) o r c e r t a i n problems r e l a t e d to the a c t u a l b i r t h o f the

child. An a n a l y s i s o f Osa-names p o i n t s to what the Edo b e l i e v e i s the

n a t u r e o f Osanobua as w e l l as how the Edo i n t e r p r e t c e r t a i n events as a

2
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua.

A. OSANOBUA AS HE IS PRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

3
1. The S t o r y o f Erhamwoisa

There l i v e d a p o w e r f u l D i v i n i t y c a l l e d E r h a m o i s a . H i s w i f e was

c a l l e d Obiemwen. They had many c h i l d r e n namely, O l o k u n , Ogiuwu, E s u , E h i

P . B e r g e r (1969: 75) suggests t h a t w i t h i n e x p e r i e n c e d r e a l i t y t h e r e

are ' s i g n a l s o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e ' which p o i n t beyond man's " n a t u r e . " In the
c o n t e x t o f t h i s study p a r t i c u l a r events are i n t e r p r e t e d by the Edo as
' s i g n a l s ' of a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y ' s presence.
3
I w i l l t r y to f o l l o w the t e x t g i v e n by the Oba i n The Addresses
o f the Oba o f B e n i n i n c o n n e x i o n w i t h the ARUOSA as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e ,
but w i l l paraphrase where n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r to have a g r a m m a t i c a l t e x t .
 - 99 -

and so o n . Olokun was v e r y w i t t y , good and k i n d ; Oriuwu was v e r y h a r s h ,

4

d r e a d f u l and i r a s c i b l e . Ehi was s i m p l e , good-natured and o b l i g i n g : Esu

was w i c k e d and t r o u b l e s o m e . The thunderous n o i s e d u r i n g a storm was

b e l i e v e d to be the u t t e r a n c e s o f Ogiuwu. E h i was O l o k u n ' s f a v o u r i t e and

h e , Olokun and Ogiuwu always moved and p l a y e d w i t h bows and arrows to-

gether. One day O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and E h i began to shoot at a t a r g e t (etee) ;

e x c i t e d by the number o f s c o r e s he made Olokun e j a c u l a t e d 'Menmwen O r i r e n f o

N'Ovb ierhamwo i s a ' meaning ' I have an i n t i m a t e knowledge o f God' or ' I am

known by God as h i s S o n . 1
When Ogiuwu made a s c o r e h e , t o o , ejaculated

'Menmwen O r i z e r e n N ' O v b i e r h a m w o i s a ' meaning ' I am o n l y known a l i t t l e by

F a t h e r God. ' E h i made a s c o r e but he d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f to be 'Imarenhiehie

N'Ovb ierhamwo i s a meaning ' I am known not as a son o f the F a t h e r G o d . ' At

t h a t time Erhamwoisa s a t down at Egun and He o v e r h e a r d them. The n e x t day

He c a l l e d the t h r e e c h i l d r e n and o r d e r e d them to go to the r i v e r to fetch

water for Him. He gave to each a b a s k e t i n w h i c h to b r i n g water home.

B e f o r e the c h i l d r e n l e f t f o r the r i v e r Olokun q u i c k l y made a b a n u r i (a k i n d

o f p i c t u r e ) i n the sand on the g r o u n d . He r e q u e s t e d Erhamwoisa to remove

the p i c t u r e and keep i t safe i f i t r a i n e d i n h i s absence. Erhamwoisa

always k e p t the r a i n s i n a b i g tank under l o c k and k e y . When t h e r e was a

drought He opened the tank and i t would r a i n . I f i t was too wet He l o c k e d

up the r a i n s i n the t a n k . A f t e r the d e p a r t u r e o f the c h i l d r e n to the r i v e r

Esu went s e c r e t l y to open the tank i n w h i c h the r a i n s were kept and i t

In t h i s myth E h i i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a s i n g l e d i v i n i t y . This
appears to c o n t r a d i c t ' w h a t most Edo b e l i e v e about t h e i r E h i . P o s s i b l y
t h i s myth r e f e r s to a p e r i o d o f time b e f o r e the c r e a t i o n " o f the E d o .
Or something has been l o s t i n t r a n s l a t i o n . A t any r a t e , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
i s needed i n t o the Edo b e l i e f i n E h i .
 - 100 -

rained very h e a v i l y . The p i c t u r e made by Olokun i n the sand on the ground

was d e s t r o y e d . Meanwhile the c h i l d r e n r e t u r n e d from the r i v e r . Erhamwoisa

then asked Olokun to produce the water he brought from the r i v e r . Instead

o f p r o d u c i n g the water Olokun asked Erhamwoisa to g i v e him the p i c t u r e He

asked Him to remove and keep safe i f i t rained. Erhamwoisa s m i l e d and

said, ' D i d n ' t you know t h a t the p i c t u r e i n the sand c o u l d not be removed?'

' D i d n ' t you k n o w , ' r e i t e r a t e d Olokun, ' t h a t a basket c o u l d not h o l d w a t e r ? '

Erhamwoisa s m i l e d a g a i n and s a i d , ' O l o k u n , r e a l l y you are a k n o w - i t - a l l . '

Erhamwoisa then asked Ogiuwu to produce the water he brought from the r i v e r .

Ogiuwu produced the b a s k e t but o n l y a few drops o f water remained on the

l e a v e s which he put i n the b a s k e t to p r e v e n t leakage. Erhamwoisa a g a i n

s m i l e d and s a i d , 'Ogiuwu, r e a l l y you d o n ' t know v e r y m u c h . '

E h i t o l d Erhamwoisa t h a t he dipped the b a s k e t i n t o the r i v e r but

it d i d not h o l d w a t e r . Erhamwoisa s m i l e d and s a i d , ' E h i , r e a l l y you are

very i g n o r a n t . 1
Erhamwoisa now d e c i d e d to make g i f t s to the c h i l d r e n ;

to Olokun he gave ukurhe and u w e n r h i o n t a n with a parrot tail feather on

one end and s a i d , ' O l o k u n , you must merely say your w i s h e s , stamp and whip

the ground w i t h the ukurhe and u w e n r h i o n t a n and your wishes w i l l be ful-

filled instantly.' Olokun thanked Erhamwoisa and d e p a r t e d . The ukurhe

and u w e n r h i o n t a n were the s e a l s w i t h w h i c h Erhamwoisa used to s e a l h i s

o r d e r s and d e c r e e s . Esu was annoyed because Erhamwoisa gave the s e a l s to

Olokun. He went away a n g r i l y . Whenever Erhamwoisa c a l l e d a meeting o f

his c h i l d r e n Esu would not e n t e r Erhamwoisa's h o u s e . I n s t e a d he would stay

at the g a t e . Ever s i n c e men always put Esu a t t h e i r g a t e s . Olokun

became w e a l t h y and b u i l t a p a l a c e f o r h i m s e l f . He was acknowledged to be

g r e a t e r than Erhamwoisa H i m s e l f . Of h i m i t used to be s a i d , 'Abiomo No

 - 101 -

Somwan R'Erhamwoisa N a b i o l o k u n ' meaning 'It i s n a t u r a l to beget a c h i l d

who may be g r e a t e r t h a n one, hence F a t h e r God begets O l o k u n . ' Olokun

was made the keeper o f the s u n . He commanded i t t o r i s e and s e t daily.

Hence the s a y i n g 'Owen N O ' r i o k u n . Owen No Ko K u n d e , ' meaning 'Thou sun

who proceeds to and from O l o k u n . ' Erhamwoisa would not do a n y t h i n g

without consulting Olokun. Both d i v i n i t i e s were regarded as one and the

same d i v i n i t y and were always r e f e r r e d to as O s a v b o l o k u n .

The good n a t u r e d n e s s and o b l i g i n g h a b i t o f E h i earned f o r him the

post of a sponsor, defender, g u i d e , m e d i a t o r and advocate f o r a l l d i v i n i -

t i e s and human b e i n g s a t Eguasa and E g u a ' O l o k u n ( O l o k u n ' s p a l a c e ) .

Erhamwoisa, Ob iemwen, Olokun and Ogiuwu were known as I k a d a l e enen no

d e r i n m w i n y i (The f o u r c a r d i n a l p o i n t s t h a t h e l d o r r u l e d the s p i r i t w o r l d ) .

Esu was known as o k a i g h e l e e r i n m w i n (The head o f the w o r k i n g c l a s s " ' s p i r i t s ) .

2 . . Osanobua as He i s Represented i n some T r a d i t i o n a l S t o r i e s i n

The Book o f H o l y A r u o s a

I n Book I , page 7 we l e a r n t h a t Osanobua r e c e i v e d p r a y e r s and s a c r i -

fices. 'The k i n g went to A r u o s a at once w i t h f o u r k o l a n u t s and made a

s a c r i f i c e to Osanobua. He prayed i n t h i s manner. 'Osanobua, g r a n t that

I s h o u l d have the upperhand over the r e b e l . ' He broke the k o l a n u t s and

p l a c e d one p i e c e on the altar.

In the s t o r y o f Ogbeide (Book I , p . 8-11) we read o f one Ogbeide

who had e x c e p t i o n a l knowledge o f m e d i c i n e s . One day he went to the K i n g ' s

By ' w o r k i n g c l a s s ' i s meant those s p i r i t s who are i n f e r i o r i n p r e s -

t i g e to the ' g o o d ' s p i r i t s .
 - 102 -

p a l a c e and spoke to the K i n g i n t h i s manner. ' 0 king, live forever!

Osanobua has asked me to g i v e you and your people the f o l l o w i n g command-

ments. T h i s i s a t y p i c a l example o f the Edo b e l i e f t h a t some i n d i v i d u a l s

have s p e c i a l knowledge o f Osanobua.

I n c l u d e d i n Book I i s a s t o r y o f the c r e a t i o n o f man and woman.

The s t o r y seems to f o l l o w the C h r i s t i a n account o f c r e a t i o n e x c e p t i n g

t h a t Osanobua c o n s u l t s h i s c o u n c i l o f s p i r i t s (Obiemwen and Olokun)

b e f o r e c r e a t i n g man. Man i s to be c r e a t e d to g l o r i f y and adore Osanobua

even as the s p i r i t s . Although i t i s d i f f i c u l t to s e p a r a t e the C h r i s t i a n

i n f l u e n c e s from the s t o r y t h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t l y Edo b e l i e f i n the m y t h .

A f t e r c r e a t i n g the c r e a t u r e s , a l l the s p i r i t s beseech Osanobua: 'They

and t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n must r e v i s i t and r e - i n h a b i t the e a r t h again

and a g a i n f o u r t e e n t i m e s . A t the end o f the s o j o u r n they must r e t u r n to

the abode o f the s p i r i t s and s t a y f o r e v e r i n peace and happiness among

the s p i r i t s . Then they s h a l l become immortal and t a k e t h e i r p o s i t i o n

among the s p i r i t s g l o r i f y i n g me f o r e v e r . I s h a l l a s s i g n a p l a c e f o r them

i n the abode o f the s p i r i t s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r good works and degree o f

p u r i t y , h o l i n e s s , e x c e l l e n c e and l o v e f o r me and f o r one another w h i l e

they l i v e d on the e a r t h . Each g e n e r a t i o n s h a l l b r i n g f o r t h c h i l d r e n ,

who have never v i s i t e d the e a r t h b e f o r e , so t h a t the w o r l d s h a l l remain

populated f o r e v e r . ' The Edo b e l i e f i n r e i n c a r n a t i o n i s found i n t h i s m y t h .

I n Book I I , page 5 we f i n d a s t o r y about Ese who was v e r y h a r s h ,

u n k i n d and u n g r a t e f u l . In t h i s myth the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s are f o u n d . 'In

those days m o r t a l s used to v i s i t F a t h e r God i n the abode o f S p i r i t s i n

the Great Beyond f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s . It

happened t h a t these two men went to the abode o f S p i r i t s i n the Great

 - 103 -

Beyond one day f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h Osanobua and when they got to the

spot where m o r t a l s used t o w a i t on Osanobua, b e h o l d , t h e r e were scattered

h e r e and t h e r e e x c r e m e n t s . . . ' ^ T h i s n u i s a n c e was a t t r i b u t e d to E s u . This

c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h the Edo c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f Esu t o d a y . I t i s also to

be noted t h a t the Edo once b e l i e v e d t h a t c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s had the

a b i l i t y t o go i n t o the presence o f Osanobua. A l t h o u g h t h e r e are none

w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a b i l i t y i n contemporary Edo c u l t u r e , the 'prophetic'

t r a d i t i o n is s t i l l very strong. It i s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d i n Edoland t h a t

t h e r e are men w i t h s p e c i a l ' s p i r i t u a l ' i n s i g h t . These men w i l l be 'chosen'

by the v a r i o u s divinities.

3. Osanobua as He i s Represented i n the Okhauhe Myth

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r ' h i s t o r y ' o f Okhauhe, Osanobua i s p i c t u r e d as a

great king with h i s aids (ukeken): O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and Obiemwen. Osanobua

i s d e p i c t e d as h a v i n g a harem, j u s t as p a s t and p r e s e n t Obas have many

w i v e s s i g n i f y i n g t h e i r p r e s t i g e , power and p o s i t i o n i n the p o l i t i c a l system.

Okhauhe i s the one who has supranormal powers and ascends i n t o Osanobua's

presence a number o f t i m e s . Osanobua descends t w i c e i n t h i s myth: once

to E r i e S t r e e t and once to the spot now c l a i m e d as the s i t e o f the present

Aruosa.

Summary o f Some Themes i n the Edo Mythology

Osanobua i s the c r e a t o r o f the d i v i n i t i e s , who are c o n c e i v e d o f as

h i s c h i l d r e n ; animals and m o r t a l man. Both man and the d i v i n i t i e s have

 - 104 -

received their l i f e from Osanobua. In the Erhamwoisa-myth the p r e s e n t

p o s i t i o n s o f O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and Esu i n the cosmology are r a t i o n a l i z e d .

Olokun has the s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n as the p o w e r f u l and i n f l u e n t i a l son o f

Osanobua, i . e . he i s one who knows Osanobua's ways and n a t u r e b e t t e r than

any o t h e r c a t e g o r y o f b e i n g . E s u ' s c a p r i c i o u s and u n r u l y n a t u r e i s a l s o

rationalized. We saw, f o r example, t h a t Esu d i d not want t o associate

w i t h Osanobua and t h a t he was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h excrement. This is i n l i n e

w i t h our b r i e f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Esu as ' d i r t y , b l a c k and u g l y . '

I n the mythology Osanobua i s i n no way the withdrawn God. He was

beseeched at the s t a t e a l t a r where s a c r i f i c e s and p r a y e r s were offered.

A t one time he appeared to the Edo k i n g Ewaure and from.time to time indivi-

d u a l s emerged who had s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s o f p r o p h e s y i n g o r a s c e n d i n g into

e r i m w i n f o r s p e c i a l meetings w i t h Osanobua. We might i n f e r from these

myths t h a t s i n c e Osanobua descended to e a r t h and man ascended to Osanobua

i n former t i m e s , t h a t i n the p r e s e n t e r a he i s not as approachable o r as

easy to communicate w i t h as he once was. Osanobua i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o the

Edo s o c i a l o r d e r i n another way. I n the s t o r y o f Ogbeide, we d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t Osanobua gave a number o f commands to the E d o . These commands are

p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h s e x u a l taboos but t h e r e are a l s o regulations

r e l a t e d to p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , a t t e n d a n c e a t naming ceremonies and acceptable

b e h a v i o u r o f y o u t h toward a d u l t s . Osanobua i s the u p h o l d e r o f the social

order.

B. OSANOBUA AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE OSA-NAMES

1. The Omniscience o f Osanobua

(a) Osareren. Osanobua knows my f e e l i n g s

 - 105 -

(b) Osarenghoe. Osanobua a l o n e knows our i n n e r m i n d s .

(c) Osarenvbagharu. Osanobua a l o n e knows what we w i l l do.

The C r e a t i v e Power o f Osanobua

(a) Osagie. Osanobua has sent t h i s c h i l d t o me. The name Osareme

a l s o conveys the same i d e a .

(b) Edosa. Literally: I t i s Osanobua's d a y . The r e f e r e n c e to

' d a y ' i s to the s p e c i a l day o f c r e a t i o n .

(c) Osayinmwese. Osanobua has c r e a t e d me w e l l .

(d) Osayi. Osanobua c r e a t e s (particularly children).

(e) Osaguona. Osanobua i s the g r e a t a r c h i t e c t . 'Osanobua i s

wonderful inasmuch as he i s a b l e to c r e a t e something t h a t is

a b l e to c r y . '

(f) Osagiede. Osanobua governs or chooses the day o f b i r t h .

The Omnipotence o f Osanobua

(a) Osarodion. Osanobua i s supreme i n power.

(b) Osakpolor. Osanobua i s g r e a t ; above a l l o t h e r s i n b e s t o w i n g

abilities.

(c) Osaroghiagbon. Osanobua i s the k i n g above a l l the w o r l d .

(d) Osaretin. Osanobua s r

strength surpasses a l l strength.

(e) Osauyi. Osanobua commands h o n o u r .

(f) Osayogie. Osanobua c r e a t e s k i n g s , i . e . Osanobua i s above a l l

earthly kings.
 - 106 -

(g) Osagioduwa. Osanobua i s the f o u n d a t i o n f o r a l l increases

in wealth.

(h) Osazuwa. Osanobua i s worthy o f honour and p r a i s e .

(i) Osawaru. Osanobua must be o b e y e d .

The I n t e r v e n t i o n o f Osanobua i n the Edo C u l t u r e

(a) Igbinosa. Osanobua i s my r e f u g e . He defends the defenceless

and p r o t e c t s the l i f e o f anyone who i s t h r e a t e n e d by such as

the azen.
*

(b) Osazee. Osanobua has r e c o n c i l e d u s .

(c) Osaigbovo. Osanobua judges i m p a r t i a l l y .

(d) Osayomobo. Osanobua has h e l p e d me g a i n t h i s child.

(e) Osamudiamwen. Osanobua stands by my s i d e .

(f) Osayemwere. Osanobua has remembered me.

(g) Osarenoma. Osanobua i s i m p a r t i a l . He alone choses to whom

and what to give.

(h) Osazemwide. Osanobua d e c i d e s the end o f t h i n g s . He i s the

final arbiter.

(i) Osahon. Osanobua h e a r s my p r a y e r .

(j) Osawemwegie. Osanobua has made me to laugh (at what he has

done on my b e h a l f ) .

The S o v e r e i g n t y o f Osanobua

(a) Osabuohien. Osanobua i s the f i n a l judge o f things.

(b) Nosakhare. Osanobua' s d e c i s i o n i s final.

 - 107 -

(c) Idahosa. I ' m w a i t i n g f o r Osanobua's d e c i s i o n .

(d) Orobosa. My p l i g h t i s i n Osanobua's hands.

(e) Osazenaye. It i s Osanobua who p l a c e s me i n a r e s p e c t e d posi-

tion.

(f) Osayanmwo. Osanobua owns the c h i l d (acknowledgement o f H i s

ownership o f a l l t h i n g s ) .

(g) Efosasere. Osanobua 's w e a l t h s u r p a s s e s a l l w e a l t h .

(h) Osaghae. Osanobua i s the f i n a l a r b i t e r i n our dispute.

(i) Osakue. Osanobua has g i v e n consent so t h a t I might have an

issue.

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF OSANOBUA

The Edo i n t e r p r e t v a r i o u s events w i t h i n t h e i r c u l t u r e as the mani-

f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua. S i n c e Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d to be the k i n g o f the

u n i v e r s e and the u p h o l d e r o f the Edo s o c i a l o r d e r , when harmony 7 and

h e a l t h p r e v a i l i n the n a t i o n ; the Edo v a l u e system i s p r e s e r v e d ; and

i n d i v i d u a l s g a i n h e l p i n d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n s , Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d to

have m a n i f e s t e d h i m s e l f to the E d o . An i n depth e x a m i n a t i o n o f Osa-names

reveals something o f the Edo e x p e r i e n c e o f the presence and m a n i f e s t a t i o n

o f Osanobua i n t h e i r d a i l y affairs.

A. PRESERVATION OF THE EDO VALUE SYSTEM

E x c l u d i n g the Edo c o n c e r n w i t h c h i l d r e n which I w i l l c o n s i d e r i n

another s e c t i o n , b a s i c Edo v a l u e s are c e n t r e d i n the f a m i l y . The Edo

p l a c e a s t r o n g emphasis on the p a t r i l i n e a g e . Edo f a m i l i e s tend to be

 - 108 -

l a r g e , and a r i g o r o u s r u l e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e c r e a t e s c o n f l i c t i n the

family. T h i s c o n f l i c t breeds an i n t e n s e l o n g i n g f o r u n i t y . This stress

on u n i t y and s t r e n g t h i s seen i n the ogbe ( u n i t y ) and omo ( c h i l d ) names

which g e n e r a l l y emphasize f a m i l y honour and p r e s t i g e . Other themes p e r -

meating the whole s t r u c t u r e o f Edo names are honour ( u y i ) and p r o s p e r i t y

(uwa).

The name O s a d o l o r means 'Osanobua has s e t t l e d my d i s p u t e . ' The

p a r e n t s who gave t h e i r c h i l d t h i s name must have been q u a r r e l i n g w h i c h

i s a t h r e a t t o ogbe w i t h i n the f a m i l y . But Osanobua gave them a c h i l d and

i n t h i s g i v i n g cemented the disharmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p . A l t h o u g h the name

O s a r e r e n means 'Osanobua knows my f e e l i n g s , ' the name can be g i v e n i n a

s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h the u y i o f an i n d i v i d u a l i s at s t a k e . I t appears t h a t

the p a t e r had been accused o f some p a r t i c u l a r d i s h o n o u r a b l e a c t , but was

later absolved. And s i n c e a c h i l d was -born d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , t h i s name

was g i v e n t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Osanobua i s the u l t i m a t e p r o t e c t o r of one's

honour (uyi).

The name Osaghae i s another name w h i c h i s r e l a t e d to the theme o f

conflict i n the f a m i l y . My informant suggested t h a t t h e r e might have

been a s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t o v e r , f o r example, m a t t e r s o f dowry, w h i c h r e s u l t e d

i n serious q u a r r e l i n g . The name i s g i v e n i n t r i b u t e to Osanobua who i s

b e l i e v e d to have u n i t e d the d i v i d e d p a r t i e s by g i v i n g them the c o v e t e d

gift of a c h i l d . A number o f the names i n d i c a t e t h a t a man and woman's

f a i l u r e t o have c h i l d r e n brought them c o n s i d e r a b l e r e p r o a c h . The name

Osawemwegie, (Osanobua has made me to laugh) r e v e a l s t h a t when a l l hope

had been l o s t Osanobua g r a n t e d a c h i l d and now h i s a c c u s e r s are weeping

and he i s l a u g h i n g . The p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t a l a c k o f c h i l d r e n i s the

 - 109 -

a n t i t h e s i s o f what the Edo b e l i e v e i s one v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f a full

and p r e s t i g e f u l life.

B. DESPERATE CIRCUMSTANCES PARTICULARLY RELATED TO THE BIRTH PROCESS

Osanobua m a n i f e s t s H i m s e l f to the Edo p r i m a r i l y i n the b i r t h p r o c e s s .

W i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g the Edo i d e a c o n c e r n i n g b i r t h , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to

u n d e r s t a n d how the Edo can r e l a t e the b i r t h p r o c e s s to Osanobua.

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t no b i r t h can t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t Osanobua' s

consent. T h i s i s why t h e r e i s a p l e t h o r a o f names w i t h the theme o f

'Osanobua's d a y ; e t c . A t i n t e r c o u r s e the 'blood' ( e s a g i e n ) ^ comes from

the man i n t o the woman who i s the ' c o n t a i n e r ' f o r s t o r i n g the 'blood'

for f u t u r e development. The woman i s the c a r e t a k e r f o r the 'blood' until

it d e v e l o p s i n t o a human b e i n g . A c c o r d i n g to the E d o , a d u l t e r y i s immoral

because the m i x i n g o f ' b l o o d ' may r e s u l t i n deformed c h i l d r e n .

Man i s o n l y the m i d d l e p e r s o n : the one who conveys the 'blood of

blessing' (esagienerhumwun) i n t o the woman. W i t h o u t Osanobua's consent

one cannot get t h a t pure ' b l o o d ' p l a n t e d i n the woman's womb. I t can

o n l y come about at the f u l l consent o f Osanobua as the r e s u l t o f p r a y e r .

T h i s i d e a i s i m p o r t a n t f o r obvious r e a s o n s . The a c t u a l c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s ,

then, i s Osanobua's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t an Edo woman a v o i d i l l i c i t sex r e l a t i o n s .

My informant t r a n s l a t e d e s a g i e n as ' b l o o d . ' T h i s i s not to say

t h a t he has i d e n t i f i e d semen w i t h ' b l o o d . ' I m p l i e d i n the n o t i o n o f ' b l o o d '
i s l i f e - g i v i n g f o r c e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f the l i n e a g e .
 - 110 -

M e n u s t r a t i n g women must t r y and behave r e s p o n s i b l y i n the house and i f

t h e r e has been any q u a r r e l i n g i n the house i t must s u b s i d e . It is only

a f t e r m e n u s t r a t i o n t h a t the ' b l o o d o f b l e s s i n g ' can p a s s . In o r d e r to

make c e r t a i n the the 'good b l o o d i s c o m i n g , ' the Edo must not quarrel

f o r the e v i l s p i r i t s are always w a t c h i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y the azen) . The

Edo b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s an o f f e n s e f o r a man not to s l e e p w i t h h i s w i f e

after the c o m p l e t i o n o f h e r menustration.

The l a c k o f c h i l d r e n i s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d to a d u l t e r y . The accused

woman w i l l be s u b j e c t to i n t e r r o g a t i o n at a f a m i l y f a t h e r i n g . And a

d i v i n e r may be c o n s u l t e d . Other causes f o r b a r r e n n e s s are n a t u r a l causes,

o r the a c t i v i t y o f ' e v i l forces. C r i p p l e d c h i l d r e n are a p p a r e n t l y 'caused'

by the m i x t u r e o f the e s a g i e n w i t h another man's semen.

A number of the Edo names acknowledge t h i s c r e a t i v e power o f

Osanobua: Osayamwen. O s a y i and Osareme. The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Osanobua

i s c o n t i n u a l l y at work i n agbon as the c r e a t i v e force.

But now I want t o l o o k at how Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d to manifest

himself i n a more s p e c i f i c way to Edo who f i n d themselves i n a desperate

plight.

The name Osayaede i s g i v e n as p r a i s e to Osanobua f o r H i s g i f t o f

a child. L i t e r a l l y the name means ' I t i s Osanobua who c o n t r o l s the day

of b i r t h . ' I n the Ogiamwen household I q u e s t i o n e d one mother who had

g i v e n the name o f Godwin Osayaede to one o f h e r c h i l d r e n . I discovered

t h a t when she was pregnant she had had c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y . At that

time she had prayed i n d e s p e r a t i o n to Osanobua not to l e t her d i e as she

f e a r e d t h a t h e r d e l i v e r y would be a v e r y d i f f i c u l t one. When she finally

d i d d e l i v e r the c h i l d , she knew t h a t Osanobua had h e l p e d i n h e r jplight.

 - Ill -

Osanobua spoke to the woman by d e l i v e r i n g her from her f e a r and difficulty.

Many o t h e r names have the same theme: a person had used up a l l known

resources and i n d e s p e r a t i o n sought Osanobua.^

The name Osarobo means 'Osanobua i s a d o c t o r above a l l d o c t o r s . '

One woman I i n t e r v i e w e d named h e r c h i l d O l o k u n r o b o . T h i s woman d i d n ' t

go b e f o r e any o f the o t h e r d e i t i e s f o r h e l p . She went to Olokun alone;

for h e l p . Thus when h e r c h i l d was b o r n she gave the name Olokunrobo to

i n d i c a t e t h a t Olokun had heard her p r a y e r s ; t h a t she had r e l i e d on Olokun

a l o n e f o r the success o f her d e l i v e r y . L i k e w i s e when the name Osarobo i s

g i v e n i t i s g i v e n to i n d i c a t e , not the mere f a c t o f p r a y e r to Osanobua f o r

a c h i l d , but the i n t e n s i t y and degree o f p r a y e r b e f o r e the h i g h g o d .

I n another case r e c o r d e d i n C h i e f Ogiamwen's compound, one woman

named her c h i l d Susanna O s a r e t i n . T h i s name (Osanobua's s t r e n g t h sur-

passes a l l s t r e n g t h ) was g i v e n to the c h i l d because by the time the mother

d e l i v e r e d the c h i l d , n o t h i n g had'happened to h e r . There were no sicknesses

of d i f f i c u l t i e s from any o f the f o r c e s t h a t d i s r u p t a s u c c e s s f u l d e l i v e r y .

T h i s somewhat u n u s u a l event was i n t e r p r e t e d as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua:

'Osanobua has h e l p e d me o b t a i n a safe d e l i v e r y and has demonstrated his

care for me.'

There are o t h e r names f a l l i n g into this general category. Osayinm-

wese (Osanobua has c r e a t e d me w e l l ) c o u l d be g i v e n i n a s i t u a t i o n where a

c h a l l e n g e had been made to one who seemed i m p o t e n t . But now he/she has a

I t may seem ' n a t u r a l ' to p l e a d to Osanobua at a b i r t h . A l l Edo

women pray to Osanobua f o r c h i l d r e n . However, they a l s o pray to the o t h e r
divinities. The p o i n t i s t h a t the l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s w i l l be approached
w i t h s a c r i f i c e s and g r e a t e r i n t e n s i t y than Osanobua. But i f they f a i l ,
t h e n Osanobua i s approached as the f i n a l c o u r t o f a p p e a l .
 - 112 -

c h i l d and- i s p r a i s i n g Osanobua who has 'created him/her w e l l . ' The

b i r t h o f the c h i l d i s i n t e r p r e t e d s y m b o l i c a l l y : D i v i n i t y has m a n i f e s -

t e d i t s presence i n r e s o l v i n g a personal predicament. Again a p a r t i c u -

l a r event r e l a t e d to c h i l d - b i r t h i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a message from

Osanobua.

The name Osaigbovo (Osanobua does not e n v y ) c o u l d have been g i v e n

i n a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h a man f e l t v e r y unworthy t o r e c e i v e a n y t h i n g from

Osanobua. But he r e c e i v e d a c h i l d i n h i s u n w o r t h i n e s s . Two c o n t i g u o u s

events--the man's i n n e r s t a t e and the b i r t h o f the c h i l d - - a r e interpreted

as a s i g n t h a t Osanobua has m a n i f e s t e d h i m s e l f and c o n s i d e r e d him even

though he was not f i t to r e c e i v e a n y t h i n g . The name Osamudiamwen (Osano-

bua stands by me) a l s o r e v e a l s the same b e l i e f t h a t Osanobua i s a b l e to

'speak' to a man's f o r s a k e n n e s s . T h i s name i s g i v e n when a p e r s o n i s

c o n s c i o u s o f a g r e a t d e a l o f o p p o s i t i o n from the human and superhuman

levels. The name i s g i v e n to p r a i s e Osanobua f o r s t a n d i n g by h i m , f o r

i f Osanobua had not stood by h i m , he would f e e l f o r s a k e n by men and the

divinities. The o p p o s i t i o n from h i s f e l l o w Edo and harassment by the

azen i s i n t e r p r e t e d symbolically. Osanobua had remembered: t h i s i s the

message he has r e c e i v e d . A g a i n , one o f my i n f o r m a n t ' s f r i e n d s had been

p r a y i n g f o r y e a r s f o r a c h i l d , but o n l y r e c e n t l y d i d he r e c e i v e a c h i l d .

T h i s l o n g awaited c o n c e p t i o n was a t t r i b u t e d t o Osanobua who ' s p o k e ' to

him i n h i s d e s p e r a t i o n . Hence he s e l e c t e d the name Osarenvbagharu

(Osanobua a l o n e knows our future).

In the Ogiamwen compound one woman gave her c h i l d the name Anthony

Nosakhare. She was p r e g n a n t , but f o r some months the c h i l d would not

 - 113 -

appear. T h i s happened t h r e e t i m e s . She had prayed to Osanobua: ' I f you

g i v e me a c h i l d I w i l l not add any m e d i c a t i o n , i . e . I w i l l trust solely in

you.' T h i s b a r g a i n r e l i e v e d h e r from any blame i f the c h i l d was ' s p o i l e d . '

She c o n c e i v e d s h o r t l y a f t e r and the name Nosakhare (Osanobua' s d e c i s i o n

is f i n a l ) was g i v e n as a response to the a c t i v i t y and presence o f Osanobua

i n the unexpectedness o f the event.

C. HEALTH AND HARMONY "-IN THE EDO NATION

When t h e r e i s g e n e r a l h e a l t h and harmony i n the Edo kingdom t h i s is

9

a t t r i b u t e d to the goodness o f Osanobua. There i s o b v i o u s l y no way o f

p r o v i n g or d i s p r o v i n g t h i s Edo a s s e r t i o n . Every y e a r a t h a n k s g i v i n g

s a c r i f i c e was g i v e n to Osanobua f o r the g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n o f the Edo

nation. I t seems from h i s t o r i c a l examples t h a t when the g e n e r a l w e l f a r e

of the kingdom was t h r e a t e n e d s a c r i f i c e s were o f f e r e d to Osanobua. In

times o f s e r i o u s e p i d e m i c s , f o r example, v a r i o u s items were o f f e r e d to

Osanobua. T h r e a t of a t t a c k o f an enemy c o u l d a l s o have i n i t i a t e d a s a c r i -

f i c e at the o r d e r o f the Oba.

Thus, i f the c o n d i t i o n o f the kingdom improved, t h i s event was

interpreted s y m b o l i c a l l y to mean t h a t Osanobua had heard man's ritually

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t some e v i l f o r c e s can ' h o l d ' the woman's child

i n the womb f o r p e r i o d s up t o t h r e e y e a r s .
9
In t h i s r e s p e c t i t was i n k e e p i n g w i t h the Edo b e l i e f i n Osanobua's
i n t e r e s t i n the w e l f a r e o f the Edo n a t i o n f o r the Oba to c a n c e l the y e a r l y
t h a n k s g i v i n g ceremony (Igwe) w h i l e N i g e r i a was engaged i n a c i v i l w a r . For
one o f the purposes o f the Igwe i s t o seek Osanobua's g e n e r a l b l e s s i n g .
 - 114 -

communicated message and answered by i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e i r affairs.

C h i l d r e n are an i n d e x o f s o c i a l s t a t u s i n the Edo c u l t u r e . They

are the honour and g l o r y o f an Edo and the f i r s t need o f any man. An

E d o ' s importance at death i s judged by how l a r g e the crowd i s d u r i n g the

second b u r i a l c e r e m o n i e s . Osanobua, the supreme k i n g , i s b e l i e v e d to

m a n i f e s t h i m s e l f to the Edo i n the mystery o f the b i r t h - p r o c e s s . As we

have seen from our a n a l y s i s o f some Osa-names, Osanobua i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

the g i v i n g and t a k i n g o f l i f e . Man i s o n l y a p a r t n e r i n the creative

process. I s u g g e s t , t h e n , t h a t i t i s p r i m a r i l y i n t h i s process (concep-

tion/pregnancy/safe d e l i v e r y ) t h a t the Edo e x p e r i e n c e the manifestation

o f Osanobua. Thus every c h i l d t h a t i s b o r n i s a ' m e s s a g e ' ; a 'symbol';

a 'sign' t h a t Osanobua i s i n v o l v e d i n Edo a f f a i r s i n agbon, i . e . he i s not

'deus o t i o s u s . '

III. THE EDO RESPONSE TO OSANOBUA

As the u p h o l d e r o f the Edo s o c i a l o r d e r , Osanobua i s the d i v i n e

p r o t e c t o r o f the Edo n a t i o n . He i s a l s o the c r e a t i v e or v i t a l force per-

v a s i v e i n the u n i v e r s e ; a l l b i r t h s are a t t r i b u t e d to h i s a c t i v i t y . Believed

t o have the most power o f a l l the d i v i n i t i e s , Osanobua i s at l e a s t poten-

t i a l l y a b l e to h e l p i n c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s . A l l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h Osanobua

tends t o remain at a v e r y g e n e r a l l e v e l ; to m a i n t a i n the w e l f a r e o f the

Edo n a t i o n . I t seems t h a t i n d i v i d u a l Edo pray as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e to

Osanobua f o r g e n e r a l b l e s s i n g . 1 0
T h i s a p p e a l r e c o g n i z e s Osanobua as the

1 0
T h i s i s an example o f a t y p i c a l p r a y e r to Osanobua.
Osanobua no m i o w i a n f a n , erhavban n o r e r i m w i n u y i orwue, i m u e t i n
y a n r u e n , giemwin nagbon mavben, ghe g i e su k e v b i n dan yo mwen khoe, gun
mwento, ne v b i n n i r o b o y i h i a gha dinode men. Ise.
 - 115 -

ground o f a l l t h i n g s . For w i t h o u t Osanobua's s a n c t i o n the l e s s e r divini-

t i e s c o u l d not f u l f i l l their particular functions. It i s o n l y when the

o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s seem to have f a i l e d t h a t the Edo w i l l a p p e a l to Osanobua

w i t h a h i g h e r degree o f intensity.

The H o l y A r u o s a as Response to Osanobua

The Edo have always had an a l t a r (aru) to Osanobua. I t was p l a c e d

i n a c e n t r a l p l a c e i n the c i t y and c o n s i s t e d o f c h a l k and c o w r i e s . Every-

t h i n g was done i n w h i t e . A l l t h a t was r e q u i r e d t o r e p r e s e n t Him were the

ukhure, uwenrhiontan w i t h a parrot t a i l feather on one end, a s m a l l pot

containing water, c h a l k , a d a , eben, and some p i e c e s o f w h i t e and red c l o t h

(ododo) .

I t was at t h i s a r u t h a t Osanobua was b e l i e v e d to have descended in

times p a s t . The ohensa made s a c r i f i c e s under the i n s t r u c t i o n o f the Oba

at the a r u o s a . The Oba was the s o l e c u s t o d i a n o f the a r u o s a a p p o i n t i n g

the ohensa and s e e i n g about the sacrifices.

The purpose o f s a c r i f i c e was f o r the g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n o f the Edo

nation. Every year v i a the s a c r i f i c e - m e d i a the ohensa on b e h a l f o f the

Edo p e o p l e , communicated the Edo t h a n k f u l n e s s f o r the b l e s s i n g s o f the past

year. But the s a c r i f i c e had a dual, meaning as the Edo a l s o sought for

. T r a n s l a t i o n o f Edo p r a y e r i n f o o t n o t e 1 0 , on the p r e v i o u s page.

Osanobua the s a v i o u r , our f a t h e r who r e i g n s i n e r i m w i n . Honour
be to thy name. I t i s o n l y thee i n whom I put my t r u s t . L e t me prosper
in a l l worldly things, Do not a l l o w Esu to p l a n t e v i l i n my m i n d . L e t
me l i v e l o n g . L e t a l l t h a t I hope f o r be f r u i t f u l f o r me. Amen.
 - 116 -

p r o t e c t i o n i n the coming y e a r . I n times o f s e r i o u s e p i d e m i c the ohensa

would t r y and communicate w i t h Osanobua i n o r d e r to a v e r t the coming

e p i d e m i c w h i c h might have been f o r e t o l d by one o f the Oba's c o u r t d i v i n e r s .

W h i l e i n B e n i n C i t y from September, 1966 to A u g u s t , 1967, t h e r e were a

number o f o c c a s i o n s when d i r e c t i v e s came from the p a l a c e t h a t an epidemic

was coming. T h i s l e d to the s a c r i f i c e o f a number o f items a t the Ikpoba

River.

The Oba Akenzua I I (Akenzua 1946a: 1) s t a t e s t h a t the o r d e r o f

s e r v i c e at the aruosa was s i m p l e . p r i e s t p r a y e d , broke k o l a , and

s l a u g h t e r e d a n i m a l s , fowls and so o n . He smeared the ukhurhe (staff

r e p r e s e n t i n g the Oba's departed a n c e s t o r s ) w i t h b l o o d o f the animals and

then prepared a f e a s t c o n s i s t i n g o f b o i l e d meat, soup and pounded yam (eman).

S m a l l b i t s o f these foods were p l a c e d on the a l t a r and w o r s h i p p e r s fed

h a p p i l y on the r e m a i n d e r .

The Oba s t a t e s t h a t everyone had an a l t a r i n h i s or h e r house where

s a c r i f i c e s were made, b u t the a r t i c l e f o r s a c r i f i c e depended l a r g e l y on

the s o c i a l s t a n d i n g o f the i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d . The a r t i c l e s r e q u i r e d

at the S t a t e A l t a r c o u l d be a n y t h i n g from k o l a n u t s to b u l l o c k s , a l t h o u g h

Osanobua d i d not accept a l c o h o l i c d r i n k s . The name Osaidayon (Osanobua

does not d r i n k ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t d r i n k s were not used v e r y o f t e n as sacri-

ficial items. The symbols r e p r e s e n t i n g the Supreme d i v i n i t y , Obiemwen

and Olokun were u s u a l l y p l a c e d near each o t h e r on the same a l t a r i n p r i v a t e

houses but s e p a r a t e a l t a r s were b u i l t f o r each d i v i n i t y and s e p a r a t e p r i e s t s

a p p o i n t e d to perform ceremonies f o r e a c h . Few Edo have an a l t a r (aruosa)

to Osanobua i n t h e i r homes any l o n g e r . F o r the m a j o r i t y o f Edo, A r u o s a

i s synonymous w i t h the H o l y A r u o s a Church l o c a t e d on Akpavkpava Street.

 - 117 -

In 1945 the Oba Akenzua I I and the t i t l e d c h i e f s met to re-establish

their forefather's s i m p l e way o f w o r s h i p p i n g the Supreme d i v i n i t y . They

c l a i m e d t h a t Osanobua heard and spoke to the a n c i e n t Edos; t h a t the

C h r i s t i a n way o f w o r s h i p p i n g ' G o d ' does not r e a l l y b r i n g any new i n f o r -

m a t i o n to the E d o . They a l s o c l a i m e d t h a t the a n c i e n t Edos a c t u a l l y

worshipped 'God' before the w h i t e man came i n the manner w h i c h has been

stated above.

The t r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s o f B e n i n c l a i m e d i n 1945 t h a t the H o l y

A r u o s a o r Edo n a t i o n a l Church o f God began i n the r e i g n o f Oba E s i g i e i n

the e a r l y 1 5 0 0 ' s . It i s s a i d t h a t the Portuguese C a t h o l i c s came to B e n i n

i n the r e i g n o f the w a r r i o r Oba, O z o l u a i n 1481. He r e f u s e d to a l l o w them

to s t a y . But i n the r e i g n o f E s i g i e , the C a t h o l i c s were p e r m i t t e d to

establish a ' c h u r c h , ' t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e l i e v e d t o have been at the present

s i t e o f the A r u o s a Church on Akpavkpava S t r e e t . The churches were left

i n the hands o f the n a t i v e r e v e r e n d f a t h e r s who, as t r a d i t i o n has it,

i n t r o d u c e d some i n d i g e n o u s p r a c t i c e s i n t o the s e r v i c e s . Roman C a t h o l i c i s m

was thus c o r r u p t e d , e v e n t u a l l y b e i n g r e p l a c e d by a s t a t e a l t a r at the

l o c a t i o n o f the o l d c h u r c h . On December 1 1 , 1945 Oba Akenzua I I o f B e n i n

d e c i d e d to r e - r e s t a b l i s h the A r u o s a . In the s m a l l b o o k l e t e n t i t l e d The

Addresses o f the Oba o f B e n i n i n c o n n e x i o n w i t h the A r u o s a , the Oba s t a t e s

the o b j e c t of r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g the f o r e f a t h e r ' s s i m p l e way o f w o r s h i p p i n g

Osanobua. A c c o r d i n g to Akenzua I I , the Edo have always worshipped Osanobua

(who i's> i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the C h r i s t i a n God) l o n g b e f o r e the coming o f the

w h i t e man. He s t a t e s t h a t the f o r e f a t h e r ' s way o f a p p r o a c h i n g Osanobua was

i n need o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to Akenzua I I , i t was not the content

o f t h e i r b e l i e f i n Osanobua t h a t needed c h a n g i n g , but the r i t u a l approach

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to H i m . He s a i d t h a t t h e r e was now no need to s a c r i f i c e animals to the

supreme D i v i n i t y , nor t o r e p r e s e n t Osanobua s y m b o l i c a l l y . Formerly

Osanobua had been r e p r e s e n t e d by the images o f a k i n g w i t h attendants.

My informant t o l d me t h a t the o l d r i t u a l means o f a p p r o a c h i n g Osanobua

by s a c r i f i c e was c h i l d i s h ; the Edo now h a v i n g a ' l a r g e r ' v i e w o f Osanobua.

Osanobua was b e l i e v e d to be above s a c r i f i c e .

The g e n e r a l purposes f o r the r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the H o l y A r u o s a

are t h r e e f o l d . F i r s t , to w o r s h i p Osanobua i n a s i m p l e , p r a c t i c a l and

undogmatic'''''' way. S e c o n d l y , to make known to the w o r l d the meaning and

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Edo n a t i o n a l f e s t i v a l s ; and l a s t l y , to p r e s e r v e Edo customs,

t r a d i t i o n s and t r i b a l i d e n t i t y . The p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s leaders

o b v i o u s l y f e l t t h a t the e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r own c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e was b e i n g

threatened. The Oba concludes one o f h i s addresses by e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t

'he who f i n d s no g l o r y i n the past achievements o f h i s a n c e s t o r s , may

never l e a v e a n y t h i n g i n w h i c h h i s c h i l d r e n may f i n d g l o r y . ' The Holy

A r u o s a founders use the C h r i s t i a n churches as models f o r i t s r i t u a l frame-

w o r k , but r e j e c t the C h r i s t i a n c o n t e n t . They have a c h u r c h , an h i e r a r c h i c a l

p r i e s t h o o d , t h e i r own c r e e d , a c a t e c h i s m , s c r i p t u r e s , hymns and a c h o i r .

But the founders have emptied the C h r i s t i a n ' c h u r c h ' o f i t s c o n t e n t and

substituted content t a k e n from t h e i r own r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m . The H o l y Aruosa

Church i s r e a l l y o n l y a m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f the r i t u a l approach to Osanobua.

The founders were not o r g a n i z i n g a d i s s i d e n t c u l t u s , but were o n l y modern-

i z i n g the r i t u a l approach to Osanobua: they d i d not ask f o r a r a d i c a l break

By u s i n g the word ' u n d o g m a t i c ' I t h i n k the Oba has i n mind the

' d o g m a t i c ' denominations who c l a i m t h a t o n l y t h e i r way i s r i g h t .
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w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m . Thus w o r s h i p at the Aruosa s h r i n e

(church) f a l l s w i t h i n the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

The c h u r c h i s o r g a n i z e d w i t h the p r e s e n t Oba as the p r o p r i e t o r

and s p i r i t u a l h e a d . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , the impact o f the movement d e r i v e s

from the Oba's p o s i t i o n as the p o l i t i c a l and s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r o f the E d o ,

a l t h o u g h h i s t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l power has been c o n s i d e r a b l y e r o d e d .

The Oba's e l d e s t son i s second i n command, f o l l o w e d by the h i g h p r i e s t and

his assisting priest. The c o n g r e g a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a c h o i r w i t h c o n d u c t o r ,

and members, i n c l u d i n g some c h i l d r e n from one o f the H o l y A r u o s a ' s five

primary s c h o o l s . The c h o i r uses the t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e beaded calabash

and c h a n t - r e s p o n s e pattern i n t h e i r hymn s e l e c t i o n s w h i c h have been drawn

from the o r a l l i t e r a t u r e and t r a d i t i o n a l hymnology o f the E d o . The c o n -

g r e g a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a number o f s o c i e t i e s : a r u o s a nokhon, o s a gbevborue,

ohe n o l o b u s e , o s a i k e d e , each o f w h i c h has i t s own f u n c t i o n at different

o c c a s i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the y e a r l y H a r v e s t T h a n k s g i v i n g S e r v i c e .

C o n s e c r a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o become an ohen i n the Edo N a t i o n a l

Church o f God. T h i s i s done i n the presence o f four t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s

as w e l l as the H i g h p r i e s t . On the day o f o r d i n a t i o n , the n o v i t i a t e w i l l

dress i n o r d i n a r y c l o t h e s . He w i l l be s e a t e d i n the c o n g r e g a t i o n . Then

the h i g h p r i e s t w i l l c a l l h i m four t i m e s . He comes to the a l t a r . The h i g h

p r i e s t d i r e c t s him to k n e e l down; t h i s he does i n a c h a l k e d c i r c l e , facing

a t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e lamp. Four t i t l e d c h i e f s are t h e n c a l l e d to stand

at the c a r d i n a l p o i n t s around the c a n d i d a t e . A f t e r he i s c o n s e c r a t e d by

each c h i e f (they move t h e i r hands around the n o v i t i a t e i n a c i r c u l a r

manner w h i l e p r a y i n g ) , the h i g h p r i e s t takes the new ohen and garbs h i m

i n h i s new c e r e m o n i a l garments. I t i s s a i d t h a t the a n c i e n t ohen d r e s s e d

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in this fashion. The p r i e s t i s next given h i s charge: ' Y o u are made a

p r i e s t t o s e r v e the l i v i n g God (Osanobua) f a i t h f u l l y . ' The new p r i e s t

then u t t e r s a few words i n p r a y e r . After t h i s i s completed the congrega-

t i o n l e a d s the p r i e s t home, s i n g i n g songs o f p r a i s e to Osanobua. On the

f o l l o w i n g Sunday, the new p r i e s t must make a f e a s t , where the Oba and

chiefs w i l l receive their status-alloted portion. There w i l l be a g r e a t

dance, and drumming; the c e l e b r a t i o n f i n a l l y c l o s i n g i n p r a y e r a f t e r a

meal o f r i c e , soup and b e e f . The p r i e s t i s now r i t u a l l y s e t a p a r t to

officiate i n the Sunday morning s e r v i c e s .

The H o l y Aruosa i s an i m p r e s s i v e , c a t h e d r a l - l i k e s t r u c t u r e , bearing

the f l u t i d p a t t e r n o f the Oba's p a l a c e . Above the main e n t r a n c e are the

symbols o f the Oba, the eben and a d a . The s e r v i c e i s opened w i t h the c h o i r

s i n g i n g as the h i g h p r i e s t p u r i f i e s the c o n g r e g a t i o n by w a l k i n g down the

a i s l e w h i l e waving h i s hand s l o w l y i n f r o n t o f h i m . A f t e r the song i s

f i n i s h e d the ohen s a y s , 'When a w i c k e d man t u r n s from h i s w i c k e d way, he

saves a s o u l from d e a t h . ' T h i s i s the c a l l to w o r s h i p . After ringing a

small b e l l , the c h o i r s i n g s a song taken from The Book o f Holy A r u o s a , Book

II. I will g i v e a number o f examples o f songs sung b e f o r e the A r u o s a .

1. No t r e e i s s u p e r i o r to Ikhimmwin,

Osanobua i s supreme,

Of a l l the s p i r i t s , l a n d and w a t e r ,

Osanobua i s supreme.

2. E n t e r thy s h r i n e , my Osanobua,

Accept our o f f e r i n g ,

For a k i n g d w e l l s always i n h i s palace.

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3. L e t us pray t h a t Osanobua may b l e s s t h i s day,

0 Osanobua, b l e s s t h i s day,

A day to w o r s h i p Osanobua and s e r v e the K i n g now dawns,

0 Osanobua b l e s s t h i s day.

- ;. 4. Of a l l s p i r i t s , Osanobua i s supreme,

Osanobua, my F a t h e r , t h i s i s my t h a n k - o f f e r i n g .

5. 0 Osanobua, g i v e r o f l i f e ' s necessities,

F o r g e t me n o t , 0 Osanobua.

6. Osanobua, b l e s s me w i t h c h i l d r e n ,

For young ones igrow p l e n t i f u l l y

Always around an o l d p l a n t a i n t r e e .

7. To g l o r i f y Thee, Osanobua,

A day I s e t apart,

Grant me l o n g l i f e , 0 Osanobua.

As the hymn ends, the p r i e s t goes t o the a l t a r , decorated w i t h a

w h i t e c l o t h b e a r i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l Edo s y m b o l s , and prays f o r the whole

n a t i o n with p a r t i c u l a r reference to the Oba and c h i e f s . The p r i e s t then

comes down from the a l t a r and r i n g s the b e l l a g a i n . The c h o i r s i n g s , 'Let

us w o r s h i p Osanobua who d i s c r i m i n a t e s a g a i n s t none, but p r o v i d e s f o r a l l . 1

Another b e l l r i n g s and the f i r s t l e s s o n i s read from The Book o f H o l y

Aruosa. I have a l r e a d y made r e f e r e n c e to the c o l l e c t i o n o f s t o r i e s in

these two b o o k l e t s . I noted t h a t i n one sermon ohen A i s i e n compared Jesus

C h r i s t to Ogbeide. Comparing Jesus w i t h Ogbeide (See Mark 8:22) he q u o t e d ,

'And t h e r e was a man c a l l e d E h i e n who had a son c a l l e d O g b e i d e . When a

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c h i l d , Ogbeide became v e r y v e r s e d i n the knowledge o f the m e d i c i n a l

q u a l i t i e s o f h e r b s , and r o o t s and l e a v e s and b a r k s o f t r e e s on t h i s earth.

H i s knowledge and wisdom was p r o f o u n d ; he went about h e a l i n g s i c k persons

and h i s fame spread f a r and w i d e . . . ' I t i s c l e a r t h a t the c o m p i l e r s want

the Edo t o draw l e s s o n s from t h e i r own o r a l t r a d i t i o n .

After the second l e s s o n , w h i c h i s preceded by a s o n g , the creed is

r e c i t e d by a l l the members o f the c o n g r e g a t i o n . The substance o f the c r e e d

is c o n t a i n e d i n a s m a l l book, p u b l i s h e d by Olowu P r e s s , B e n i n C i t y i n

1946, e n t i t l e d The C a t e c h i s m o f A r u o s a . The c r e e d i s p a t t e r n e d after the

A p o s t l e s ' C r e e d , but the content is Edo.

I b e l i e v e i n Osanobua who made Heaven and e a r t h and a l l t h i n g s t h e r e i n .

I b e l i e v e i n the s a n c t i t y o f H i s Holy C o e x i s t e n t s ( O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and
Obiemwen). I b e l i e v e i n the p u r i t y o f H i s Holy Messengers who are
the guides o f human b e i n g s . I b e l i e v e Osanobua made m o r t a l s and im-
m o r t a l s to s e r v e H i m , w o r s h i p H i m , l o v e H i m , p r a i s e H i m , adore Him i n
heaven and on e a r t h . I b e l i e v e I was b o r n h o l y and pure and t h a t the
p i o u s p r i e s t has made me h o l y and pure i n the h o l y name o f Osanobua.
I b e l i e v e I cannot stand b e f o r e the H o l y Throne o f Osanobua, or
become a member o f the H o l y Assembly o f Osanobua i n the l a s t day, i f
I do not l o v e my f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s as m y s e l f , o r do unto them as I
would they do unto me. I b e l i e v e t h a t a l l d i v e r s e ways o f s e r v i n g
Osanobua are a c c e p t a b l e to H i m . I b e l i e v e t h a t prophets e x i s t e d and
w i l l always e x i s t i n t h i s w o r l d through whom Osanobua has r e v e a l e d
and w i l l always r e v e a l H i s m a j e s t y . I b e l i e v e s i n s are p u n i s h a b l e
i n t h i s l i f e and the h e r e a f t e r .

The. creed emphasizes a number o f Edo c o n c e p t i o n s . F i r s t , Osanobua i s head

of the Edo pantheon, j u s t as the Oba i s the r u l e r o f the s e c u l a r kingdom.

The H o l y C o e x i s t e n t s are Ob iemwen, Olokun and Og i u w u . What we h a v e , in

fact, i s an attempt t o o r g a n i z e the Edo d i v i n i t i e s into a kind of t r i n i t y

or p a r t n e r s h i p o f the g o d s . A l s o note the c l a i m t h a t Osanobua has r e v e a l e d

H i m s e l f to the Edo d i r e c t l y . This is i n l i n e with Part I , Section A:

Osanobua as he i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n the m y t h o l o g y .

An e l a b o r a t i o n o f the creed i s c o n t a i n e d i n p a r t i i o f the b o o k l e t

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The c a t e c h i s m o f A r u o s a . P s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n language i s used to c r e a t e

categories o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d . The s p i r i t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o

f i v e c a t e g o r i e s : h o l y g u a r d i a n a n g e l , h o l y messengers o f Osanobua, h o l y

a t t e n d a n t s o f Osanobua, h o l y angels and the e v i l s p i r i t s . These categories

are i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t the A r u o s a founders have sought to g i v e a C h r i s t i a n

aura to what i s fundamentally Edo and t r a d i t i o n a l . The h o l y g u a r d i a n

a n g e l i s the a n g l i c i z e d term ?f or E h i . An E h i , as we have seen, is the

i n d i v i d u a l Edo's s p i r i t u a l i z e d other. The concept i s not r e a l l y e q u i v a l e n t

to the Western i d e a o f g u a r d i a n a n g e l . The term f o r h o l y messengers o f

Osanobua i s ukosa w h i c h l i t e r a l l y means 'Those who execute Osanobua' s

purposes.' The i d e a conveyed i s t h a t t h e s e s p i r i t s are f o l l o w e r s o f

Osanobua, b e i n g c l o s e to H i m , but not e q u a l . Thus Ogun, Okhauhe, O v i a

and the o t h e r h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s are c o n s i d e r e d as u k o s a . The word ikuekuen

has been t r a n s l a t e d as h o l y a t t e n d a n t s . There i s some c o n f u s i o n h e r e f o r

the word ikuekuen connotes the o f f i c e o f the ukosa r a t h e r than a s e p a r a t e

class of b e i n g . Odibo i s the Edo word f o r h o l y a n g e l s . The o d i b o are

the p e r s o n a l s e r v a n t s o f Osanobua. For example, i n o f f e r i n g p r a y e r to

Osanobua one might s a y :

. . . .
' O d i b ' o s a l a h o ghetueyimwen nokho u b e g u s a s . ' This

means ' S e r v a n t s o f Osanobua do not say any word t h a t w i l l b i a s Osanobua

against u s . '

Erimwin dan i s the e x p r e s s i o n f o r the 'bad s p i r i t s . ' An u n d e r s t a n d i n g

of e r i m w i n i s b a s i c to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Edo r e l i g i o n . Erimwin i s the

s p i r i t u a l w o r l d as opposed to agbon, the e x t e r n a l l y v i s i b l e w o r l d . All

departed s p i r i t s go to e r i m w i n but i f one has l i v e d a good l i f e he w i l l go

to erimwin e s i . A bad l i f e earns one erimwin d a n , the p l a c e o f the w i c k e d .

Esu i s b e l i e v e d to be the head o f e r i m w i n dan w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f the azen and

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the d e p a r t e d s p i r i t s o f the w i c k e d . And E h i , u k o s a and o d i b o s a a r e sub-

sumed under the g e n e r a l c a t e g o r y o f the H o l y Assembly o f Osanobua w h i c h

i n c l u d e s the H o l y C o e x i s t e n t s as w e l l . I f one has l i v e d an a c c e p t a b l e

l i f e w h i l e on e a r t h , he may become a member o f the H o l y Assembly upon h i s

death. Thus the ed i o n a r e not e x c l u d e d e n t i r e l y from the Aruosa c a t e c h i s m .

After the r e a d i n g o f the c r e e d , announcements are made by the c h u r c h

secretary. T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a b r i e f sermon by e i t h e r the o h e n s a , ohen

or the c h u r c h s e c r e t a r y . A f t e r he has f i n i s h e d p r e a c h i n g , the b e n e d i c t i o n

is given.

The most important s p e c i a l days i n the Holy A r u o s a are the H a r v e s t

and Baptismal days. The H a r v e s t S e r v i c e corresponds to the y e a r l y t h a n k s -

g i v i n g o f f e r i n g w h i c h was g i v e n to Osanobua f o r h i s p r o t e c t i o n and goodness

over the p a s t y e a r . V a r i o u s g i f t s are b r o u g h t to the A r u o s a and p l a c e d

b e f o r e the a l t a r . These f o o d - i t e m s a r e f u n c t i o n a l s u b s t i t u t e s for animal

offerings.

The e l d e s t group i n the Aruosa c u l t i s c a l l e d e d i o n . There i s a

s i m p l e ceremony upon i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h i s g r o u p . The ohen w i l l pray over

them: ' F o r y o u r l o v e f o r Osanobua, l o v e f o r your k i n g and c o u n t r y , you are

c o n s e c r a t e d an ed i o n , r i g h t e o u s e l d e r o f the H o l y C h u r c h . ' There are two

o t h e r s h o r t ceremonies a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b a p t i s m and a naming ceremony. On

b a p t i s m a l day the c h i l d w i l l be brought to the Aruosa where the ohen w i l l

put n a t i v e c h a l k on the c a n d i d a t e s forehead and n e c k . The p r i e s t t o l d me

that is c a l l e d ' w h i t e w a s h i n g the c a n d i d a t e i n the h o l y name of Osanobua.'

When a new c h i l d i s b o r n the babe w i l l be brought to the A r u o s a . The ohen

will take the c h i l d , take i t b e f o r e the a l t a r , and p r a y : 'We thank t h e e , 0

Osanobua, f o r g i v i n g t h i s c h i l d to t h e m . ' He then hands the c h i l d to its

 - 125 -

mother and t u r n s t o the A r u o s a . T h i s ceremony i s i n no way a s u b s t i t u t e

f o r the Edo naming ceremony; i t i s kind of d e d i c a t i o n - o f - t h e - c h i l d cere-

mony .
 - 126 -

Olokun Shrine

©
Image of Chief I q of
© Imaqe
of
olokun
3

(oba-figure]
Ukhontie .© 9 .©
*lgbaron \
i
Orpmo image

© Uwvangue Osanobua
m a e
image \
(Olokun's assistant; ,_ Altarto
MAIN ALTAR obiemwen Domes+icO
Image of native
Olokun.-^
d o c
* o r Decorated wi+h mirrors ond
Image ^ numerous pieces of white cholk- \Q Image of a r U

O Dome S T I C
amada
(sword iearen
amada
(sword bearer) Shango r\

O Olokun
aru
Image of
Qy|
A aru

Esogbon
(Olokun's advisor) Domestic O
Olokun
aru O

© ® Domes+icCD

o UUg image Uko image

Olokun /^~\
aru {J

o
(messenger of Olokun)
ft (messenqer of Olokun)
Domestic '
( Olokun Circle of white Domesf ic Olokvin Shango

o aru chal^^

o o °b
aru

Entrance

Image o f Ogun Image of Esu

hold ing iron bells

Note: " I g b a r o n and Oromo a r e h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s . It s h o u l d a l s o be noted that

this i s a model o f one Olokun shrine--others vary in detail.

Diagram 3
 CHAPTER V

OLOKUN: THE POWERFUL SON OF OSANOBUA

Olokun i s b e l i e v e d by the Edo to be the p o w e r f u l son o f Osanobua

to whom has been d e l e g a t e d the s u p e r v i s i o n o f w e a l t h , h e a l t h and fertility.

Olokun can b;e viewed as the r e p o s i t o r y o f b l e s s i n g , s e r v i n g as the source

of such f o r those o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

S i n c e Olokun i s s e r v e d by a p r i e s t who i s b e l i e v e d to be i n c l o s e

or s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i m , I spent c o n s i d e r a b l e time w i t h a number

o f ohenOlokun d i s c u s s i n g the n a t u r e o f t h e i r d i v i n i t y . One soon learns

t h a t t h e r e i s a body o f knowledge, a t h e o l o g y i f you w i l l , o f O l o k u n .

I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to c r o s s c h e c k the e l i c i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n . For example,

if an Edo says t h a t Olokun i s o f t e n approached by a b a r r e n woman f o r a

c h i l d and I d i s c o v e r t h a t numerous s a c r i f i c e s have been made to Olokun f o r

these purposes, then I can assume t h a t the i n f o r m a t i o n e l i c i t e d from the

ohenOlokun i s not spurious.

Another means o f s t u d y i n g the Edo r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Olokun i s to

a n a l y z e the m y t h o l o g y . I f o l l o w e d t h i s p a t t e r n w i t h Osanobua (See the

Erhamwoisa m y t h ) . However, t h i s by no means exhausts the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

discovering 'truths' about O l o k u n . There are a number o f songs t h a t are

sung b e f o r e the. a r u O l o k u n . These songs suggest t h a t t h e r e i s a s o p h i s -

t i c a t e d body o f knowledge about the d i v i n i t y . I would even suggest t h a t

t h e s e songs be viewed as o r a l t h e o l o g y , s e r v i n g as r e c o r d s o f the n a t u r e

and w o r k i n g s o f the divinity.

 - 128 -

I. THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF OLOKUN

A. OLOKUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

In the Erhamwoisa myth t h i s theme emerges: Olokun i s the favoured

son o f Osanobua who i s b e l i e v e d to have superseded the F a t h e r and who can

be approached i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n f a v o u r s from the Father.

The f o l l o w i n g myth was r e l a t e d to me by a l e a d i n g ohenOlokun.

A t f i r s t the whole w o r l d was r i v e r . Only Osanobua was a l o n e i n the

w o r l d . Osanobua then d e c i d e d t h a t he wanted to make ' i m a g e s ' i n h i s
own l i k e n e s s . So he d e c i d e d to make 201 ' i m a g e s . ' A f t e r the ' i m a g e s '
were made they a l l d i s a p p e a r e d . A f t e r s i x d a y s , Osanobua d e c i d e d
t h a t he must c r e a t e an i n s p e c t o r to guard the ' i m a g e s . ' Osanobua
t h e n made f u r t h e r images. The f i r s t ' i m a g e ' he made was the d e v i l
(Esu) h o l d i n g a t h o r n - s t i c k i n h i s h a n d . In the n i g h t he sent Esu
to guard the ' i m a g e s . ' The f i r s t ' i m a g e ' Esu d e t e c t e d t r y i n g to
s t e a l an ' i m a g e , ' swallowed h i m . F o r t u n a t e l y Esu was a b l e to escape
through the s p i r i t ' s r e c t u m . So Esu went t o Osanobua and t o l d h i m
t h a t the p e r s o n he d e t e c t e d was i m p o s s i b l e to g u a r d . So Osanobua
h i m s e l f d e c i d e d to c o n t i n u e to guard those ' i m a g e s . ' Then Osanobua
began t o watch over those ' i m a g e s . ' l i e (Yoruba f o r e a r t h ) appeared,
and t r i e d t o swallow Osanobua. Then Osanobua knocked l i e w i t h the
t a i l o f an a n i m a l . Osanobua asked the s p i r i t h i s name and the s p i r i t
s a i d , ' l i e . ' l i e confessed t h a t the reason he s t o l e was t h a t he was
h u n g r y . Osanobua t o l d l i e t h a t from t h i s day h e n c e f o r t h he would
never go h u n g r y . A l l l i v i n g t h i n g s would be g i v e n to him f o r f o o d .
l i e was not s a t i s f i e d . Osanobua then asked l i e to be the l a n d (Oto
i n E d o ) . Osanobua t u r n e d l i e i n t o the l a n d . T h i s i s the r e a s o n we
are b u r i e d i n the ground: Osanobua i s g i v i n g l i e f o o d . The ground
i s never s a t i s f i e d . And a f t e r c r e a t i n g the l a n d , Osanobua c r e a t e d
O l o k u n . Osanobua c r e a t e d Olokun to be the f i r s t c h i l d to h i m s e l f .
Osanobua c o n f e r r e d power upon h i m . 'As I have power, so w i l l y o u . '
Olokun w i l l not l a b o u r but w i l l have food at a l l t i m e s . Osanobua
c r e a t e d Ogun to h e l p O l o k u n . I t i s o n l y Ogun who k i l l s ; Olokun
never k i l l s .

The f o l l o w i n g themes a r e found i n t h i s creation-myth.

1. Olokun i s the s p e c i a l son o f Osanobua.

2. All the d i v i n i t i e s are under O l o k u n ' s suzerainty.

3. Olokun i s o f a g e n t l e n a t u r e and i s neyer a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

w i t h anything e v i l or d e s t r u c t i v e (Olokun never kills).

 - 129 -

B. OLOKUN AS H E J S ; REPRESENTED BY THE OHENOLOKUN

In an i n t e r v i e w w i t h a female ohenOlokun, M r s . U . 0 . , she stressed

t h a t Olokun i s the god o f the s e a ; the k i n g o f the w a t e r s . She s a i d t h a t

j u s t as a k i n g has h i s p a l a c e , t h a t i s how Olokun i s on the e a r t h . She

s a i d t h a t Osanobua had c r e a t e d Olokun and t h a t Olokun has been g i v e n c e r -

t a i n d u t i e s , one o f them b e i n g t o c o n t r o l a l l the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s on

earth.

She s a i d t h a t by s e r v i n g Olokun one f i n d s l i f e to be more s u c c e s s -

ful and e n j o y a b l e . She a d m i t t e d t h a t Ogun i s p o w e r f u l but she stressed

t h a t Olokun supersedes and c o n t r o l s Ogun. She emphasized t h a t Osanobua

has g i v e n Olokun the c o n t r o l o f w e a l t h , good h e a l t h and f e r t i l i t y . 'When

somebody i s r e f e r r e d t o Olokun a l l t h a t h e / s h e w i l l need w i l l r e a c h h i m . 1

She a s s o c i a t e d Olokun w i t h good, a l t h o u g h i n cases o f stubbornness

Olokun has the power to make t h a t p e r s o n suffer.

The l e a d i n g ohenOlokun i n B e n i n C i t y t o l d me t h a t the o n l y power

Olokun has i s ' t o make t h i n g s good and not b a d . ' He does n o t have power

to d e s t r o y . T h i s theme i s predominant i n the o r a l l i t e r a t u r e and hymnology

of the E d o . A p p a r e n t l y , the o n l y way Olokun d e s t r o y s i s to g i v e an Edo a

lot o f money. The r e c i p i e n t w i l l t h e n proceed to d e s t r o y h i m s e l f by m i s -

u s i n g the newly a c q u i r e d w e a l t h . The head p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t Olokun i s

the f a v o u r i t e son o f Osanobua; t h a t Olokun has the power to g i v e c h i l d r e n

d i r e c t l y t o men.

The p r i e s t s a i d t h a t Olokun has many names. Among them a r e :

Osanughegbe ( R e f l e c t s l i k e g l a s s ) , and Orimwianme (One who comes from the

sea). S i n c e he i s a g r e a t k i n g , he has many t i t l e s . These t i t l e s are

used i n p r a y e r i n which O l o k u n ' s power and k i n g s h i p are emphasized.

 - 130 -

C. OLOKUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE OLOKUN-SONGS

In t h i s a n a l y s i s o f Edo O l o k u n - s o n g s , we w i l l see t h a t these songs

c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y . A newly i n i t i a t e d member o f any

Olokun-cult w i l l soon know p r e c i s e l y who Olokun i s , what he can do and has

done f o r the E d o . I propose to a n a l y z e a number o f Olokun-songs under the

following general categories: p r a i s e , v o t i v e and d i d a c t i c . It is diffi-

c u l t t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e s e songs p r e c i s e l y as some o f them c o n t a i n elements

o f each c a t e g o r y . A f t e r g i v i n g each song w i t h i t s t r a n s l a t i o n , I will

suggest the p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h each song would be sung and the

i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d about the divinity.

I. P r a i s e Songs

1. Uwu g h i gbe mwen; emiamwen g h i gbe mwen;

d o , o r i m w i a n , o r i m w i a n do!

Death w i l l not k i l l me, s i c k n e s s w i l l not k i l l me.

Hail, one who comes from the sea ( O l o k u n ) !

Confidence i s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d i n Olokun. S u p p l i c a n t s have f a i t h t h a t they

can be d e l i v e r e d from bad s p i r i t s because o f O l o k u n ' s goodness.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s a b l e to d e l i v e r one from i l l

health.

2. Okun mwen m ' l e l e , a gha l e l e o g i e a i g h i v i o o y a .

I f o l l o w O l o k u n , f o r you cannot f o l l o w a k i n g and be s l i g h t e d .

The s i t u a t i o n i s one o f t h a n k s g i v i n g . The s i n g e r i s t e l l i n g Olokun t h a t

s i n c e he has f o l l o w e d h i m he has never been d i s a p p o i n t e d . The s i n g e r is

a l s o i n v i t i n g o t h e r members to become c o n s t a n t w o r s h i p p e r s of O l o k u n .
 - 131 -

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Here we see the h i g h r e g a r d Edo have f o r

Olokun. He i s thought o f as a k i n g , a b e i n g o f g r e a t power.

3. Ese ne Olokun r u me, ona r e ese ne g h i fo v b ' o t o .

I w i l l always remember what Olokun has done f o r me.

T h i s song i s o f f e r e d i n p r a i s e o f Olokun f o r what he has done f o r the

s inger.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s the source o f b l e s s i n g f o r the

Edo.

4. I ya nomo, do; l y a hehehe, I y a nomo, do!

• • • •

Olokun g i v e r o f c h i l d r e n , I s a l u t e y o u , I s a l u t e y o u !

T h i s song i s sung i n p r a i s e o f Olokun f o r p e r f o r m i n g t h i s particular

f u n c t i o n f o r man.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s the source o f c h i l d r e n .

5. G i ma d ' u g i O l o k u n , oghogho ma ye

Let us c e l e b r a t e the f e s t i v a l o f Olokun f o r we are i n a b s o l u t e

gladness of mind. We are a l l happy.

T h i s song i s sung d u r i n g an u g i O l o k u n — t h e weekly t h a n k s g i v i n g r i t u a l at the

shrine of Olokun. There have been no s e t b a c k s ; a l l has been successful.

This successfulness is attributed to the a c t i o n o f O l o k u n .

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s worthy o f b e i n g served because

he has r a i n e d w e a l t h , b l e s s i n g and c h i l d r e n upon the E d o .

II. D i d a c t i c Songs

1. A gha l e l e okhuo, a dee

If one f o l l o w s the d i c t a t e s o f a woman, the end w i l l always be

 - 132 -

downfall.

The man making a p r a y e r b e f o r e Olokun must have been t e l l i n g Olokun about

some problem r e l a t e d to h i s f a m i l i a l situation. When Olokun descended

upon the p r i e s t , i t was r e v e a l e d t h a t t h i s man was too dependent on women.

A c c o r d i n g to my i n f o r m a n t , the l e s s o n h e r e i s t h a t women s h o u l d not be

trusted completely.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun has s u p e r n a t u r a l insight into the

n a t u r e o f Edo p r o b l e m s . He i s a l s o a b l e to s o l v e problems through h i s

chosen media o f communication, the priest.

2. I vbare, I vbare, I vbare, edionikaro.

I meet, I meet those who go b e f o r e me.

T h i s song i s sung i n remembrance o f those who have departed and who were

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the p r i e s t ' s membership i n the Olokun c u l t . B e f o r e the

present p r i e s t served Olokun, others served b e f o r e h i m . Those gone b e f o r e

( e d i o n i k a r o ) s e r v e d Olokun f a i t h f u l l y . The most i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n O l o k u n ' s

f o l l o w e r s l e a r n i s t h a t t h e d i v i n i t y ' s s e r v i c e must be u p h e l d by those

whom he chooses.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : O l o k u n ' s o r d e r s must be c a r r i e d out

o b e d i e n t l y so t h a t h i s name w i l l c o n t i n u e to be w e l l praised.

3. U gha r u n ' u w a , ghe mian mian mwen.

If I Olokun b l e s s y o u , do not f o r g e t me.

T h i s i s a w a r n i n g to man from O l o k u n . Olokun does not g i v e t h i n g s 'gratis.'

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun responds to the E d o ' s c r y f o r h e l p ,

but he must be remembered by s a c r i f i c e and by obedience to the moral

i n s t r u c t i o n g i v e n through O l o k u n ' s media o f communication, the priest.

 - 133 -

4. A gha h ' u w a , uhumwun gua urorame' a gha mie ne i k i n e g b e gua

onurho.

When you are s e e k i n g f o r f o r t u n e , you s h o u l d p r e p a r e t o undergo

any c o n d i t i o n , even p a s s i n g through a s m a l l h o l d . When you

have a t t a i n e d y o u r o b j e c t then you become so f a t t h a t the door

w i l l be too narrow f o r you to pass through.

T h i s song w i l l be sung i n o r d e r to emphasize t h a t the Edo have certain

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and r e q u i r e m e n t s to f u l f i l l b e f o r e Olokun w i l l h e l p them.

And now t h a t someone i s i n n e e d , he s h o u l d be o b e d i e n t to the d i c t a t e s of

Olokun. When Olokun g r a n t s a r e q u e s t he must not be forgotten.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Be prepared to c a r r y out the d i c t a t e s of

Olokun. The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Olokun i s a b l e to make one f o r g e t past

sufferings.

III. V o t i v e Songs

1. Ya y a y a o , y a y 'uwa r e o , y a y a y a o .

O l o k u n , p l e a s e b r i n g f o r t u n e to me.

T h i s song w i l l be sung when a man i s b e f o r e Olokun p l e a d i n g w i t h the

d i v i n i t y to r a i n f o r t u n e upon h i m . Fortune here includes c h i l d r e n , wealth

and p r o t e c t i o n .

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s a source o f b l e s s i n g f o r man.

He i s i n t e r e s t e d i n the w e l f a r e o f the E d o .

2. Olokun aweru, ere eve ukpon I v i e ; emwen omo oda mwenOgbomwankan

• • • • • • • • • •

ma I yo eguaosa.

I t i s Olokun who I have been t o l d to w o r s h i p . I'm worshipping

Olokun not t o get c l o t h e s , nor w e a l t h , I ' m b a d l y i n need o f a

 - 135 -

child. Anybody who laughs at me because I have no c h i l d was

never t h e r e when Osanobua c r e a t e d me.

The s u p p l i c a n t i s i n s e r i o u s need o f a c h i l d and i s e a r n e s t l y b e s e e c h i n g

Olokun.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : T h i s song r e v e a l s an i n t e r e s t i n g aspect

o f O l o k u n ' s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the E d o . Olokun i s h e r e shown to be concerned

w i t h a problem on the human l e v e l t h a t n o ' o n e e l s e i s concerned a b o u t .

A l t h o u g h no one e l s e understands a p e r s o n ' s p l i g h t , Olokun d o e s , and i s

w i l l i n g t o h e l p the p e r s o n .

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

Something o f the Edo e x p e r i e n c e o f Olokun i s s t o r e d i n t h e i r songs.

These songs make i t v e r y c l e a r t h a t Olokun i s i n no way h i d d e n from the E d o .

He i s a s p e a k i n g and a c t i n g d i v i n i t y ; f a r more a c t i v e than Osanobua, and

not as r e m o t e . There are b a s i c a l l y four ways i n w h i c h Olokun i s inter-

p r e t e d as m a n i f e s t i n g h i m s e l f to the Edo: through the d r e a m - e x p e r i e n c e ,

t h r o u g h the p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e , through d i v i n a t i o n , and through p a r -

t i c u l a r events. A people must be c u l t u r a l l y p r e d i s p o s e d to i n t e r p r e t the

random events o f l i f e as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f d i v i n i t y . In o r d e r to do

this, they must know what a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y i s capable o f . As w e l l

as t h i s , they must be p r e p a r e d to i n t e r p r e t s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s as the

manifestation of d i v i n i t y . W i t h t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s as an interpretative

b a s i s , the complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l n e e d , s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e and

u n p r e d i c t a b l e event become the s t u f f o f the communication p r o c e s s .

 - 136 -

A. THE DREAM-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

The dream-experience i s a means o f f a c i l i t a t i n g ' e a s y ' communication

between s p i r i t and man. D u r i n g s l e e p , say the E d o , Olokun can invade a

man's u n c o n s c i o u s . The r e c i p i e n t o f the dream w i l l e x p e r i e n c e Olokun

symbolically. For i t i s the symbol t h a t communicates and i s a x i a l i n the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the dream's c o n t e n t . There appear t o be two means

whereby Olokun speaks to a man i n the dream: i n the w h i t e - s y m b o l i s m to

the ohen and i n the garb o f the ohen t o a f o l l o w e r o f O l o k u n . The c o n t e n t

of the dream must be decoded by e i t h e r an a k p e l e or ogwega d i v i n e r . The

common man does not have the s p e c i a l knowledge o f dreams. He i s aware

t h a t d i v i n i t y i s s p e a k i n g b u t u n t i l the d i v i n e r decodes i t , the message

i s not c l e a r . An ohen h a v i n g a dream does not always have to have the

message decoded. The p r i e s t ' s d e c i s i o n to c o n s u l t a d i v i n e r seems to

depend upon the c o m p l e x i t y o f the dream.

Case 1

One n i g h t an ohen r e c e i v e d ' s i g n s ' through O l o k u n . While asleep she

saw Olokun appear a l o n g w i t h a s t r a n g e r . The s t r a n g e r was s p e a k i n g a

f o r e i g n language. He i m p l o r e d h e r to t e a c h him some ' m e d i c i n e . ' She

employed an i n t e r p r e t e r i n o r d e r t o determine what the man i n the dream

wanted. She d i s c o v e r e d t h a t somebody was g o i n g t o v i s i t h e r i n the following

day.

A l t h o u g h she was scheduled to appear a t a meeting t h a t morning at

t e n , she awoke and went d i r e c t l y to the s h r i n e house to w a i t f o r the

stranger. As soon as she e n t e r e d the s h r i n e , the c h i l d r e n s a i d t h a t a

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woman had come s e e k i n g h e l p and had been w a i t i n g f o r some time f o r the

priestess to appear.

I n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d : Olokun has spoken through the dream-experience and

g i v e n the p r i e s t e s s foreknowledge.

Case 2

M r s . 0 . was f o r m e r l y a t r a d e r in cloth. One time she was g o i n g t o

L a g o s , the c a p i t a l c i t y , about 200 m i l e s from B e n i n C i t y . In the n i g h t

Olokun appeared and i n s t r u c t e d h e r to s a c r i f i c e a c o c k . She bought the

cock w i t h o u t k i l l i n g i t . L a t e r she went t o the market and bought some

cloth. She f o r g o t to t a k e h e r change from the c l o t h s e l l e r , an amount

o f t h r e e pounds. When she a r r i v e d home she q u i c k l y k i l l e d the cock and

wrote a l e t t e r to the woman e n c l o s i n g a s h e l l from Esango (Edo f o r Shango,

the Yoruba d i v i n i t y o f t h u n d e r ) . The e n c l o s i n g o f t h i s s h e l l communicates

the message to the woman t h a t i f she f a i l s t o r e t u r n the money she w i l l

be c u r s e d i n the name o f Esango. The woman q u i c k l y sent the money. Mrs.

0 said: ' I f you do what Olokun a s k s , t h i n g s w i l l always go w e l l . 1

Information revealed: Olokun communicates i n s t r u c t i o n s to h i s f o l l o w e r s .

Note how v a r i o u s events are a s s o c i a t e d . She i s t o l d t o s a c r i f i c e a cock

i n the dream and then e x p e r i e n c e s a m i s f o r t u n e i n the m a r k e t . After

s a c r i f i c i n g to Olokun as she was supposed t o , the woman r e t u r n e d the

money. These c o n t i g u o u s events l e d t o the acknowledgement by M r s . 0 o f

O l o k u n ' s power.

Case 3

M r s . 0 was a s l e e p and began to f e e l p a i n i n the n e c k . She then

p l a c e d h e r head a g a i n s t the w a l l . I n t h i s dream Olokun commanded her to

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stop c a r r y i n g l o a d s on her h e a d . O l o k u n , a l s o t o l d h e r to stop g o i n g to the

market. A t f i r s t she d i d not obey, but every time she a r r i v e d at the

market she had v e r y l i t t l e success w i t h her customers.

I t seems t h a t Olokun a g a i n t o l d her t h a t she s h o u l d not c a r r y any

l o a d s on her h e a d . The r e a s o n g i v e n f o r t h i s by the p r i e s t e s s was t h a t

the s p i r i t o f Olokun uses her head f o r h i s d w e l l i n g p l a c e . A t the time

o f i n t e r v i e w the p r i e s t e s s had not gone to the market f o r four y e a r s .

She now l i v e s on the d o n a t i o n s r e c e i v e d from the v a r i o u s p e o p l e who seek

her assistance.

Information revealed: The content o f t h i s dream i s p r i m a r i l y d i d a c t i c .

Olokun spoke to h e r i n the dream, the message b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d by the p a i n

i n her n e c k . A t f i r s t she d i s o b e y e d the s p i r i t , but t h i s r e s u l t e d i n a

l a c k o f success i n her b u s i n e s s . T h i s l e d M r s . 0 t o i n t e r p r e t her l a c k o f

success as f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n from O l o k u n . She then changed h e r b e h a v i o u r .

She now appears to be q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l i n her new r o l e as priestess.

Case 4

One p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t Olokun o f t e n wakes h i m up i n the night.

Whenever Olokun t a l k s t o him he w i l l know by the n a t u r e o f O l o k u n ' s dress

p l u s the presence o f O l o k u n ' s two sword-bearers (omada).

One might the p r i e s t dreamed o f an i n d i v i d u a l who was g o i n g to be

sick. The p r i e s t a c t e d on the i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n him and t o l d t h a t person

t o perform c e r t a i n s a c r i f i c e s . The p e r s o n f a i l e d to o f f e r the sacrifices

and l a t e r became s i c k . The p r i e s t c l a i m e d t h a t i f the man had performed (j

the ceremony he would not have f a l l e n i l l .

Information revealed: Olokun i s communicating h i s concern f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

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p e r s o n and i s f o r e t e l l i n g an e v e n t . The content o f t h e message i s r e v e a l e d

to t h e p r i e s t through t h e dream-experience. The subsequent f a i l u r e t o

s a c r i f i c e i s linked w i t h the f o r e t o l d s i c k n e s s . The p r i e s t ' s a s s o c i a t i o n

o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e and e x t e r n a l events c o n f i r m s Olokun's o r i g i n a l

message.

Case 5

One n i g h t a p r i e s t dreamt o f Olokun w i t h h i s omada. These two

k n e e l e d b e f o r e t h e p r i e s t t e l l i n g h i m t h a t he must t r a v e l t o U r h o n i g b e ,

the h e a d q u a r t e r s o f Olokun a f t e r making a s a c r i f i c e . This the p r i e s t d i d .

Information revealed: Olokun n o t o n l y r e v e a l s h i s own 'needs' t o man, b u t

gives advice to the p r i e s t .

Case 6

One c u l t member saw t h e p r i e s t i n h i s dream. Olokun t o l d him t o go

and t a l k t o t h e ' p r i e s t . T h i s he d i d . To h i s s u r p r i s e he found t h a t t h e

p r i e s t was s i c k . He then sought o u t a d i v i n e r and was t o l d t o s a c r i f i c e a

number o f itemsQto Olokun. The p r i e s t got w e l l a f t e r t h e s a c r i f i c e was

offered.

Information revealed: Olokun demonstrates h i s concern forh i sfollowers'

h e a l t h by m a n i f e s t i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e i r dreams.

B. THE POSSESSION-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

Every f i v e days (eken) t h e c u l t s o f Olokun congregate b e f o r e t h e

a r u O l o k u n. T h i s ceremony i s c a l l e d t h e u ^ i O l o k u n . The main focus o f t h i s

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ceremony i s the h o p e d - f o r descent o f Olokun upon h i s chosen c h a n n e l o f

communication, the p r i e s t . Accompanied by d a n c i n g , drumming and the

p l a y i n g o f gongs and beaded c a l a b a s h e s , the song appears to a s s i s t Olokun

to d e s c e n d . The s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g are p r e l i m i n a r y t o the d e s i r e d pos-

session-experience, f o r i t i s then t h a t the people can hear t h e i r divinity

speak, a l b e i t i n d i r e c t l y . D u r i n g the s p i r i t ' s descent upon the priest,

the p r i e s t w i l l u t t e r words w h i c h w i l l bear upon the l i v e s o f the cult

members. The E d o , as w e l l as many o t h e r p e o p l e s , b e l i e v e t h a t the facul-

t i e s o f the p r i e s t have been t a k e n over by the d i v i n i t y . A t the h e i g h t

of the p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e , the p r i e s t w i l l not know what i s happening

or what sounds he i s u t t e r i n g . The p r i e s t ' s 'unconscious' state i n t e n s i -

f i e s the c u l t ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the presence o f d i v i n i t y .

It i s d u r i n g the u g i O l o k u n t h a t the channel o f communication between

Olokun and man i s most o p e n . The p r i e s t f u n c t i o n s as the c h a n n e l o f com-

m u n i c a t i o n at t h a t p a r t i c u l a r moment when d i v i n i t y d e s c e n d s . The ohen,

therefore, i s n o t the decoder o f the message w h i c h has t r a v e l l e d from

Olokun through the p r i e s t - c h a n n e l to the people who must a c t upon the

i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d by the priest.

O l o k u n ' s descent i s not p r e d i c t a b l e . By s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g i n a

c o n t r o l l e d manner the c u l t t r i e s t o set a r i t u a l l y c o n d u c i v e atmosphere

for the d i v i n i t y ' s d e s c e n t . But they never know when o r i f Olokun i s

going to descend. I n o r d e r t o be r e c e p t i v e t o the d i v i n i t y ' s presence,

the p r i e s t must undergo a number o f p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l s . Thus the c u l t

b e l i e v e s t h a t the p r i e s t 'feels' the e x i s t e n c e o f Olokun i n a m y s t e r i o u s

and profound way. Because o f the p r i e s t ' s s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to O l o k u n ,

he i s chosen as the c h a n n e l o f the d i v i n i t y ' s messages.

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The p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e has another meaning o u t s i d e the u g i -

01okun. The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Olokun chooses h i s ohen by d e s c e n d i n g upon

them. Thus t h i s 'descent from d i v i n i t y ' i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e for the

priesthood. An Edo c o u l d be descended upon a t any t i m e . A g a i n the ele-

ment o f u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y r e i n f o r c e s the d i v i n i t y ' s s u p e r i o r i t y over man,

for man cannot manage or c o n t r o l these e x p e r i e n c e s . The p r i e s t h o o d may

i n some cases be h e r e d i t a r y , but each p r i e s t must n e v e r t h e l e s s be s p e c i a l l y

chosen by the d i v i n i t y . U n l i k e the u g i O l o k u n where p o s s e s s i o n manifests

i n g l o s s o l a l i a , when Olokun i s c h o o s i n g a p r i e s t o t h e r phenomena may be

present as w e l l . D u r i n g the d i v i n i t y ' s descent the c a n d i d a t e may u t t e r a

p r e d i c t i o n which w i l l l a t e r be seen t o have been a c c u r a t e . P o s s e s s i o n by

d i v i n i t y may a l s o r e s u l t i n speechlessness. One p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t on

six o c c a s i o n s known t o him Olokun rendered a p e r s o n s p e e c h l e s s . T h i s was

a s i g n to the p r i e s t t h a t Olokun was s p e a k i n g . He then prepared some l e a v e s

known as O l o k u n - l e a v e s (eboOlokun) and bathed the v i c t i m . Shortly after

they became w e l l and are now s e r v i n g O l o k u n . Another m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the

possession-experience i s lameness. One housewife a p r i e s t knew suddenly

became lame. She c o n s u l t e d a d i v i n e r and performed the n e c e s s a r y ceremony.

She i s now q u i t e w e l l and i s a l s o a p r i e s t e s s . A further manifestation

of the d i v i n i t y ' s descent i s temporary insanity.

Olokun's 'descent i n o r d e r to choose an ohen' can r e s u l t , then,

i n g l o s s o l a l i a , dumbness, lameness and temporary i n s a n i t y . In a l l o f

these u n u s u a l happenings instantaneity i s the p r e v a i l i n g element i n the

experience. It i s not j u s t any s i c k n e s s o r lameness t h a t i n d i c a t e s that

d i v i n i t y i s speaking. The c o n t e n t ( e g . lameness) o f the e x p e r i e n c e does

not communicate i r r e v o c a b l y t h a t Olokun has chosen an ohen. Lameness may

have a m e a n i n g — i t i s the d i v i n e r who w i l l determine the n a t u r e and

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s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the experience.

C. DIVINATION AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

The d i v i n e r i s a x i a l i n the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m . It is the

d i v i n e r ' s f u n c t i o n to d i s c o v e r the p a t t e r n s and meaning i n sensory

e x p e r i e n c e and random e v e n t s . In the dream-experiences o f the Edo, he

w i l l be sought f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the c o n t e n t . D i f f e r e n t symbols

w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d , as we have s e e n , as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f d i v i n i t y .

The c o m p l e x i t y o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r o c e s s must be e m p h a s i z e d . If (a

particular divinity) i s ( b e l i e v e d t o be) s p e a k i n g through the dream-media,

c e r t a i n symbols (The presence o f the s e a , w h i t e n e s s i n any form, the

presence o f the ohen) w i l l r e v e a l t o tfhejdiviner w h i c h d i v i n i t y i s s p e a k i n g .

F u r t h e r d e t a i l s i n the dream j u x t a p o s e d w i t h the p a t t e r n i n g o f the actual

divination w i l l i n d i c a t e what i s the p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f the message. The

ogwega and a k p e l e d i v i n e r s are c o n s u l t e d p r i m a r i l y by the commoner and not

the p r i e s t , although i n a d i f f i c u l t dream the p r i e s t would c o n s u l t a

d i v i n e r - , who i s w o r k i n g c l o s e l y w i t h h i m .

In the p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e the ohen f u n c t i o n s as the channel and

source o f the d i v i n i t y ' s p r e s e n c e . The d i v i n e r i s not needed to decode

t h e message because the c u l t r e a d 01okun-words through the o h e n . However,

the d i v i n e r ' s a b i l i t y to decode i s needed when O l o k u n ' s descent manifests

itself i n lameness, etc.

The ohen use a minor form o f d i v i n a t i o n to determine what Olokun

*

is saying. D u r i n g the s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g to O l o k u n , the ohen w i l l 'play'

the f o u r - s i d e d k o l a . By b r e a k i n g the k o l a i n t o four p i e c e s and then

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throwing it on the ground, he is able to a s c e r t a i n whether or not Olokun

has received the message. The patterning of the kola will indicate a

simple 'yes' or 'no' response to the sacrifice.

Before going on to the next section, it should be noted that the

diviner plays a key role here as w e l l . It is the event which is a mani-

festation of Olokun's presence; the diviner's role is to give significance

to the event.

D. THE EVENT AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

The events which are interpreted as messages from a particular

divinity correspond to the divinity's nature or capabilities. For a

spiritual being can only manifest itself in such a manner as to be true

to its being. At the general level, then, Olokun should be associated

with events within his conceptualized spheres of influence: health, wealth

and general blessing. Olokun, therefore, speaks to man in his experience

of these blessings. To cite an example, if Olokun is not believed to have

anything to do w i t h evil and a person is k i l l e d by a truck, this particular

event cannot be interpreted as the manifestation of Olokun. The event

does not correspond to Olokun's nature. The argument may be tautological

to the observer, but is comprehensible to those within the religious system.

Just as Osa-naxnes reveal a response to Osanobua, the Olokun songs

do likewise. For example, someone may have come to Olokun with a seemingly

insoluble problem. Through the possess ion-experience the priest may have

received a message from the divinity, taking the form of advice, revealing

the nature of man's problem and what he should do about i t . Conversely,

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someone may have r e c e i v e d a b l e s s i n g from Olokun which has r e s u l t e d i n

the c o m p o s i t i o n o f a song o f p r a i s e or t h a n k s g i v i n g . E s s e n t i a l l y these

songs have r i s e n out o f the Edo i n t e r a c t i o n and communication w i t h Olokun

in experiences of l i f e r e l a t e d to h i s sphere o f power: the g i v i n g o f

h e a l t h , w e a l t h and c h i l d r e n . These songs c o u l d , moreover, be thought o f

as man's attempt to communicate to Olokun: communication i s a dynamic,

two-way p r o c e s s . But I want t o comment b r i e f l y on the song as showing

how Olokun speaks to the Edo.

In the p r a i s e songs, i t can be seen that Olokun i s b e l i e v e d to have

spoken to the Edo through the g i v i n g o f c e r t a i n b l e s s i n g s . For example,

the song: 'I f o l l o w Olokun, f o r you cannot f o l l o w a k i n g and be slighted'

is i n d i c a t i v e o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s events i n one's l i f e as

messages from d i v i n i t y . Olokun i s a l s o p r a i s e d i n other songs f o r g i v i n g

of children (Olokun, g i v e r o f c h i l d r e n , I s a l u t e you, I s a l u t e y o u ! ) ;

r e v e a l i n g the n a t u r e o f one's problems ( I f one f o l l o w s the d i c t a t e s o f a

woman, the end w i l l always be d o w n f a l l ) ; and c o n t r i b u t i n g to the g e n e r a l

w e l f a r e of one's l i f e (I w i l l always remember Olokun f o r what he has done

for me) .

III. THE EDO RESPONSE TO OLOKUN

A. THE INDIVIDUAL APPROACH TO OLOKUN

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t p r a y e r can be o f f e r e d at any time to Olokun.

But p r a y e r i s always more f a v o u r a b l y r e c e i v e d by Olokun b e f o r e the a r u . The

Edo say that they cannot come b e f o r e Olokun emptyhanded. I f an individual

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is p r a y i n g to Olokun he w i l l b r i n g such n o n - b l o o d items as w h i t e c h a l k ,

k o l a , c o w r i e s and w h i t e c l o t h and p l a c e them on the a r u . Every a r u has

numberous banana shaped p i e c e s o f w h i t e c h a l k which have been p l a c e d on

the a r u w h i l e p r a y e r was o f f e r e d b e f o r e the s h r i n e . B e f o r e p r a y i n g to

O l o k u n , c h a l k i s p l a c e d on the shrine.

The p r i e s t a l s o p r a y s to Olokun at n o n - c e r e m o n i a l t i m e s . However,

the p r i e s t has a s p e c i a l day when h e / s h e s i t s i n the s h r i n e . The p r a y e r s

b e f o r e the s h r i n e , i f no immediate need i s p r e s s i n g are o f f e r e d for

general purposes.

1. That harmony w i l l p r e v a i l i n the family.

2. That o n e ' s w e a l t h w i l l increase.

3. That o n e ' s f a m i l y w i l l remain w e l l and i n c r e a s e i n number.

B. THE CULTIC APPROACH TO OLOKUN

The u g i O l o k u n has been a l l u d e d to a number o f t i m e s . In t h i s par-

t i c u l a r ceremony t h e r e are a number o f ends sought by the members o f O l o k u n .

A t the s p e c i f i c l e v e l , i n d i v i d u a l members have needs w h i c h are brought

b e f o r e the c o n g r e g a t i o n . I t Is at t h i s time t h a t c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l

bring their s a c r i f i c i a l items to the p r i e s t . (The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t the

u g i O l o k u n p r o v i d e s the proper s e t t i n g f o r s a c r i f i c e ) . The u g i O l o k u n has a

more g e n e r a l p u r p o s e . Each o f the elements o f the ceremony e x c l u d i n g the

possession-experience—general p r a y e r , d a n c i n g , drumming and s i n g i n g com-

b i n e to communicate a g e n e r a l message o f p r a i s e and t h a n k s g i v i n g to O l o k u n .

The ceremony b e g i n s at d u s k , f o r i t i s s a i d t h a t i s when a l l s p i r i t s

are r e t i r i n g from t h e i r l a b o u r . The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Olokun i s t r a v e l l i n g

 - 146 -

around c a r r y i n g out h i s f u n c t i o n s .

P r a y e r and s a c r i f i c e a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d i n t h e u g i O l o k u n .

When t h e r e i s t o be a s l a u g h t e r o f some s a c r i f i c i a l item, the c u l t con-

gregates before the s h r i n e . Everybody puts t h e i r hands over t h e i r mouths

and r e p e a t s the word Oraho seven t i m e s . This i s the formal greeting to

Olokun. Olokun i s next c a l l e d by h i s v a r i o u s t i t l e s .

(a) Oba noso b a h i a (Olokun, k i n g o f a l l k i n g s ) .

(b) Ogie nomwen i y a g h i g h o (Olokun, t h e k i n g who has p l e n t y o f

money).

(c) Oba no rame nose noroke (Olokun, t h e k i n g who l i v e s i n t h e s e a

and surpasses he who l i v e s i n t h e l a n d ) .

A f t e r i n v o k i n g Olokun, t h e p r i e s t and c u l t r e p e a t t h e f o l l o w i n g p r a y e r :

Ugbolu, a t e t e were
Ghegun mwen wu
Ghegun mwen khuomwin
Gbaro ghe omo kevbe amwen ne
Gun mwen to,'nevbe kpe
K i e odigho me, igho aya r u e vbodo mwan.

Translation:

Don't l e t me d i e , don't l e t me f a l l s i c k ,
Look a f t e r my c h i l d r e n and my w i f e ,
L e t me l i v e l o n g , open up t h e road o f money f o r me,
For i t i s money one uses i n d o i n g
Whatever one d e s i r e s .

The p r i e s t then takes t h e k o l a nuts and t h e c h a l k brought by t h e person

who i s o f f e r i n g a s a c r i f i c e t o Olokun. He f i r s t touches h i s ) own head and

and t h e b r e a s t o f the woman on whose b e h a l f he i s s a c r i f i c i n g w i t h w h i t e

chalk. I f i t i s a male s a c r i f i c i n g , t h e p r i e s t w i l l t o u c h h i s head o n l y .

He then breaks t h e k o l a , d i v i n e s and shares i t w i t h t h e members b e f o r e

slaughtering the s a c r i f i c i a l items.

The a c t u a l s a c r i f i c e i s v e r y s i m p l e . The s a c r i f i c i a l item i s held

 - 147 -

by the p r i e s t ' s assistant (a s e n i o r woman member o f the c u l t ) and i t s

t h r o a t i s c u t by the p r i e s t . W h i l e the p r i e s t i s s p r i n k l i n g the b l o o d he

w i l l be u t t e r i n g a p r a y e r : '0 O l o k u n , b l e s s t h i s woman or man who has

brought t h i s i t e m . B l e s s them through t h e i r u n d e r t a k i n g . ' He p l a c e s

some o f the b l o o d on the head o f the k n e e l i n g woman/man and on the mem-

bers. U n l i k e the s a c r i f i c e b e f o r e o t h e r a r u , the b l o o d must not touch

the ' f a c e ' o f the a l t a r . One p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t the a l t a r i s c o n s i d e r e d

sacred. The b l o o d , t h e r e f o r e , i s s p i l l e d o n l y i n f r o n t o f the s h r i n e .

The head o f the s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l i s thrown to the r i g h t o f the shrine

and the d e c a p i t a t e d body i n t o the p r e c o u r t . I t w i l l p r o b a b l y be eaten

but t h i s d o e s n ' t seem to be important to the E d o . The s a c r i f i c e i s now

complete. There are b a s i c a l l y two types o f s a c r i f i c e : t h a n k s g i v i n g and

supplication. The t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o us at this

p o i n t because i t i s a response to what i s i n t e r p r e t e d as the i n t e r v e n t i o n

o f d i v i n i t y i n the a f f a i r s o f the E d o . The t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e flows

out o f the b e l i e f t h a t Olokun has heard and responded to r e q u e s t s . 1

In

the f o l l o w i n g s a c r i f i c e s , the purpose o f the s a c r i f i c e i s t h a t which has

been g i v e n by the a c t o r s w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

1. Thanksgiving S a c r i f i c e s

Case 1

Mrs. 0. 0. o f E k i a d o l o r v i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w.ith one

T h i s i s not to s a y , however, t h a t the o n l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s a c r i -

f i c e i s as g i f t , or as a p a r t of the Edo appeal to d i v i n i t y f o r some p a r -
t i c u l a r end.
 - 148 -

s h e - g o a t , one w h i t e p i g e o n , one w h i t e c o c k , a q u a n t i t y o f cocoanut,

c o w r i e s , c h a l k , ododo, k o l a n u t s and w i n e . Her purpose was to thank him

for f u l f i l l i n g him promise to h e r . She had been d e c l a r e d a b a r r e n woman

but succeeded i n bearing a c h i l d . She had a l r e a d y made one s a c r i f i c e to

Olokun to o b t a i n her end and promised t o make another i f Olokun responded

to her request.

Case 2

M r s . 0 . I . o f Eka V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w i t h one g o a t ,

one p i g e o n , some w h i t e c h a l k , ododo and c o w r i e s . Her purpose was to thank

Olokun f o r e n a b l i n g her to c o n c e i v e and d e l i v e r a male c h i l d s a f e l y , after

she had t r i e d a l l the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s .

Case 3

M r s . I . 0 . o f I g i u y e V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun wi'tfP one

;

w h i t e c o c k , one w h i t e g o a t , ododo, k o l a n u t s , c o w r i e s and w h i t e c h a l k . Her

purpose was to thank him f o r a s s i s t i n g her to c o n c e i v e and d e l i v e r a male

child after she had sought a i d from o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s . It i s under these

circumstances t h a t an Edo c o u l d g i v e the c h i l d the name O l o k u n r o b o .

Case 4

M r s . 0 . A . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w i t h one g u i n e a

f o w l , one w h i t e c o c k , ododo, k o l a n u t s and c o w r i e s . Her purpose was to

thank Olokun f o r the safe d e l i v e r y o f her c h i l d w h i c h the azen had been

t r y i n g to k i l l i n her womb. T h i s woman had appealed to Olokun through

prayer for assistance against the a z e n . When she d e l i v e r e d s a f e l y under

t h e s e adverse c o n d i t i o n s she knew t h a t Olokun had a c t e d on her behalf.

 - 149 -

Case 5

M r s . A . I . o f Ukhegie Q u a r t e r s , B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to

Olokun o f one w h i t e p i g e o n and one w h i t e s h e - g o a t . Her purpose was to

thank Olokun f o r her c o n c e p t i o n and s u c c e s s f u l d e l i v e r y o f a male child.

A l l her o t h e r e f f o r t s to get pregnant had f a i l e d .

Case 6

Mrs. A . U . of Uselu Quarters, B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun

w i t h one g u i n e a f o w l , some cocoanuts and k o l a n u t s . Her purpose was to

thank Olokun f o r a l l o w i n g her t r a d e t o p r o s p e r . A d i m i n i s h i n g t r a d e had

l e d her to seek O l o k u n ' s assistance.

Case 7

M r s . 0 . E . of S i l u k o Quarters, B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e w i t h one

w h i t e g u i n e a f o w l , one w h i t e c o c k , some cocoanuts and one w h i t e she-goat

to O l o k u n . Her purpose was t o thank Olokun f o r g i v i n g her a c h i l d . She

had prayed to Olokun f o r a c h i l d and when she f i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d and d e l i -

v e r e d , t h e r e was a g r e a t merriment among the f o l l o w e r s o f Olokun because

t h i s woman, whose f i r s t name i s O l o k u n r o b o , was r a i s e d as an Olokun wor-

shipper. Constant p r a y e r s and promises had been made b e f o r e the shrine

o f Olokun • Now t h a t she had d e l i v e r e d s a f e l y , t h i s t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e

was offered.

Case 8

M r s . A . U . o f Ugbine V i l l a g e near B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to

Olokun w i t h one w h i t e g u i n e a f o w l , 21 c o w r i e s , t h r e e lumps o f c h a l k (orhue),

one c o c o a n u t , a p i e c e o f ododo and a p i e c e o f w h i t e d r i l l cloth. Her p u r -

pose was to thank Olokun f o r h e l p i n g her t r a d e t o p r o s p e r . T h i s was not a

 - 150 -

promised s a c r i f i c e ; she came out o f her own f r e e w i l l i n response to

O l o k u n ' s a c t i v i t y on h e r b e h a l f .

Case 9

M r s . 0 . U . o f O l i h a Q u a r t e r s , B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun

w i t h one w h i t e g o a t , one w h i t e c o c k , c o c o a n u t s , c o w r i e s and a p a r r o t

feather. Her purpose was to thank Olokun f o r her d a u g h t e r ' s conception

and safe d e l i v e r y o f a c h i l d though she had h e r e t o f o r e been unable to con-

ceive .

Case 10

M r s . I . 0 . o f Utoka V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to ..Olokun w i t h a w h i t e

p i g e o n , w h i t e c o c k , w h i t e g o a t , k o l a n u t s and a c o c o a n u t . Her purpose was

to thank Olokun f o r her d a u g h t e r ' s safe d e l i v e r y o f a c h i l d . She had

sought the a i d o f Olokun on b e h a l f o f her d a u g h t e r . The c h i l d was named

Olokunrobo (Olokun has p l a y e d the r o l e o f s a v i o u r ) .

2. Votive S a c r i f i c e s

Case 1

Upon v i s i t i n g an ohenOlokun to a t t e n d the u g i O l o k u n , I found t h a t

the ceremony had been c a n c e l l e d . The reason g i v e n was t h a t a w i f e o f one

o f the c u l t members was u n d e r g o i n g a v e r y d i f f i c u l t labour. Thus a s a c r i -

f i c e had been made to O l o k u n . I t was assumed t h a t bad s p i r i t s were the

cause o f the woman's t r o u b l e and t h a t Olokun was q u i t e c a p a b l e o f fighting

a g a i n s t them. The u g i O l o k u n was c a n c e l l e d because to invoke the s p i r i t by

d a n c i n g would o b s t r u c t h i s m i s s i o n . I was t o l d t h a t t h e r e c o u l d be no

merriment u n t i l success was a c h i e v e d .

 - 151 -

Case 2

M r s . I . E . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w i t h one egg, a

broom, a t h r e e - s i d e d k o l a and a p i e c e o f m e t a l . T h i s s a c r i f i c e was made

on b e h a l f o f a son who was i n the motor t r a n s p o r t b u s i n e s s . The named

items were o f f e r e d to Olokun to enable M r . I . E . ' s s o n ' s t r a d e to f l o u r i s h

w i t h o u t impediment. These items are seldom o f f e r e d to Olokun but the

broom may s y m b o l i z e the Edo d e s i r e to have e v i l i n f l u e n c e s 'swept away'

and the m e t a l may s y m b o l i z e the l o r r y w h i c h i s c e n t r a l to the son's

business.

Case 3

M r s . 1.0. o f Idumurvbioto Q u a r t e r s , B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e

to Olokun w i t h one w h i t e p i g e o n , one w h i t e c o c k , one y a r d o f w h i t e c l o t h ,

k o l a - n u t s and c o w r i e s . Her purpose was t o enable her daughter to have a

child. She a l s o promised t h a t she would make a f u r t h e r s a c r i f i c e i f Olokun

g r a n t e d her r e q u e s t . The d i v i n e r t o l d t h i s woman to approach Olokun w i t h

the aforementioned items to c l e a r away the o b s t a c l e s . A double sacrifice

seems n e c e s s a r y i n major cases.

Case 4

M r s . O . E . o f Ugbague Q u a r t e r s , B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to

Olokun w i t h one s h e - g o a t , one w h i t e g u i n e a f o w l , a cocoanut and some k o l a

nuts. Her purpose was to o b t a i n a c h i l d from O l o k u n .

Case 5

A woman i n the Eghobamien household i n B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e

to Olokun w i t h one g u i n e a f o w l . Her purpose was to enable her to travel

s a f e l y to L a g o s .
 - 152 -

Case 6

A woman i n the Eghobamien household i n B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e

to Olokun o f one w h i t e s h e - g o a t . An a k p e l e d i v i n e r came to the household

for a visit. At t h i s time he broke k o l a and d i v i n e d w i t h i t . I t was

through the k o l a - d i v i n a t i o n t h a t he warned the woman o f impending danger

to her s o n . The s a c r i f i c e was made to Olokun to ward o f f t h i s impending

danger; p r o b a b l y t h a t o f s i c k n e s s .

There i s another ceremony which takes p l a c e when an Edo r e c e i v e s a

domestic s h r i n e . The ukOlokun i s a seven day ceremony which g i v e s an Edo

the r i g h t to have a s h r i n e at which i t i s b e l i e v e d Olokun w i l l presence

himself.

In o r d e r to o b t a i n a ' p a r t ' (domestic a l t a r ) o f O l o k u n , an[,Edo must

be ' c h o s e n . ' Olokun must m a n i f e s t h i s d e s i r e to the chosen one by c a u s i n g

s i c k n e s s , by d i s t u r b i n g h i s dreams (or speaking i n them) and by i n d u c i n g

dizziness. These e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l m o t i v a t e the r e c i p i e n t to see a d i v i n e r

who w i l l decode these e x p e r i e n c e s . He w i l l p r e d i c t t h a t Olokun i s speaking

and c h o o s i n g him to have h i s own domestic s h r i n e .

After l e a v i n g the d i v i n e r the i n i t i a t e w i l l c o n s u l t the ohenOlokun.

The p r i e s t arranges f o r the s p e c i a l ceremony to take p l a c e at the member's

house. The f i r s t s t e p i n r e c e i v i n g a domestic s h r i n e i s the u n d e r g o i n g o f

a f o u r t e e n day p u r i f i c a t i o n ceremony. T h i s precedes the a c t u a l i n s t a l -

l a t i o n o f the s h r i n e . D u r i n g t h i s two week p e r i o d the i n i t i a t e must abstain

from s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e , manual l a b o u r and s o l i d f o o d . The i n i t i a t e w i l l

a l s o r e c e i v e c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n s as to the proper method o f p r a y e r before

the domestic a r u and the method o f s a c r i f i c e .

After t h i s two week p e r i o d i s over a l l o f the Olokun c u l t g a t h e r s

 - 153 -

at t h e i n i t i a t e ' s house. A dance takes p l a c e b e f o r e the a c t u a l ceremony.

The o l d people p r e s e n t t h e k o l a and wine t o t h e new member who w i l l be

clothed i n white. The body w i l l a l s o be rubbed w i t h w h i t e c h a l k and a

parrot feather placed i n the h a i r . The i n i t i a t e then produces t h e s a c r i -

f i c i a l animals. Some l e a v e s and c h a l k w i l l be p l a c e d i n a c e r t a i n spot i n

the c o r n e r o f t h e house. The ohenOlokun, b e f o r e k i l l i n g t h e s a c r i f i c i a l

a n i m a l , invokes t h e s p i r i t o f Olokun t o t h e a l t a r : Olokun dore Olokun dore

'0 come down Olokun, hear and p a r t a k e o f t h e s a c r i f i c e . ' A f t e r the i n v o -

c a t i o n , the s a c r i f i c e i s made. T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a f e a s t o f a l l t h e

members o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r Olokun c u l t . T h i s ceremony i s a response t o

the m a n i f e s t a t i o n and t h e ' p r e s e n c i n g ' o f Olokun a t the domestic s h r i n e .

The s a c r i f i c e , t h e n , r e l e a s e s 'part o f the s p i r i t o f Olokun' f o r r e s i d e n c e

at t h e domestic a r u .

The ehukpo i s t h e y e a r l y f e s t i v a l o f t h a n k s g i v i n g t o Olokun. Every

Edo d i v i n i t y must have a y e a r l y f e s t i v a l . And Olokun i s no e x c e p t i o n . A l l

members o f Olokun must pay t h e i r y e a r l y t r i b u t e . The ceremony f o l l o w s the

pattern of the ugiOlokun.

 CHAPTER V I

OGUN: THE ARBITER OF JUSTICE

I. THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF OGUN

Ogun i s the d i v i n i t y o f i r o n . A l t h o u g h Ogun i s served by a l l Edo

o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s ; s y s t e m , he i s s e r v e d e s p e c i a l l y

by i r o n and b r a s s - s m i t h s and, i n the o l d d a y s , was the s p e c i a l p a t r o n o f

w a r r i o r s and s p e c i a l i s t h u n t e r s . Ogun i s a l s o the focus o f s p e c i a l c u l t s

who s e r v e him p r i m a r i l y but not e x c l u s i v e l y .

A. OGUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r myth was r e l a t e d to me i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h an

ohenOgun.

Ogun i s above a l l d i v i n i t i e s . Without Ogun the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s cannot

eat. He o c c u p i e s a conspicuous p l a c e among a l l o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s . That
i s why when any o t h e r s a c r i f i c e i s made t h a t Ogun must have the f i r s t
p a r t o f the o f f e r i n g .
Osanobua has c r e a t e d a l l s p i r i t s and one day he b u i l t a c e r t a i n
e n c l a v e f o r them to l i v e i n . A t t h a t time Ogun was the s m a l l e s t c h i l d
among the d i v i n i t i e s . Osanobua t e s t e d them a l l by suddenly p l a n t i n g
a v e r y b i g t r e e i n a l a r g e e n c l a v e . Osanobua s a i d , 'Who among a l l the
d i v i n i t i e s w i l l be the f i r s t to hew the t r e e down?' A l l the d i v i n i t i e s
attempted but f a i l e d . Ogun then d e c i d e d to t r y , g o i n g w i t h the a i d o f
a heavy wind*. Ogun used the wind because he knew what was needed to
' d e f e a t the t r e e . 1
L a t e r Ogun was h u n g r y . The heavy wind s a i d , ' D o n ' t
be i n h a s t e , I w i l l h e l p y o u . ' The wind s a t i s f i e d Ogun by b l o w i n g the
t r e e down. And Ogun threw the wind i n t o a nearby s e a .
A f t e r t h i s Osanobua was s a t i s f i e d t h a t Ogun was a b l e to meet h i s
demands. From t h a t day h e n c e f o r t h Ogun was honoured because a l l o f the
o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s had f a i l e d . Those d i v i n i t i e s p r e s e n t at the c o n t e s t
were O v i a , Okhauha, I g b a r o n , Orhomo, Ikhokho, E r e d o , A k e , O d i g g i ,
Obiemwen, Erevbu and Imene.
 - 155 -

The main theme emerging from t h i s myth i s t h a t Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to

be the k i n g o f a l l d i v i n i t i e s under Osanobua and O l o k u n . Upon a s k i n g the

ohen where Esu was d u r i n g the c o n t e s t , he r e p l i e d t h a t i t was t h r o u g h E s u ' s

influence t h a t Ogun was a b l e to ' g a i n s u c c e s s ' over t h a t p a r t i c u l a r tree.

Esu and Ogun had worked hand i n hand to a c h i e v e the success.

B. OGUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE OGUN SONGS

1. Ogun o n i r e Ogun n i z i d e

Ogun ayagboro, Ogun o r h i e v b a r e no mwanre.

Ogun who h a i l s from Ire,

W i t h Ogun one makes a farm,

From whence one feeds.

T h i s song i s sung to i n s p i r e the s p i r i t o f ibgun to be p r e s e n t at the aru.

Information about the d i v i n i t y : Ogun has h i s o r i g i n i n I r e . He i s the one

who i s p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the food the Edo e a t , for i t is impossible

to farm w i t h o u t u s i n g a c u t l a s s . The Edo b e l i e v e , therefore, t h a t they

c o u l d not survive without Ogun's a s s i s t a n c e .

— " — /

2. Ogun o r o d i o n Edionikaro,

Ogun o r o d i o n kevbe,

Olokun ya muebohia.

Ogun o r o d i o n agahadukpon

^Aghabowa Ogun o r o d i o n .

Ogun i s the f i r s t . Our a n c e s t o r s know Ogun i s the first

of a l l d i v i n i t i e s . Ogun supersedes O l o k u n . Without Ogun

one cannot buy c l o t h , n e i t h e r can one b u i l d a h o u s e .

 - 156 -

T h i s song i s sung as a p r a i s e song to encourage Ogun to descend.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Ogun i s b e i n g e x a l t e d above a l l divinities-

even O l o k u n . The Edo dependence on Ogun i s a g a i n a s s e r t e d . It is with

money t h a t the Edo buy the c l o t h t h a t c l o t h e s them as w e l l as the z i n c f o r

their roofing. The phrase 'our a n c e s t o r s know t h a t Ogun i s the first'

a s s e r t s t h a t Ogun has been served by past g e n e r a t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e should

not be n e g l e c t e d now.

3. Iyaowa, Ogun o r i o d i o n itemwen avben Ogun orieme

Ogun rue s e . E t e g h a r i e a g h i y o b a l o r e omoregbe

• • • •
omwan. Irogbe agan nomabie Ogun rue se.
• • • • • •

Ogun i s f o r e m o s t . I had no w i f e nor c h i l d p r e v i o u s l y .

It i s Ogun who has h e l p e d me to have them. 0 I thank

you Ogun f o r a l l these g i f t s . One w i l l not totally

remember the p a i n endured when one has had a sore that

i s now h e a l e d . It i s a c h i l d t h a t i s the crown o f life.

A c h i l d l e s s person i s loaded up w i t h p a i n f u l thoughts.

I thank you a g a i n Ogun. .

T h i s song has a r i s e n out o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , and i s sung t o induce

newcomers to f o l l o w Ogun.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : In t h i s song the ohen i s p r a i s i n g Ogun f o r

what he has done f o r h i m . Ogun has h e l p e d him i n d e s p e r a t e ( c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

I n the past he had s u f f e r e d g r e a t l y ; now he has f o r g o t t e n the p a s t and i s

enjoying l i f e . Ogun i s b e i n g p r a i s e d f o r h e l p i n g him o b t a i n c h i l d r e n .

4. Vbawogun ruSeloghogun ikpon i y e v b e n kevbe erhamwen.

Ogun o l e ghimwen omo kevbe avben.

• • • •
There i s no assignment g i v e n to Ogun-.that he cannot
 - 157 -

discharge without success. N o t h i n g i s i m p o s s i b l e w i t h Ogun.

I thank my mother and f a t h e r - - i t i s Ogun who made i s p o s s i b l e

f o r me to have issues.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to have power to assist

the Edo i n v a r i o u s w a y s . But he must be t r u s t e d b e f o r e he w i l l c l e a r the

way to s u c c e s s . The s i n g e r o f t h i s song a t t r i b u t e s the c h i l d r e n he has

to Ogun ' s power.

5. Urese Ogun. 01 i r e Obo n i s i o k h e r h e obo me n i gha r o

i t o gun. Ikedogha man o t e b a k u a . I g h i t e vben avben r a

omo. Me a t i e r e Oviarobo Ogun rue se.

• • • • •

I thank you Ogun who comes from I r e . I t was one n a t i v e

d o c t o r who i s a c e l e b r a t e d man by the name o f O b o n i s i o k h e r e

who p r e d i c t e d t h a t u n t i l I became a p r i e s t o f Ogun t h a t

my d e s i r e s would not be g r a n t e d . I t was a f t e r becoming

a p r i e s t o f Ogun t h a t I s t a r t e d t o have i s s u e s . Before

then I was l i v i n g a woeful l i f e . My name i s O v i a r o b o .

T h i s song r e f l e c t s a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e o f one i n d i v i d u a l . ;

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : T h i s song r e v e a l s the c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

t h a t e x i s t s between the d i v i n e r and the p r i e s t . The d i v i n e r ( a l s o p o p u l a r l y

called ' n a t i v e d o c t o r ) r e v e a l e d t h a t Ogun wanted him to be a p r i e s t .

1
This

song a l s o shows t h a t Ogun has power and t h a t h i s d i c t a t e s cannot be i g n o r e d .

There i s an i r o n i c note i n t h i s s o n g , f o r h i s f a t h e r worshipped O v i a and

though O v i a ' s i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y h i s f a t h e r gained h i m . But where i s O v i a

now? The p r i e s t i s p r e s e n t l y s e r v i n g Ogun.

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6. Kpenogun, Ogun o l i r e . Obagha to k p e r e , Ewuakpe

n o r i o b a emwen omo evben avben Ogun o r h i iyobone

ighoghore i g h o g h o r e .
• • • •
0! beat the drums f o r Ogun o f I r e . May the k i n g r e i g n

forever. K i n g Ewuakpe^of B e n i n once has no w i f e o r issue.

I t was Ogun who made i t p o s s i b l e f o r him to have them.

Beat the drum f o r Ogun! I am g l a d , I am g l a d .

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r song i s sung i n remembrance o f a p a r t i c u l a r event in history.

The p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t e v e r y ohen i s r e q u i r e d to t e l l the h i s t o r i c a l back-

ground o f h i s divinity.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : The purpose o f t h i s song i s to show t h a t

s i n c e Ogun h e l p e d an Oba when he was d e s p e r a t e , how much more w i l l he be

l i k e l y to h e l p the commoner s o l v e h i s p r o b l e m s .

7. Kobo kobo nibadanuwa

No ba nobo nogbe.

I s a l u t e a l l n a t i v e d o c t o r s and d i v i n e r s . Anyone who

fails to r e s p e c t and obey n a t i v e d o c t o r s and d i v i n e r s -

may they be s h o r t l i v e d . P r a i s e be to n a t i v e doctors

and d i v i n e r s f o r any s i c k person must c o n s u l t them ( i n

o r d e r to be h e a l e d ) .

T h i s i s p r a i s e song: w h i l e we are p r a i s i n g Ogun, l e t us not f o r g e t the

native-doctor. They p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n d i r e c t i n g needy people to

Ogun.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : A l t h o u g h n o t h i n g s p e c i f i c i s s a i d about Ogun,

it i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t Ogun and the n a t i v e d o c t o r and d i v i n e r work t o g e t h e r .

1
K i n g Ewuakpe came t o the Edo throne i n 1700 (Bradbury(^1967: 2 ) .
 - 159 -

8. U z e v b i v b i nakpenogun kpema no Ogun. Ogun agbamu.

Gie g i r akpemogun.

Beat the drum q u i c k l y f o r Ogun. Ogun the fearless

divinity. Beat the drums q u i c k l y f o r Ogun, f o r Ogun

needs q u i c k a c t i o n .

T h i s song i s sung to i n s p i r e the drummers t o keep on drumming. Ogun's

descent depends to a l a r g e e x t e n t on the b e a t i n g o f the drums, therefore

the drummers are encouraged to c o n t i n u e u n t i l the d i v i n i t y descends.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : A v e r y i m p o r t a n t aspect o f Ogun's n a t u r e

is revealed i n t h i s song. Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to be a f u r i o u s , temperamental

divinity. Not o n l y does he descent q u i c k l y but he a c t s q u i c k l y . Therefore,

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s done b e f o r e the s h r i n e must be done i n h a s t e . Ogun does

not want any ' s l o w n e s s ' ; o n l y q u i c k a c t i o n i s acceptable.

9. I r e r e nogunye. I r e r e nogunye I tuwaya n o t o t a .

• - • • •

Wado ikpeme. Iyare i y a r e .

I thank a l l who a r e p r e s e n t here i n c l u d i n g the drummers.

May you a l l l i v e l o n g . In the name o f Ogun o f I r e , I

thank a l l o f y o u .

T h i s song was c r e a t e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r my v i s i t to the shrine.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : N o t h i n g s p e c i f i c i s conveyed about Ogun.

The p r i e s t i s t h a n k f u l to the drummers and d i s m i s s e s the c o n g r e g a t i o n i n

the name o f Ogun.

C. OGUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED BY THE OHENOGUN

 - 160 -

1. Ogun's C o n t r o l over M e t a l

One ohenOgun informed me t h a t w i t h o u t Ogun, the Edo ' c o u l d not pass

through any r o a d . ' 'Money i s needed to pave o n e ' s way i n l i f e - - a n d Ogun

i s the d i v i n i t y who d e c i d e s t h i s . ' He a l s o added t h a t w i t h o u t money one

cannot m a i n t a i n a c h i l d . The ohen went on to say t h a t Ogun c o n t i n u e s to

assist a man r i g h t to h i s l a s t d a y s . ' F o r i t i s w i t h a s h o v e l t h a t man

is buried.' Summing u p , Ogun p l a y s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t • p a r t i n the l i v e s o f

the Edo as the g u a r d i a n o f m e t a l .

2. Ogun's Power to H e a l

A p a r t from the i r o n - a s s o c i a t i o n , Ogun has power to h e a l v a r i o u s

kinds of sicknesses: l u n a c y , e p i l e p s y and o t h e r d i s e a s e s . One ohen

informed me t h a t many b a r r e n women had come to him and through the a c t i o n

o f Ogun were a b l e to c o n c e i v e . One o f the l e a d i n g ohenOgun i n B e n i n C i t y

r a n a m a t e r n i t y c l i n i c through the s p i r i t o f Ogun. F u r t h e r , he c l a i m e d

t h a t many l u n a t i c s had been h e a l e d through Ogun' s power, p a r t i c u l a r l y

if the cause o f the l u n a c y was the e v i l s p i r i t s . Ogun h e l p s i n another

way. W i t h h i s o b j e c t o f c r e a t i o n (the c u t l a s s ) , l e a v e s are o b t a i n e d to

h e l p the s i c k p a t i e n t . Even the i n j e c t i o n s g i v e n i n h o s p i t a l s are made

w i t h a metal instrument. Ogun, t h e r e f o r e , has a p a r t i n modern t r e a t -

ments as well.

3. Ogun's Power to A d m i n i s t e r Vengeance

A number o f ohen s a i d t h a t Ogun's g r e a t e s t power i s h i s a b i l i t y to

 - 161 -

a d m i n i s t e r vengeance. In a robbery c a s e , f o r example, Ogun w i l l be sought

to 'go and f i n d o u t . ' One case r e l a t e d to me by my informant illustrates

this particular belief about Ogun's n a t u r e . My informant s a i d t h a t 22 y e a r s

ago h i s w i f e l e f t h i m . A t t h a t time the dowry was not p a i d b a c k . In the

meantime the woman m a r r i e d a g a i n . She bore f o u r c h i l d r e n but they a l l d i e d .

The deaths o f her c h i l d r e n l e d her to c o n s u l t the d i v i n e r who s a i d t h a t her

problem was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o Ogun. The d i v i n e r informed the woman t h a t her

t r o u b l e was r e l a t e d to her f a i l u r e to pay back the dowry so many y e a r s ago.

She was t o l d t h a t she had to b r i n g a t o r t o i s e , cock and a hen to her former

h u s b a n d ' s house, make a s a c r i f i c e and r e t u r n the money. My informant

thanked Ogun f o r b r i n g i n g back h i s p r o p e r t y a f t e r so many y e a r s .

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r case was g i v e n as p r o o f t h a t Ogun r e a l l y ' w o r k s ' on

one; s b e h a l f .
;
Twenty-two y e a r s ago he had c o n s u l t e d Ogun i n o r d e r to r e g a i n

his lost property. As the y e a r s went by he had g i v e n up a l l hope o f r e -

g a i n i n g the s t o l e n i t e m s . He h a d n ' t seen the woman f o r many y e a r s . But

the d i v i n e r was a b l e to l i n k h i s former w i f e ' s problem to the d i s r u p t i v e

a c t i v i t y o f Ogun--and t h i s f i n a l l y l e d her to r e t u r n the dowry. Commenting

on t h i s c a s e , my informant s a i d t h a t Ogun had a c t u a l l y s h i e l d e d t h i s woman

from f u t u r e evil.

A c c o r d i n g t o n a t i v e p r a c t i c e when Ogun wants to demonstrate someone's

g u i l t , he causes the g u i l t y p a r t y to become s i c k . The q u i l t y one w i l l then

confess by w a l k i n g about the market banging an i r o n gong (egogo) i n o r d e r

to r e v e a l h i s / h e r g u i l t i n e s s . I haven't seen any cases o f t h i s i n B e n i n .

In the case o f a motor a c c i d e n t where some people are saved and one

man l o s t , i t w i l l be known t h a t Ogun has c l a i m e d t h a t p e r s o n ' s life. At

o t h e r times people w i l l commit an o f f e n s e . Ogun w i l l be d i s p l e a s e d and

w i l l be approached to p u n i s h the offender.

 - 162 -

We can now make a number o f g e n e r a l statements about the Edo

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Ogun. L i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Ogun has r e c e i v e d h i s

power d i r e c t l y from Osanobua. Next to Olokun i n power and a u t h o r i t y , Ogun's

p r i m a r y sphere o f i n f l u e n c e i s to a c t as the a r b i t e r o f j u s t i c e i n the Edo

kingdom. H i s secondary f u n c t i o n i s to s e r v e as a p i o n e e r d i v i n i t y to

remove o b s t a c l e s and open up the way f o r m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l p r o s p e r i t y

for h i s worshippers. We have a l s o seen t h a t a n y t h i n g a c h i e v e d through the

i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f m e t a l implements o r o b j e c t s i s a t t r i b u t e d to Ogun.

Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to be a f u r i o u s d i v i n i t y capable o f destructive

acts. I f Ogun i s n o t heeded, i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t he can be v e r y 'wild.'

He i s the c h i l d o f Osanobua who i s b o l d , f e a r l e s s and o u t s p o k e n . Other

d i v i n i t i e s are dependent upon h i m . I t i s Ogun who makes the way smooth f o r

the d i v i n i t i e s i n t h e i r s p i r i t u a l encounters w i t h men. An Edo p r o v e r b

says: 'Any d i v i n i t y who d e s p i s e s Ogun, grass w i l l grow on h i s face.'

Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to be o m n i p r e s e n t . However, he l o c a l i z e s h i m s e l f

a t the v a r i o u s s h r i n e s i n Edoland. As one informant s u c c i n c t l y put it:

'Ogun d o e s n ' t hear you i n the open s p a c e . ' And another informant s a i d :

' A war g e n e r a l needs a p l a c e to g a t h e r h i s a r m y . ' Ogun i s such a g e n e r a l

and he r e c e i v e s the p r a i s e and s u p p l i c a t i o n s o f the Edo b e f o r e the v a r i o u s

aru scattered throughout the Edo k i n g d o m .

Numerous ohen s e r v e Ogun. There d o e s n ' t seem to be a h i e r a r c h y o f

priests i n the M i d - W e s t , a l t h o u g h some ohen e a r n r e c o g n i t i o n as outstanding

and p o w e r f u l p r i e s t s . An ohen i s s e l e c t e d by the d i v i n i t y i n a manner

s i m i l a r to O l o k u n . Once he i s chosen by the d i v i n i t y , he must undergo some

i n s t r u c t i o n by t r a i n e d o h e n . The ohenOgun may Jalso have a knowledge o f

h e r b s , m e d i c i n a l charms o f b o t h a d e s t r u c t i v e and p r o t e c t i v e n a t u r e : to
 - 163 -

p r e v e n t gun wounds, c u r s e an enemy, w i n a l o v e r , e t c . Some o f the obo

(native doctors) i n Edoland may be second c l a s s ohenOgun. Women are for-

b i d d e n to be ohen o f Ogun. The o n l y women ohen are those s e r v i n g the

gentle d i v i n i t y Olokun.

There are two types o f aruOgun: domestic and communal. Most

t r a d i t i o n a l households have a domestic a r u ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i f one o f the

residents o f the h o u s e h o l d i s a member o f Ogun) where p r a y e r s are offered

from time to t i m e . These a r u c o n s i s t o f a mud a l t a r adorned w i t h iron

implements. In c o n t r a s t to the domestic s h r i n e s are the communal s h r i n e s .

The a r u i s e n c l o s e d i n a s m a l l hut c o n t a i n i n g m e d i c i n a l p o t s , s k u l l s o f

p r e v i o u s l y s a c r i f i c e d animals suspended over the a l t a r . Rafia is strung

a c r o s s the o u t s i d e o f the s h r i n e house to demarcate the shrine.

There are a number o f moral r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r any f o l l o w e r o f Ogun.

They must safeguard a g a i n s t s t e a l i n g , a v o i d a d u l t e r y , and a v o i d creating

any d i s t u r b a n c e to community s e c u r i t y . I f t h e r e are any d i f f e r e n c e s among

members, the ohen w i l l s i t i n judgment over the m a t t e r . Bearing false

w i t n e s s a g a i n s t f e l l o w members o f Ogun i s a l s o f o r b i d d e n .

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

A. THE DREAM-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

The symbols w h i c h appear i n the dream-experience o f the Edo and

r e v e a l t h a t Ogun i s t r y i n g to break i n t o t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s are two-fold:

b u r n i n g f i r e and m e t a l o b j e c t s . The appearance o f these symbols w i l l then

l e a d the s u b j e c t o f the dream t o c o n s u l t a d i v i n e r who w i l l i n t e r p r e t the

meaning o f the symbols and t e l l h i s c l i e n t what a c t i o n i s demanded o f h i m .

 - 164 -

Case 1

C M . dreamt t h a t he saw a t r a i n c o n t a i n i n g many s o l d i e r s coming

a l o n g the t r a c k . The t r a i n was suddenly e n g u l f e d i n f i r e . C M . went to

the d i v i n e r s e e k i n g an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s u n u s u a l dream. The d i v i n e r

s a i d t h a t Ogun war w a r n i n g him t h a t he s h o u l d s a c r i f i c e to Ogun i n o r d e r

to a v o i d an accident.

B. THE POSSESSION-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

What f o l l o w s i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the u g i O g u n . S i n c e the main focus

o f the u g i O g u n , as w i t h the u g i O l o k u n , i s the d e s c e n t o f the d i v i n i t y upon

the ohen, I have chosen to i n c l u d e the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the ugiOgun i n t h i s

s e c t i o n on the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t a

number o f elements i n the ceremony seek to communicate v a r i o u s messages

t o Ogun. For example, i f Ogun ' n e e d s ' a s a c r i f i c e i t w i l l be'Joffered

d u r i n g the u g i O g u n . Thus the ceremony i t s e l f f i n d s a c t o r and d i v i n i t y in

dynamic interrelationship.
Ogun S h r i n e and C e r e m o n i a l A r e a

o
O Sword
bearer

Inner Shrine
Courfya rd women >->.
usinq+he ^
ukuse O
oo
Diagram 4
 - 165 -

The ceremony b e g i n s w i t h the ohen seated at the f r o n t o f the shrine

h o l d i n g the eben. Two women dance i n f r o n t o f the s h r i n e , f a c i n g one

another. The purpose o f the p r e l i m i n a r y d a n c i n g and drumming i s to call

Ogun down on the o h e n . A t f i r s t the p r i e s t i s s i t t i n g calmly i n front of

the s h r i n e , but s l o w l y he b e g i n s to sway back and f o r t h w i t h the drumming

continuing. He b e g i n s t o bob up and down as the women c o n t i n u e to dance

b e f o r e the ohen. Gongs are handed to him w h i l e h i s a s s i s t a n t s , seated

b e s i d e h i m , hand h i m m e t a l gongs (egogo) and s p r i n k l e n a t i v e c h a l k around

the s h r i n e . Some c h a l k i s a l s o rubbed on the face o f the o h e n .

Suddenly the d a n c i n g s t o p s . A t t h i s p o i n t i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t Ogun

has descended upon the o h e n . The ohen now speaks to h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n

t e l l i n g them t h a t Ogun d o e s n ' t want any c h i l d r e n to be s i c k nor does he

want any p i c t u r e s t a k e n . He t e l l s the c o n g r e g a t i o n t h a t Ogun paves the

way f o r p r o g r e s s . W i t h o u t h i m , the b u i l d i n g o f homes i s i m p o s s i b l e .

Going o n , the ohenOgun s t a t e s t h a t Ogun i s the i n v e n t o r o f a l l m a c h i n e s .

He r e a s s u r e s the c u l t t h a t when the azen e a t , Ogun feeds them ( i n o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e r e i s no need to f e a r them i f you are s e r v i n g Ogun). He c o n -

c l u d e s by s a y i n g t h a t i f any r i v e r i s too deep,' Ogun makes i t easy to cross

and t h a t whenever t h e r e i s a w a r , Ogun i s the cause o f it.

A f t e r making these s t a t e m e n t s , the ohen g r e e t s the p e o p l e : Wakoyo.

He says t h a t i f anyone i s too poor o r too r i c h i t i s through Ogun.

Speaking to the e l d e r s , the ohen e x h o r t s them t o be a t t e n t i v e because

Osanobua has empowered Ogun to be the l e a d e r o f a l l d i v i n i t i e s . The ohen

backs up h i s command to the e l d e r s by n o t i n g t h a t i t i s Ogun who causes

death through the d r i v e r s o f v a r i o u s cars.

Next the ohen b e g i n s to s i n g : Daghome, daghome. T h i s i s a war song

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sung by the members o f the F e d e r a l Army. A l l o f the members j o i n i n the

s i n g i n g of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r song. As he s i n g s the ohen b e g i n s to shake

h i s head, o c c a s i o n a l l y s m i l i n g . He then s a y s : Iyeghede tuwa. 'I salute

you w i s h the Ighede d r u m . ' The ohen then r a i s e s h i s hand to stop the

dance, s t a t i n g t h a t he has r e s p e c t f o r a l l ohen: Kobonimade nuwa,

nomaduaogunnugungbe. 'Ogun must be r e c o g n i z e d by a l l d i v i n e r s . Any d i v i n e r

who does not r e c o g n i z e Ogun w i l l be k i l l e d . '

The ohen r i s e s and s t a t e s : 'No o t h e r power has a w i d e r chest than

Ogun. Even the w i z a r d s and w i t c h e s are under h i m because he feeds them a l l .

Ogun uses h i s chest i n b e a t i n g the d r u m s . ' This p a r t i c u l a r statement

p r a i s e s Ogun f o r h i s b o l d n e s s , the Edo i d i o m f o r b o l d n e s s b e i n g 'wide c h e s t . '

After these statements o f d o c t r i n e , the ohen c i r c l e s the f l o o r as the

drums c o n t i n u e to b e a t . The s p i r i t o f Ogun has now f u l l y descended upon

the o h e n . Jumping up and down, he h i t s h i s chest f a s t e r and f a s t e r ; he

h i t s h i s head w i t h the egogo, not a p p e a r i n g to f e e l the e f f e c t o f t h i s .

Suddenly he stops w i t h h i s head b o b b i n g s l i g h t l y , a l t h o u g h the drumming

and s i n g i n g c o n t i n u e s . A l l pause momentarily to p r a i s e Ogun. Next the

ohen s e l e c t s one boy from the c o n g r e g a t i o n . It is believed that the

s p i r i t o f Ogun has now t a k e n c o n t r o l o f the- o h e n ' s f a c u l t i e s ; t h a t i t is

the d i v i n i t y s p e a k i n g to the assembled members o f Ogun.

The ohen t e l l s the boy t h a t he s h o u l d s a c r i f i c e a cocoanut and a

h a l f - c o o k e d yam to Esu because 'bad s p i r i t s ' have been p l o t t i n g to kill

the b o y . The ohen informs the c u l t t h a t i n seven days the boy would have

been k i l l e d . The yam s h o u l d o n l y be h a l f - c o o k e d and p a r t o f i t s h o u l d be

g i v e n to E s u . A t t h i s p r e c i s e moment a woman s t e p s out from the dancers

and c o n f i r m s the whole i n c i d e n t . She says t h a t s i x days ago her husband

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had c o n s u l t e d the d i v i n e r and was o r d e r e d to k i l l t h r e e goats to the 'bad

spirits' i n o r d e r to dismember the c h i l d r e n . The ohen r e p l i e s t e l l i n g the

woman t h a t Ogun w i l l waive a l l o f t h i s .

After t h i s event, the ohen paces around the f l o o r and informs the

c u l t t h a t 201 s p i r i t s came to him but o n l y 100 were a b l e t o dance w i t h h i m .

He then conveys f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n about Ogun to the c u l t . He says that

a p e r s o n who i s underfed w i l l not work v e r y w e l l . Without h a r d work, one

cannot o b t a i n f o o d . A c c o r d i n g to the ohen, Europeans know the v a l u e o f

Ogun because they have p i l o t s and many e n g i n e e r s and are thus l i f t e d above

A f r i c a n s by Ogun.

The ohen shakes h i s gong i n the d i r e c t i o n o f one o f the women p r e s e n t

at the ceremony. She s t e p s out o f the l i n e and k n e e l s down. The i n f o r -

m a t i o n conveyed to h e r i s t h a t she s h o u l d not be too q u i c k i n a c q u i r i n g

wealth. Then the ohen a g a i n b e g i n s to knock h i s head w i t h the gongs

b e a t i n g h i s c h e s t w h i l e jumping up and down. The drumming s t a r t s a g a i n

and the ohen speaks to another woman. He t u r n s to the drummers and t e l l s

them to beat the drums c o n t i n u o u s l y .

At t h i s p o i n t i n the u g i O g u n , a man comes to the back o f the court-

y a r d and the p r i e s t wants t o know the r e a s o n f o r h i s c o m i n g . The man says

t h a t he has come t o seek r e d r e s s . Before t u r n i n g h i s f u l l attention to

t h i s man, the ohen dances a g a i n a f t e r c h a r g i n g an o l d man up near the front

of the c o u r t y a r d a s h i l l i n g . Money i s a l s o demanded o f me. There i s

g e n e r a l d a n c i n g as the money i s t a k e n to the ohen who i s now s w i r l i n g

round and r o u n d , h o p p i n g on one f o o t as w e l l as h i t t i n g h i s head w i t h the

egogo.

A l l o f the c u l t r i s e to dance w i t h the ohen. T h i s appeared to me

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t o be the most e c s t a t i c moment i n the whole ceremony. The woman

h o l d i n g the ukuse (beaded c a l a b a s h ) stood and moved i n around the o h e n .

Word was brought to me t h a t Ogun had accepted my g i f t . The ohen t u r n e d to

me and informed me t h a t I s h o u l d take p r e c a u t i o n as t h i s i s a time o f year

when many t h i e v e s are l o o s e . He then t o l d me t h a t Ogun goes everywhere

and has power to go through the ohen fo f o r e c a s t anything.

A f t e r t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h me, h i s f u l l a t t e n t i o n was t u r n e d to

the man who had j u s t e n t e r e d the room. T h i s aspect o f the ceremony i s

i m p o r t a n t because the ohen gave the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t Ogun had g i v e n h i m

supernatural i n s i g h t i n t o the n a t u r e o f the man's p r e d i c a m e n t . The ohen

first t e l l s the man t h a t he has come on b e h a l f o f h i s son who had been

a f f e c t e d m e n t a l l y due to the e v i l a c t i o n o f h i s second w i f e . Apparently

the man's second w i f e wanted to have h e r own son t o be the s o l e i n h e r i t o r

of the f a t h e r ' s property. The ohen p r e d i c t e d t h a t i t was h i s second w i f e

who was the cause o f the p r o b l e m ; t h a t he had l o s t h i s b i c y c l e and o t h e r

b e l o n g i n g s ; t h a t the s t r a n g e r was h e r e because the d i v i n e r t o l d him to

come.

The stranger c o n f i r m s the ohen's statements and k n e e l s b e g g i n g the

'god of i r o n ' to help h i m . The ohen informs the s t r a n g e r t h a t Ogun w i l l

h e l p him a l t h o u g h Ogun i s annoyed w i t h the man f o r l e a v i n g h i s case so

long. He s h o u l d have come to Ogun e a r l i e r . The ohen then t e l l s the man

t h a t i t i s the azen who have been h i n d e r i n g h i s p r o g r e s s . But Ogun i s

g o i n g to r e l e a s e h i m s i n c e Ogun can r e l e a s e those t i e d by e v i l spirits.

The ohen a d v i s e s the man t h a t Ogun i s o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n those who are

brave. Ogun does not l i k e l a z i n e s s o r d i s o b e d i e n c e and i s annoyed w i t h

him f o r h i s l a t e a r r i v a l b e f o r e the s h r i n e . But Ogun w i l l h e l p h i m .

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Ogun i s b e l i e v e d t o be s p e a k i n g to t h i s man through the ohen.

The second w i f e has been used by the azen as the c h a n n e l o f e v i l a c t i o n .

And i n o r d e r t o a l l e v i a t e h i s situation:"'he s h o u l d make a s a c r i f i c e t o Esu

o f one h e - g o a t , an empty sack c o n t a i n i n g some e d i b l e t h i n g s and an e g g .

These items were to be dumped i n the r i v e r near an a n t h i l l c l o s e to the

stream on the man's p r o p e r t y . My i n f o r m a n t t o l d me t h a t the ohen had

never seen the man's p r o p e r t y , but had been g i v e n t h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l i n -

s i g h t through Ogun.

The ohen a l s o a d v i s e s the man to go to a mango t r e e on h i s farm

and pray t h e r e to Ogun. The man was a s s u r e d by the ohen t h a t Ogun would

p u n i s h the woman, but he was warned t h a t he s h o u l d not t a k e any 'bad

money,' d r i n k any palm w i n e , t a k e any k o l a or smoke a c i g a r e t t e offered

to h i m by any persons from the door n e x t t o h i m . The r e a s o n g i v e n by

the ohen was t h a t the enemy wants to 'pass through a f r i e n d n e x t door to

him.' F i n a l l y a g e n e r a l song i s sung and the ceremony was o v e r .

Summarizing some o f the elements o f t h i s ceremony, we can f i r s t say

t h a t the a c t o r s b e l i e v e t h a t the main purpose o f the ceremony i s to p e r -

suade Ogun to d e s c e n d . T h i s i s induced by the drumming and d a n c i n g o f the

members who are p a r t i c i p a t i n g a c t i v e l y i n the ceremony. When Ogun des-

c e n d s , the ohen then becomes the media o f communication between divinity

and man. P r e v i o u s to the d e s c e n t , the ohen had conveyed i n f o r m a t i o n to

the c u l t but i t was i n f o r m a t i o n o f a d o c t r i n a l n a t u r e and not i n f o r m a t i o n

r e l a t e d to the l i f e - s i t u a t i o n s o f the members. I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t

the ohen spoke to a number o f the c u l t , e x h o r t i n g and w a r n i n g o f danger

to come. The i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d was o f a p r o p h e t i c n a t u r e , i.e. the

ohen warned o f impending d a n g e r . In one c a s e , the woman seemed to confirm

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the o h e n ' s p r e d i c t i o n . The case o f the s t r a n g e r i s an i n t e r e s t i n g one

because i t i l l u s t r a t e s a common Edo b e l i e f : t h a t the ohen and d i v i n e r have

the a b i l i t y to 'see i n t o the f u t u r e . ' There i s s c a r c e l y an Edo who would

deny t h a t they have t h e s e s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s .

L i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Ogun i s a l s o honoured i n a y e a r l y ehukpo.

The g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f the ehukpo i s s i m i l a r to the u g i O g u n ; the main

d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t a s a c r i f i c e i s always o f f e r e d at the ehukpo whereas

t h i s i s n o t the case at the u g i O g u n .

C. THE EVENT AS A MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

A l t h o u g h I have a l r e a d y touched on some o f the events w h i c h are

i n t e r p r e t e d as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun, I w i l l t r y to summarize them

briefly. When we are c o n s i d e r i n g j u s t how Ogun m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f through

various events, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t a t e once a g a i n t h a t the d i v i n e r i s

the one who w i l l i n t e r p r e t the v a r i o u s events as b e i n g the m a n i f e s t a t i o n

°f Ogun. L i k e a l l d i v i n i t i e s Ogun manifests himself to the Edo by c a u s i n g

v a r i o u s types o f s i c k n e s s . The most common event a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Ogun i s

the a c c i d e n t - - p a r t i c u l a r l y those a c c i d e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e t a l : motor

accidents, shootings, k n i f i n g s , etc. T h i s type o f a c c i d e n t shows t h a t Ogun

is annoyed w i t h the E d o . A n y t h i n g t h a t i s used by the Edo to do v i o l e n c e

i s r e l a t e d t o the i n f l u e n c e o f Ogun. One informant e x p l a i n e d the present

difficulty i n N i g e r i a i n terms o f Ogun' s anger and unhappiness w i t h the

c o r r u p t i o n i n the country.

III. THE EDO RESPONSE TO OGUN

There are a number o f f a c t o r s m o t i v a t i n g the Edo i n t h e i r response

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to Ogun. The Edo know what Ogun i s c a p a b l e o f d o i n g f o r them and he i s

used i n s t r u m e n t a l l y to a c h i e v e p a r t i c u l a r e n d s . However, t h i s i s not a

o n e - s i d e d r e l a t i o n s h i p because the Edo know t h a t Ogun a c t s f u r i o u s l y and

t h a t i f he i s not s a t i s f i e d by s a c r i f i c e and proper b e h a v i o u r , h i s fury

may be d i r e c t e d upon them.

I n d i v i d u a l Edo come b e f o r e Ogun to have him d e s t r o y or c r e a t e

confusion i n t h e i r detractors o r to cause a 'bad s i t u a t i o n ' f o r their

enemy who has s t o l e n some o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y . In s i t u a t i o n s such as t h e s e ,

the a c t o r i s c o n s c i o u s o f l o s s and s t a t e s e x p l i c i t l y what he wants Ogun

to a c h i e v e . I was t o l d by one informant t h a t one must not l i e to any

d i v i n i t y o r o n e ' s d e s i r e f o r revenge w i l l b a c k f i r e . The Edo b e l i e v e

t h a t Ogun, due to h i s ^ i m p a r t i a l i t y , makes a thorough i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e f o r e

seeking revenge.

A n o t h e r f a c t o r m o t i v a t i n g the Edo to approach Ogun i s t h e i r desire

to know the r e a s o n f o r t h e i r d i s t r e s s f u l c o n d i t i o n . For example, a woman

who has been h a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e problems w i t h her c o n c e p t i o n might seek

Ogun's p r o t e c t i o n o r a s s i s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the woman's problem has

been d i v i n e d as the r e s u l t o f the a c t i v i t y o f Esu o r the a z e n . Other

distressful s i t u a t i o n s might be a d e c l i n i n g tirade o r t r o u b l e d dreams.

C o l l e c t i v e l y , the Edo come b e f o r e Ogun to p r a i s e h i m f o r a c t i v i t y

on t h e i r b e h a l f . The ugiOgun p r o v i d e s them w i t h the o p p o r t u n i t y to express

t h e i r thankfulness i n a f o r m a l , r i t u a l i z e d manner.

In c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , whether or not the i n d i v i d u a l Edo knows e x a c t l y

what the source o f h i s problem i s m a t t e r s l i t t l e . Ogun i s the a r b i t e r o f

j u s t i c e who i s communicated w i t h i n o r d e r to c l e a r away o b s t a c l e s which

are b e l i e v e d to be b l o c k i n g a f u l l , satisfactory life.

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. A. SACRIFICE AS RESPONSE TO OGUN

The e s s e n t i a l means o f communication w i t h Ogun i s through s a c r i f i c e .

Other elements such as d a n c i n g and p r a y e r w i l l be commented on l a t e r . Like

the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Ogun p r e f e r s certain animals. In Ogun's c a s e , it

is the d o g . One ohenOgun informed me t h a t i f one wants to get a message

through to Ogun q u i c k l y , the b e s t means o f d o i n g i t i s to o f f e r Ogun a

dog. There- are o t h e r items used i n s a c r i f i c e to Ogun: t o r t o i s e , cock,

s n a i l , obobo, o i l and i r o n i m p l e m e n t s .

S a c r i f i c e to Ogun f o l l o w s a v e r y s t r i c t p a t t e r n . The ohen e n t e r s

the a r u and s p r i n k l e s c h a l k on the i n s i d e o f the s h r i n e and r i n g s the

gongs to g a i n the a t t e n t i o n o f the d i v i n i t y . He then p r a y s :

Ogun o n i r e , t u o r e n u d o r i e v b a y e , Ido rue bavbengbemwen

» • •

Kevbe omo odigho vbe odo mo me

Simwin emwanhia no dogun mwen d u g i e r u e .

Ogun who h a i l s from I r e , descend t o take the o f f e r i n g I ' m

making to y o u . I come to o f f e r t h i s s a c r i f i c e to you on

b e h a l f o f m y s e l f and c h i l d r e n . Open the gate o f money and

c h i l d r e n f o r me. Safeguard the l i f e o f the people gathered

to h e l p me d u r i n g t h i s celebration.

T h i s p r a y e r v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o the s u p p l i c a n t ' s n e e d . I t should

a l s o be noted t h a t the ohen w i l l s a c r i f i c e on b e h a l f o f the supplicant,

the n a t u r e o f the s a c r i f i c i a l items v a r y i n g a c c o r d i n g to the d i v i n e r ' s

recommendations.

A f t e r t h i s p r a y e r , the ohen s p r i n k l e s some more c h a l k around the

shrine. Four k o l a n u t s are p l a c e d on a p l a t e , and then t a k e n and h e l d over

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the s h r i n e . Some f e a t h e r s are t a k e n from the cock and p l a c e d at the foot

o f the s h r i n e . The f e e t o f the cock are u n t i e d , the k o l a n u t s t a k e n and

b r o k e n i n t o four p i e c e s b e f o r e b e i n g d i s p l a y e d . The ohen d i v i n e s w i t h

the k o l a s a y i n g : 'The k o l a must speak f o r what he asks to be d o n e . ' The

k o l a i s d i s p l a y e d seven times on the f l o o r o f the s h r i n e . Another p r a y e r

is offered:

Ogun zevbe rue re.

• • •

Ogun, take y o u r k o l a and accept what o f f e r i n g I ' m making

to y o u .

I f the K o l a says ' n o , ' t h e r e must be something added. T h i s c o u l d mean

f i n d i n g another i t e m to o f f e r to Ogun b e s i d e s the p r e s e n t one.

The c o r e o f the k o l a i s p l a c e d on the a l t a r w h i c h i s s a i d by the

priest to be f o r Osanobua. Then the b r o k e n K o l a i s passed to each o f the

ohen's a s s i s t a n t s who p a r t a k e o f i t . Another p r a y e r i s made and the

r e m a i n i n g b i t s o f k o l a are thrown on the s h r i n e by the a s s i s t a n t s o f the

ohen.

At t h i s p o i n t a h o r n i s blown i n v o k i n g the d i v i n i t y . The cock i s

t a k e n i n hand by the o h e n . F i r s t he throws some o f the c o c k ' s feathers

around the s h r i n e , t h e n he k i l l s the cock w i t h o u t a c u t l a s s , b r e a k i n g

the neck w i t h h i s h a n d . B l o o d i s s p r i n k l e d on the a r u . It i s imperative

t h a t the cock be k i l l e d q u i c k l y as Ogun demands q u i c k a c t i o n . I was t o l d

t h a t p a r t of the o h e n ' s t r a i n i n g i s l e a r n i n g how to w r i n g the c o c k ' s neck

quickly.

The s p r i n k l i n g o f the b l o o d i s the focus o f the s a c r i f i c e . After

t h i s i s c o m p l e t e d , the ceremony i s almost f i n i s h e d . More c h a l k i s s p r i n k -

l e d around the s h r i n e and kaila nuts are d i s t r i b u t e d to those who have

 - 174 -

gathered o u t s i d e the s h r i n e . A l i b a t i o n o f g i n i s s p i l l e d on the altar

and a p r a y e r r e p e a t e d (a r e p e t i t i o n o f the f i r s t p r a y e r o f f e r e d to Ogun).

When asked why he poured g i n on the s h r i n e , the ohen t o l d me t h a t i t is

Ogun's d r i n k . T h e c " c e r e m o n y ; i s brought to a c l o s e w i t h a l i b a t i o n to Esu

who i s commonly b e l i e v e d to work hand i n hand w i t h Ogun.

Case S t u d i e s i n S a c r i f i c e s made t o Ogun

For a n a l y t i c a l purposes I have d i v i d e d the s a c r i f i c e s into three

categories: v o t i v e , t h a n k s g i v i n g and p r o p i t i a t i o n .

1. Votive S a c r i f i c e s

Case 1

M r . I . 0 . o f E v b o r i a r i e V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one

2

tortoise, and one c o c k . Hisypurpose was to persuade Ogun to o b s t r u c t the

w i t c h who had been d i s t u r b i n g h i s s l e e p every n i g h t . Ogun can do t h i s

for, g e n e r a l l y he i s a remover o f obstacles.

Case 2

M r . I . 0 . o f Ugbogui V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one

c o c k , some c o w r i e s , r o a s t e d yam, o i l and one t o r t o i s e . H i s purpose was

t o persuade Ogun to o b s t r u c t the w i t c h who was d i s t u r b i n g h i s sleep.

One o f the ways Ogun o b s t r u c t s the a c t i v i t y o f a w i t c h i s through

violent murder.
 - 175 -

Case 3

M r . E . I . o f I g u o s a l a V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one

d o g , one t o r t o i s e , some k o l a n u t s and c o w r i e s . H i s purpose was to persuade

Ogun to o b s t r u c t the w i t c h who had caused the abnormal development o f h i s

wife's foetus.

Case 4

M r . I . 0 . o f Ugbogui made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h c o w r i e s , o i l ,

r o a s t e d yam, t o r t o i s e and a c o c k . H i s p u r p o s e was to persuade Ogun to

o b s t r u c t the w i t c h who f r e q u e n t l y caused h i s w i f e to undergo i r r e g u l a r

menstruation. M r . T. 0 . f i r s t approached the d i v i n e r who r e l a t e d the

woman's problem to w i t c h c r a f t a c t i v i t y . The d i v i n e r then t o l d M r . I . 0.

t o approach Ogun to c l e a r away t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t r o u b l e .

Case 5

M r . I . 0 . o f Ogbesasa S t r e e t i n B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to

Ogun w i t h one cock and one t o r t o i s e . H i s purpose was to o b s t r u c t the

w i t c h who had caused h i s t r a n s p o r t t r a d e to d e c r e a s e . He promised to

g i v e Ogun one ram and a dog i f h i s d e s i r e was g r a n t e d . The o b s t a c l e M r .

I . 0 . f a c e d here was the l o s s i n h i s t r a n s p o r t b u s i n e s s . He approached a

d i v i n e r who t o l d h i m t h a t he was a v i c t i m o f w i t c h c r a f t a c t i v i t y . He

d e v i n e d t h a t Ogun s h o u l d be approached f o r a s s i s t a n c e . He was to make a

first o f f e r i n g to be f o l l o w e d by a f u r t h e r s a c r i f i c e i f h i s w i s h was

granted. My informant t o l d me t h a t the w i t c h confessed and d i e d a v e r y

painful death on a bush p a t h . I d o n ' t know i f the b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r e d .

Case 6

M r . 0 . U . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one dog and

 - 176 -

one t o r t o i s e . H i s purpose was to persuade Ogun to k i l l the man who had

committed a d u l t e r y w i t h h i s w i f e , but had r e f u s e d to p e r f o r m the t r a d i -

t i o n a l ceremony o f appeasing h i s d e p a r t e d f a t h e r ' s s p i r i t w i t h one goat

and some k o l a n u t s . M r . 0 . U . had approached the g u i l t y p a r t y requesting

t h a t he perform the ceremony. The a d u l t e r e r r e f u s e d and t h i s l e d 0 . U .

to seek the a i d o f Ogun f o r r e t r i b u t i v e purposes.

Case 7

M r . 0 . E . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one b l a c k

c h i c k e n , one r o a s t e d yam and o i l . H i s purpose was to k i l l the t h i e f who

s t o l e h i s goat w h i c h he had t i e d i n h i s compound i n t e n d i n g to o f f e r it

to h i s e r h a d u r i n g the ,-Eho f e s t i v a l . He approached Ogun w i t h o u t c o n -

s u l t i n g a d i v i n e r as he was a member o f the Ogun c u l t .

2. Thanksgiving S a c r i f i c e s

Case 8

Mr. I . E . o f Ova V i l l a g e near B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h

one ram, one c o c k , a t o r t o i s e , a dog, obobo, some c o w r i e s and r o a s t e d yam

mixed w i t h o i l . H i s purpose was to thank Ogun f o r d e t e c t i n g and k i l l i n g

the azen who had been d i v i n e d as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the frequent miscarriages

of h i s w i f e . The w i t c h confessed b e f o r e h e r death t h a t Ogun was g o i n g to

k i l l h e r s i n c e she was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r e v e n t i n g the man's w i f e from

conceiving.

Case 9

M r . E . E . o f Evbokuden V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun o f one c o c k ,

some c o w r i e s , one t o r t o i s e , o i l , k o l a n u t s and one d o g . H i s purpose was to

 - 177 -

thank Ogun f o r e n a b l i n g h i s son to w i n a case o f t h e f t w h i c h had landed

him i n the m a g i s t r a t e ' s c o u r t . The f a t h e r made the s a c r i f i c e on the son's

behalf as the f u l f i l l m e n t o f a p r o m i s e . In c o u r t c a s e s , the f i r s t appeal

t o Ogun i s through p r a y e r . I f the w i s h i s g r a n t e d , then a thanksgiving

sacrifice i s made t o Ogun.

Case 10

M r . 0 . U . o f Ubine V i l l a g e s a c r i f i c e d t o Ogun w i t h one dog, one

t o r t o i s e , some c o w r i e s , c h a l k and a p i e c e o f red c l o t h . H i s purpose was

to thank Ogun f o r h e l p i n g him r e c o v e r from the c l u t c h e s o f a w i t c h who

had been undermining h i s p r o g r e s s i n h i s t r a d e . The w i t c h confessed at

her death t h a t Ogun was g o i n g to k i l l her f o r her w i c k e d n e s s . Mr. 0. U . ' s

o b s t a c l e to s u c c e s s f u l l i v i n g was h i s d e c l i n i n g t r a d e .

Case 11

M r . 0 . I . o f Utekon V i l l a g e s a c r i f i c e d to Ogun w i t h a dog, tortoise

and some k o l a n u t s . H i s purpose was to thank Ogun d u r i n g the y e a r l y sacri-

f i c e t o Ogun.

3. Propitiation Sacrifices

Case 12

M r . 0 . U . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e t o Ogun w i t h one dog, one

r o a s t e d yam, o i l and some c o w r i e s . H i s purpose was t o ward o f f any dan-

ger on h i s way to Lagos as he was a t r a d e r who had g r e a t d i s t a n c e s to

travel. H i s problem was t h a t he had been i n v o l v e d i n s e v e r a l motor

accidents. T h i s l e d h i m to c o n s u l t the d i v i n e r who s a i d t h a t he should

appease Ogun.
 - 178 -

Case 13

M r s . 0 . E . made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one c o c k . Her purpose

was to save her sons from any motor a c c i d e n t . P r e v i o u s to the sacrifice

some members o f the f a m i l y had been i n j u r e d . D e s i r i n g to know the cause

o f the a c c i d e n t s , she d i s c o v e r e d through the d i v i n e r t h a t Ogun needed

something from h e r . Other s a c r i f i c e s were a l s o made t o O r u n m i l a and E s u .

B. ELEMENTS IN THE UGIOGUN VIEWED AS RESPONSE TO OGUN

I have mentioned t h a t t h e r e are o t h e r elements t h a t c o u l d be viewed

as a response t o Ogun's m a n i f e s t a t i o n and p r e s e n c e . Prayer is offered to

Ogun r e g u l a r l y by h i s f o l l o w e r s . I f an Edo i s a member o f the Ogun c u l t ,

t h e n he w i l l pray every morning b e f o r e h i s d o m e s t i c s h r i n e , a s k i n g f o r

g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n throughout the day, and b l e s s i n g upon h i s f a m i l y . When

an Edo i s c o n s c i o u s w i t h i n h i m s e l f o f a s p e c i a l need, he w i l l come b e f o r e

Ogun to h e l p him overcome h i s p r o b l e m . I n case 9 , f o r example, we saw how

M r . E . E . f i r s t prayed f o r a p a r t i c u l a r end and a f t e r i t was granted,

offered a thanksgiving s a c r i f i c e . However, the s a c r i f i c e to Ogun i s

u s u a l l y m o t i v a t e d by a t r i p to the d i v i n e r who i n d i c a t e s what Ogun i s i n

need o f i n o r d e r t o get h i m to a c t on o n e ' s b e h a l f . And i t i s common f o r

the s u p p l i c a n t to o f f e r one s a c r i f i c e w i t h the promise o f another to follow

if the r e q u e s t i s g r a n t e d . We have a l s o seen t h a t p r a y e r i s an i n t e g r a l

p a r t o f the a c t u a l s a c r i f i c i a l p r o c e s s . The.ohen o f f e r i n g the p r a y e r does

not adopt what Western man b e l i e v e s i s a p r a y e r f u l p o s t u r e , but u t t e r s

words to Ogun i n the course o f h i s r i t u a l d u t i e s . W i t h s i n g i n g the Edo

honour Ogun; w i t h the dance and drumming they communicate t h e i r d e s i r e to

 - 179 -

i n v i t e him i n t o t h e i r m i d s t . F i n a l l y , by c a r r y i n g out the d i c t a t e s o f the

ohen, b e l i e v e d by Ogun's f o l l o w e r s to be the mouthpiece o f Ogun, the Edo

respons to Ogun by o b e y i n g moral r u l e s , c o n c e i v e d o f as o r i g i n a t i n g i n

the purposes o f the divinity.

 CHAPTER V I I

ESU: THE DESTRUCTIVE ENEMY OF OSANOBUA AND MAN

I. THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF ESU

A. ESU AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

A c c o r d i n g to the v e n e r a b l e Edo h i s t o r i a n J . E g h a r e v b a , Esu i s

the p r e m i e r o f the next w o r l d ( e r i m w i n ) ; w i t h power e q u a l to Osanobua, the

creator. Erimwin and agbon were d i v i d e d between Osanobua and Esu and

because o f t h i s c o n f u s i o n Esu caused people to f e a r h i m more than Osano-

bua . A c c o r d i n g to Egharevba, Esu i s e v i l , c a u s i n g death and w a r . Mr.

egharevba r e l a t e d the f o l l o w i n g m y t h .

Orunmila had a s l a v e who was v e r y poor at a c e r t a i n t i m e . He

t r i e d h i s b e s t and bought a s l a v e to h e l p h i m . He d i d not t e l l Esu
who remained, q u i e t . Esu went i n the n i g h t and k i l l e d the s l a v e . The
n e x t morning O r u n m i l a began to lament b i t t e r l y over the death o f h i s
s l a v e . He had no one to h e l p him a l t h o u g h people d i d come to c o n s o l e
h i m . F i n a l l y O r u n m i l a spoke to Esu and found out t h a t he wanted a
goat. Esu took the dead s l a v e o f O r u n m i l a and dressed h i m up as a man.
He made the s l a v e s i t on a s t o o l . Every market person who passed
s a l u t e d the s l a v e not r e a l i z i n g t h a t he was d e a d . A f t e r some time one
v e r y r i c h woman named Ighu came by c a r r y i n g many g o a t s . Ighu s a l u t e d
the s l a v e and began t o beg Esu f o r the a s s i s t a n c e o f the s l a v e . Esu
agreed to c a r r y the dead s l a v e f o r h e r , but the woman i n s i s t e d on
c a r r y i n g him h e r s e l f . She f i n a l l y won and c a r r i e d the s l a v e to Orun
m i l a who saw the woman and asked h e r to marry h i m . O r u n m i l a thanked
Esu warmly f o r h i s k i n d n e s s and n o b l e d e e d . Ever s i n c e Esu has never
f a i l e d to c o n s u l t O r u n m i l a on any p o i n t .

See J . E g h a r e v b a . A Short H i s t o r y o f B e n i n . Ibadan: U n i v e r s i t y

Press, 1953.
 - 181 -

A comment on O r u n m i l a i s n e c e s s a r y h e r e . Idowu w r i t i n g i n Olodumare,

God i n Yoruba B e l i e f (1962: 80) states:

The b a b a ' l a w o ( p r i e s t s ) u s u a l l y h o l d the v i e w t h a t Esu was c r e a t e d to

be the r i g h t - h a n d d i v i n i t y to O r u n m i l a . I t i s h i s duty to r u n e r r a n d s
f o r O r u n m i l a ; he must be always i n a t t e n d a n c e upon him and act under
h i s o r d e r s . . . i t i s the duty o f Esu to b r i n g some c a l a m i t y by way o f
punishment upon the r e c a l c i t r a n t .

The Edo do not b e l i e v e t h a t Esu was c r e a t e d to be the r i g h t - h a n d divinity

o f Orunmila'. A l t h o u g h the Edo b e l i e f i n Esu p a r a l l e l s the Yoruba b e l i e f

on some p o i n t s t h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s to the Edo c o n c e p t . The Edo

c o n c e p t u a l i z e Esu l e s s as a t r i c k s t e r and more as the arch-enemy o f Osanobua.

However, s i n c e the Edo t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n to I f e and have a deep sense o f

c u l t u r a l a f f i n i t y w i t h the Y o r u b a , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Egharevba

makes r e f e r e n c e to O r u n m i l a i n t h i s m y t h . He i s s i m p l y e x p r e s s i n g t h a t

a s p e c t o f E s u ' s c h a r a c t e r w h i c h i s h e l d i n common by b o t h the Yoruba and

Edo.

The Erhamwoisa Myth

In t h i s myth Esu i s d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g w i c k e d j a n d t r o u b l e s o m e . In

the myth t h e r e i s a c o n t e s t between the d i v i n i t i e s Og iuwu, O l o k u n , E h i and

Esu w i t h Olokun w i n n i n g . Esu i s e x t r e m e l y annoyed at O l o k u n ' s success.

T h i s l e a d s to h i s estrangement from Osanobua. Subsequently whenever

Osanobua c a l l e d a meeting o f h i s c h i l d r e n Esu would adamantly r e f u s e to

attend, c h o o s i n g to remain on the o u t s i d e i n s t e a d . The Edo say t h a t this

i s the r e a s o n f o r the presence o f aruEsu o u t s i d e the main e n t r a n c e to their

compounds.
 - 182 -

B. ESU AS HE IS GENERALLY REPRESENTED BY THE EDO

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Osanobua has c r e a t e d Esu to d e c l a r e war and"

for general destructive duty. He i s the a r c h enemy o f Osanobua, the a n t i -

t h e s i s o f goodness. The Edo s a y : 'Esu w a n i r e n y a ghare o t o t o Osanobua

• •

renghiyadierimwin erhenya. ' ' E s u chooses to be i n ' h e l l ' r a t h e r than

s e r v e Osanobua. '

Esu i s b e l i e v e d to be v e r y b l a c k and u g l y . He wanders up and down,

restless and d e s t r u c t i v e . An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f E s u ' s d e s t r u c t i v e nature

o c c u r r e d d u r i n g my o b s e r v a t i o n o f the u g i O g u n . The ohenOgun, d u r i n g h i s

p o s s e s s i o n by d i v i n i t y , t o l d one woman t h a t Esu was g o i n g to k i l l her

c h i l d ; t h a t u n l e s s she made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h i n seven days h e r child

would d i e .

S i n c e Osanobua's a c t i o n s are above blame, Esu i s b e l i e v e d to be one

of the causes o f e v i l , a l o n g w i t h Ogun and the a z e n . The main d i f f e r e n c e

between the a c t i o n s o f Esu and Ogun i s t h a t Ogun u s u a l l y d e s t r o y s w i t h a

purpose (vengeance f o r an u n j u s t a c t ) , whereas Esu d e s t r o y s because he

enjoys d o i n g t h i s , i . e . e v i l f o r i t s own s a k e . However, t h i s does not mean

t h a t Esu i s not approached f o r j u s t ends (see the v o t i v e s a c r i f i c e s ) . ) E s u ;

doesn't seem to have power to cause harm to a t o t a l community. The Edo

say: ' E s u kosua vbohoho. ' E s u cannot have i n f l u e n c e over the whole p e o p l e . '

He has power to harm o n l y one p e r s o n at a t i m e .

Esu i s i n league w i t h a l l the o t h e r e v i l b e i n g s . One n o t e s , for

example, the presence o f Ogun and Esu a l t a r s a t the e n t r a n c e o f the

aruOlokun (see diagram 3 ) . F o r example, any s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g to Ogun

must be shared i n p a r t by E s u . Esu i s a l s o c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the

 - 183 -

a z e n , who are b e l i e v e d t o f e a r E s u .

As I have a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , the aruEsu i s found at the f r o n t o f the

main e n t r a n c e to Edo compounds. The a l t a r i s p a i n t e d b l a c k and i s adorned

by t h o r n s t i c k s or r o u g h l y hewn wooden d o l l s . There are no ohenEsu;

i n d i v i d u a l s u p p l i c a n t s o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s b e f o r e the s h r i n e w i t h o u t the

assistance of priests.

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF ESU r

A. Sudden d r a s t i c changes i n behaviour or p h y s i c a l h e a l t h are

attributed to Esu who i s capable o f d i s r u p t i n g normal b e h a v i o u r

patterns. For example, i f w i t h o u t good r e a s o n a p e r s o n takes a

s t i c k and s t a r t s c h a s i n g a dog around the compound, the Edo

might s a y : Esu s u a r e . 'Esu i s p u s h i n g y o u . 1

B. Insane^behaviour, p o p u l a r l y termed 'madness' by the Edo, i s

attributed to E s u . Many o f the madmen roaming the s t r e e t s o f

B e n i n are b e l i e v e d to have bad heads—the v i c t i m s o f Esu 's des-

tructive activity. Not a l l cases o f madness are a t t r i b u t e d to

Esu, f o r the azen can cause madness as well.

C. Esu m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f i n response to messages sent to him

through the s a c r i f i c e m e d i a . P a r t i c u l a r problems w i l l lead

the s u p p l i c a n t to s a c r i f i c e to E s u . I f the s u p p l i c a n t ' s desire

is granted (eg. a t h i e f is k i l l e d , a w i t c h i s d e s t r o y e d or an

enemy e l i m i n a t e d ) t h e i r deaths are i n t e r p r e t e d as the mani-

f e s t a t i o n o f E s u ' s power and presence.

 - 184 -

I I I . THE EDO RESPONSE TO ESU

Esu i s not worshipped by the E d o . Some people are i n c l i n e d to

c a l l any i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h Esu as 'devil worship.' This is hardly accurate

with reference t o the Edo who through r i t u a l means t r y to keep Esu a t a

distance. The presence o f the aruEsu o u t s i d e the door o f Edo compounds

i s s y m b o l i c o f t h i s f a c t : Esu i s not one to be honoured or p r a i s e d , nor

i s he a b e i n g to be n e g l e c t e d . U n l i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Esu i s not

approached f o r g e n e r a l b l e s s i n g .

The fundamental means o f i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h Esu i s through s a c r i f i c e .

The r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e i s s e t i n m o t i o n through the d i v i n e r . Esu i s n o t the

r e c i p i e n t of prayer. Esu i s b e l i e v e d to have h i s favoured items and they

are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h E s u ' s n a t u r e . Esu i s d i r t y , b l a c k and u g l y and a

number o f s a c r i f i c e s c o r r e s p o n d t o h i s n a t u r e . For example, i f a c h i c k e n

i s o f f e r e d to Esu i t w i l l be b l a c k . T h i s c o u l d be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the

c h i c k e n s o f f e r e d to Olokun w h i c h are always w h i t e . Blackness is associated

w i t h e v i l and w h i t e w i t h goodness i n the Edo symbol s y s t e m . I f Esu i s

g i v e n a yam, then i t must be b u r n t . S i n c e Esu i s opposed t o the E d o ' s

2

p r o g r e s s and i s the a n t i t h e s i s o f the Edo modal p e r s o n a l i t y , the b u r n t yam

s y m b o l i z e s the d i s t a n c e and o p p o s i t i o n o f man and E s u .

There are t h r e e types o f s a c r i f i c e o f f e r e d t o E s u : p r o p i t i a t i o n ,

v o t i v e and t h a n k s g i v i n g . The f i r s t type o f s a c r i f i c e i s o f f e r e d t o Esu

i n o r d e r to p l a c a t e h i m . The second i s c o n t r a c t u a l - - t o persuade the

The Edo would never eat a b u r n t yam.

 - 185 -

d i v i n i t y to c a r r y out a p a r t i c u l a r j o b . And the t h i r d type o f s a c r i f i c e ,

also contractual i n nature, is given i n gratitude after the job has been

completed. The thank o f f e r i n g has elements o f g r a t i t u d e ; however, i t may

be analogous t o h i r i n g a gunman to do a n a s t y j o b . He i s h i r e d to do a

job w i t h the promise t h a t i f he s u c c e e d s , more w i l l come. The s a c r i f i c e

t o Esu may f l o w out o f a g r a t e f u l h e a r t , but c e r t a i n l y not a l o v i n g one.

A. VOTIVE SACRIFICES

Case 1

Mr. I . 0 . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu o f a b l a c k c h i c k e n ,

one t h o r n - s t i c k and a b u r n t yam. H i s purpose was to persuade Esu to kill

the man who had s t o l e n h i s g o a t . He had gone to the d i v i n e r and was t o l d

t o a p p e a l t o Esu to b r i n g r e t r i b u t i o n upon the thief.

Case 2

M r . E . U . o f Awo S t r e e t i n B e n i n C i t y s a c r i f i c e d to Esu w i t h one

3

h e - g o a t , t h o r n - s t i c k , some r o a s t e d c o r n mixed w i t h o i l and a r o a s t e d yam.

His purpose was to persuade Esu to k i l l the w i t c h whom the d i v i n e r had t o l d

him was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the sudden r u i n o f h i s t r a d e as a t r a n s p o r t e r . He

had s u s t a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s o f money as h i s v e h i c l e was damaged beyond

repair. In t h i s s t a t e he appealed to E s u .

Idowu has an i n t e r e s t i n g comment on o i l i n the Yoruba s a c r i f i c e .

He s t a t e s t h a t Esu does not l i k e o i l and 'anyone who b r i n g s i t near him
i s t h e r e f o r e a s k i n g f o r t r o u b l e upon h i m s e l f o f anyone e l s e ' ( 1 9 6 2 : 1 1 8 ) .
 - 186 -

Case 3

M r s . I . 0 . o f Evbimaa V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h one

thorn-stick, one r o a s t e d cob o f c o r n , one egg, and a b l a c k c h i c k e n . Her

purpose was to f i n d the t h i e f who had s t o l e n the bags o f r i c e and onions

she had prepared f o r s a l e i n the m a r k e t . This p a r t i c u l a r s a c r i f i c e was

made to urge Esu to q u i c k a c t i o n .

Case 4

M r . I . E . o f Iguosa V i l l a g e s a c r i f i c e d to Esu w i t h on he-goat and

one b u r n t cob o f c o r n w i t h some o i l . H i s purpose was to persuade Esu to

kill the man who had committed a d u l t e r y w i t h h i s wife.

Case 5

M r . E . A . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h one b l a c k

c h i c k e n , one t h o r n - s t i c k and some c o w r i e s . H i s purpose was t o cause a

l o r r y o f h i s r i v a l t r a n s p o r t e r to c o l l i d e on the r o a d . He promised to

'thank' Esu w i t h one goat i f he s u c c e e d e d . My i n f o r m a n t , commenting on

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s a c r i f i c e , s a i d t h a t n o t h i n g more than s p i t e was i n v o l v e d

here.

Case 6

M r . I . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h a b l a c k c h i c k e n ,

one t h o r n - s t i c k , one egg and one b u r n t yam. H i s purpose was t o ask Esu

to cause t h e f ^ u i d k death o f a t h i e f who e n t e r e d h i s shop i n the n i g h t and

l o o t e d him o f h i s w a r e s . He promised to o f f e r one b i g he-goat t o Esu when

the t h i e f was destroyed.

 - 187 -

Case 7

Mr. T . 0. of Benin s a c r i f i c e d t o Esu w i t h a h e - g o a t . H i s purpose

was t o a v e r t an impending a t t a c k from an e v i l man. The s a c r i f i c e r had

seen something s t r a n g e i n a dream w h i c h l e d him t o seek the d i v i n e r ' s

interpretation. The d i v i n e r s a i d t h a t Esu needed a goat i n o r d e r to

p r e v e n t t h i s man from a t t a c k i n g h i m . T h i s s a c r i f i c e was p a r t o f three

s a c r i f i c e s made c o n c e r n i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m .

Case 8

M r . J . E . o f B e n i n s a c r i f i c e d t o Esu w i t h a h e - g o a t . H i s purpose

was to a l l e v i a t e what was t r o u b l i n g h i s s o n . T h i s s a c r i f i c e was p a r t o f

a series. One s a c r i f i c e was o f f e r e d to O r u n m i l a to save the boy from

s i c k n e s s , as b l o o d was found i n h i s u r i n e . Esu was s a c r i f i c e d t o i n o r d e r

t o d r i v e away the cause o f the s i c k n e s s , w h i c h might have been due t o azen

activity.

B. PROPITIATORY SACRIFICES

Case 9

M r s . J . E . o f B e n i n s a c r i f i c e d to Esu w i t h a g o a t . Her purpose

was to p l a c a t e Esu who was d i v i n e d to be the cause o f her s o n ' s conflict

w i t h another member o f the family.

Case 10

M r . J . E . o f B e n i n s a c r i f i c e d t o Esu w i t h one h e - g o a t . H i s purpose

was to p r e v e n t any bad p e o p l e from j o i n i n g him at h i s j o b . S i n c e i t was

d i v i n e d t h a t Esu might t r o u b l e J . E . a t h i s job as n a t i v e m a g i s t r a t e , Esu

was p r o p i t i a t e d j i . ' e . g i v e n something t o keep h i m at a d i s t a n c e .

 - 188 -

C. THANKSGIVING SACRIFICES

Case 11

M r . A . I . o f I t e V i l l a g e near B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h

one h e - g o a t , one s n a i l , one t h o r n - s t i c k , palm o i l , seven c o w r i e s and a

s m a l l r o a s t e d yam. H i s purpose was to thank Esu f o r a s s i s t i n g him to

c a t c h a t h i e f who had been coming i n t o h i s y a r d to s t e a l food. All

previous efforts to c a t c h the t h i e f had f a i l e d but Esu was approached to

h a s t e n the death o r a r r e s t o f the t h i e f . The t h i e f was caught and Esu

received this 'gift.'

In case 5 i t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t i f h i s r i v a l i s k i l l e d , M r .

E . A . w i l l g i v e Esu a t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e . The same i s t r u e i n case 6 .

These s a c r i f i c e s do not i n any way i n d i c a t e the frequency o f the

different types o f s a c r i f i c e s (votive, propitiation, thanksgiving). Every

d i v i n i t y i s o f f e r e d v o t i v e type s a c r i f i c e s ; the n a t u r e o f the r e q u e s t

v a r y i n g w i t h the c a p a b i l i t i e s and sphere o f i n f l u e n c e o f the d i v i n i t y . All

d i v i n i t i e s are p r o p i t i a t e d or appeased s i n c e a l l d i v i n i t i e s are capable

o f b e i n g d i s p l e a s e d w i t h Edo b e h a v i o u r . But E s u , due t o h i s capricious

and d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e , i s f a r more l i k e l y to be p r o p i t i a t e d t h a n , for

example, O l o k u n . The Edo thank Esu f o r a job w e l l done. This, too, is

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the Edo concepts o f s a c r i f i c e .

 CHAPTER V I I I

THE ANCESTORS: SPIRITS OF THE DEPARTED

It i s necessary to d i s t i n g u i s h between two k i n d s o f a n c e s t o r s who

once l i v e d i n agbon but who a f t e r t h e i r deaths r e s i d e i n erimwin. The

first c a t e g o r y o f departed s p i r i t are the i n d i v i d u a l l y named a n c e s t o r s w i t h

s p e c i f i c genealogical reference (erha and i y e ) and the c o l l e c t i v e unnamed

a n c e s t o r s o r p r e d e c e s s o r s o f the members o f a c o r p o r a t e group (edion).

The concept o f e d i o n i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s o f a

v i l l a g e community. I n some v i l l a g e s each ward has i t s own ogwedion. The

f a m i l y and h o u s e h o l d has i t s e d i o n t o o , f o r whom a cow or goat i s s a c r i -

f i c e d d u r i n g mortuary r i t e s and to whom l i b a t i o n s o f palm-wine and p i e c e s

o f k o l a - n u t are o f t e n o f f e r e d . In most community s h r i n e s o f hero and

o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s t h e r e are s u b s i d i a r y a l t a r s to the e d i o n , t h a t i s to the

p a s t w o r s h i p p e r s o f the d i v i n i t y . And the p a l a c e - a s s o c i a t i o n s , too, have

t h e i r e d i o n a l t a r s at w h i c h o f f e r i n g s ;'are made r e g u l a r l y , f o r example, at

promotions and the i n v e s t i t u r e o f new t i t l e - h o l d e r s . The Uzama have their

e d i o n a l t a r housed i n the compound o f t h e i r leader (Oliha). Finally there

are the e d i o n o f the whole B e n i n n a t i o n ( e d i o n - E d o ) , r e p r e s e n t e d by a

c a r v e d s t a f f w h i c h i s i n the k e e p i n g o f the Esogban, the second-ranking

Eghaevo n ' O r e who i s a l s o known as o d i o n w e r e - E d o . S a c r i f i c e s are made to

edion-Edo i n times o f n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e , ( B r a d b u r y 1957: 56).

There are a number o f v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d r i t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the

a n c e s t o r s o f the Oba. Bradbury s t a t e s (1957: 55) t h a t ' i n the p a s t a l l

the famous Oba had s e p a r a t e a l t a r s , each housed i n a l a r g e w a l l e d compound...

 - 190 -

In the p a s t t h e r e were two s e p a r a t e annual s e r i e s o f r i t e s ( u g i o r o and

ugigun) at w h i c h s a c r i f i c e s to i n d i v i d u a l Oba were performed on every

fifth day. Each s e r i e s was"3rought to a c l o s e w i t h a p u b l i c f e s t i v a l i n

honour o f the r e i g n i n g Oba's f a t h e r (ugie-erhoba) at w h i c h t w e l v e human

b e i n g s , chosen from the p r i s o n i n B e n i n C i t y , where the w o r s t c r i m i n a l s

were c o n f i n e d , were s a c r i f i c e d . . . T h e a c t u a l r i t e s i n honour o f the p a s t

Oba were d i r e c t e d by s p e c i a l p r i e s t s from the group known as Ihogbe who

a l s o o f f i c i a t e at the annual s a c r i f i c e s t o the r e i g n i n g Oba's head.'

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r study w i l l be l i m i t e d t o the i n d i v i d u a l l y named

ancestor (erha) and the c o l l e c t i v e unnamed a n c e s t o r s of a p a r t i c u l a r

village (edion).

THE ERHA

I. THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF THE ERHA

The word erha means f a t h e r . When a man w i t h no c h i l d r e n d i e s , he

i s u s u a l l y accorded o n l y a p e r f u n c t o r y b u r i a l . He i s not incorporated

as a f a t h e r (Bradbury 1966: 1 3 3 ) . I f a man l e a v e s o n l y d a u g h t e r s , the

s e n i o r d a u g h t e r ' s s o n , o r her husband a c t i n g on her b e h a l f , may undertake

t o bury h i m . N o r m a l l y i t i s the s e n i o r son who bury ( r e ) and p l a n t (ko)

his father, i . e . c o n v e r t him i n t o a a n c e s t o r and d e d i c a t e an a l t a r to

serve h i m . I f the departed e r h a i s not i n t e r r e d , i . e . the second b u r i a l

i s not c o m p l e t e d , the f a t h e r ' s ghost may commit a c t s o f a g g r e s s i o n against

his former dependents, making them s i c k , c a u s i n g them to have accidents

or to l o s e t h e i r money. They are p a c i f i e d by s a c r i f i c e s made over the

r i g h t f o o t o f the h e i r .
 - 191 -

When the e r h a i s p r o p e r l y b u r i e d , the d e p a r t e d e r h a takes h i s p l a c e

i n e r i m w i n where he assumes the g u a r d i a n s h i p o f h i s s o n ' s lineage. The

father's shrine (aruerha) then becomes the scene o f p e r i o d i c commemorative

rites, and o f e x p i a t o r y s a c r i f i c e s and o f f e r i n g s a r i s i n g out o f s i c k n e s s

and o t h e r d i s e a s e s , w h i c h are d i v i n e d to be the r e s u l t o f q u a r r e l s and

o t h e r s i n s o f o m i s s i o n and commission i n v o l v i n g l i n e a g e members and t h e i r

w i v e s (Bradbury 1966: 1 3 8 ) .

The s e n i o r son i s the p r i e s t o f the d e p a r t e d e r h a . He i n t e r c e d e s

w i t h h i m on b e h a l f o f h i m s e l f and a l l o f the d e p a r t e d e r h a ' s descendants.

Bradbury s t a t e s (1957: 54) t h a t t h e r e may be a second p r i e s t , ideally the

s e n i o r s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r o f the deceased, who must be p r e s e n t at a l l impor-

t a n t s a c r i f i c e s and p r a y e r s to r e p r e s e n t h i m s e l f and h i s descendants in

the male l i n e , h i s b r o t h e r s and t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s , and h i s sisters.

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF THE ERHA

In l i n e w i t h t h e i r sphere o f i n f l u e n c e , the e r h a f u n c t i o n as

g u a r d i a n s o f the u n i t y and harmony o f the l i n e a g e . S i c k n e s s and o t h e r

disasters may be caused by the d i s p l e a s e d e r h a . The e r h a can a l s o cause

the l o s s o f p r e s t i g e i n the f a m i l y c i r c l e . It i s imperative that the

s e n i o r son obey the d i c t a t e s o f the f a t h e r . I f the e r h a i s not happy

w i t h the s e r v i c e s o f the s o n , he may cause h i s i n h e r i t e d p r o p e r t y to

dwindle. I f the s e n i o r son f a i l s to. c a r r y out the Eho ceremony, the

e r h a may cause h i m to l o s e h i s senses and wander about B e n i n as a madman.

One informant t o l d me t h a t a t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f who was d a n c i n g b e f o r e the

Oba d u r i n g the Igwe dropped h i s eben and f e l l down, u t t e r l y d i s g r a c i n g

 - 192 -

h i m s e l f b e f o r e the Oba. H i s f a m i l y was i n g r e a t b i t t e r n e s s . I t was l a t e r

d i s c o v e r e d t h a t he had not observed the Eho F e s t i v a l because o f m i s e r l i n e s s .

I f a son offends h i s father during h i s l i f e time and f a i l s to

r e c a n t , he c o u l d b e g i n t o e x p e r i e n c e c e r t a i n h a r d s h i p s . In o r d e r to be

r e i n s t a t e d the son would have to s i t i n the f a t h e r ' s shrine with his

father's brother, c a l l the name o f the erha to come and hear h i s p r a y e r .

Each would have to t a k e some m e d i c i n e , water and a c u t l a s s . The n a t u r e

o f the o f f e n s e would be named b e f o r e the s h r i n e , the abuse r e c a n t e d and

water blown on the e r h a ' s s o n .

I f the departed e r h a i s not s a t i s f i e d w i t h the b e h a v i o u r o f members

o f the l i n e a g e , he can b l o c k t h e i r p r o g r e s s f o r the Edo b e l i e v e t h a t

progress i s dependent upon r e t a i n i n g the e r h a ' s b l e s s i n g . S i n c e the e r h a

i s i n t i m a t e l y concerned w i t h the a f f a i r s o f the f a m i l y , they have power

to p r o t e c t them from o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s as w e l l as power to d i s r u p t the

harmony o f the p a t r i l i n e a g e through s i c k n e s s , e t c . Part of t h e i r pro-

t e c t i v e power i n c l u d e s the a b i l i t y to thwart the a z e n . A l t h o u g h Olokun

is ' f o r ' e v e r y o n e , the e r h a are e s p e c i a l l y concerned f o r ego and h i s

b r o t h e r s and sisters.

I f one judges from the s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d to the e r h a , the e r h a can

m a n i f e s t themselves through the g i v i n g o f c h i l d r e n . I t i s common f o r the

Edo to a t t r i b u t e the b i r t h o f a c h i l d to the e r h a . T h i s w i l l evoke a

response i n the form o f a t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e . On another o c c a s i o n

the d i v i n e r suggested t h a t the r e a s o n t h a t the f a t h e r ' s son was n o t

p r o g r e s s i n g i n h i s l i f e was t h a t the boy was the source o f some c o n f l i c t

i n the f a m i l y . H i s b e h a v i o u r was not a c c e p t a b l e to the e r h a . A sacrifice

ensued i n o r d e r t o b a l a n c e the r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the offended erha.

 - 193 -

D u r i n g the B i a f r a n i n v a s i o n o f the Mid-West i n A u g u s t , 1967

a number o f s a c r i f i c e s were made to the erha f o r p r o t e c t i v e assistance.

In one h o u s e h o l d one man made a number o f s a c r i f i c e s to h i s e r h a , and

when the Mid-West was l i b e r a t e d September 2 0 , 1967 he o f f e r e d a further

t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e ; h i s s a f e t y over a s i x - w e e k p e r i o d b e i n g a t t r i b u t e d

to the e r h a ' s p r o t e c t i v e activity.

The Edo respond to the e x i s t e n c e and presence o f the e r h a p r i m a r i l y

t h r o u g h p r a y e r and s a c r i f i c e . P r a y e r can be o f f e r e d at any time b e f o r e

the a r u e r h a . In g e n e r a l p r a y e r b e f o r e the a r u e r h a , a k o l a i s p l a c e d on

the s h r i n e and the f o l l o w i n g p r a y e r uttered.

Erhamwen o r o b u e , r h i e e r i m w i n n e g b e r u e h i a , mwonbo nude r i e e v b a r e ,

na nuvbedeba v i a , ghasimwin v b e n , kevbe emo vbe amwen. Ghegumwen wu

ghegumwen khuomwin khuebehia himwen egbe r e ghegiogbe, ehgiangba mwen.

Simwin emo vbamwen me. Ise.

My f a t h e r (mention name o f f a t h e r ) , I am e n t i r e l y under your p r o t e c t i o n .

I i m p l o r e you to g a t h e r the d e p a r t e d f o r e f a t h e r s . Come to p a r t a k e o f

what I am p r e s e n t i n g to you now ( k o l a ) . In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the fore-

fathers you seek my i n t e r e s t and p r o t e c t i o n , as w e l l as t h a t o f my

w i f e and c h i l d r e n . Do n o t l e t me d i e a premature death or be afflicted

with sickness. P r o t e c t me a g a i n s t a l l d a n g e r . Do not a l l o w my enemies

to get the upper hand over me. P r o t e c t my c h i l d r e n ' s w e l f a r e as w e l l

as my w i f e ' s . Amen.

T h i s i s a g e n e r a l p r a y e r and i s a t y p i c a l example o f the k i n d o f p r a y e r

o f f e r e d b e f o r e the a r u e r h a . The p r a y e r s c o u l d be more s p e c i f i c a c c o r d i n g

t o the predicament and s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f the s u p p l i c a n t .

 - 194 -

The Edo respond to the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the e r h a i n t o t h e i r affairs

by s a c r i f i c e . A c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n , or a s i t u a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g that a l l

i s not w e l l i n the f a m i l y w i l l s e t the s a c r i f i c i a l a c t i o n i n m o t i o n . The

d i v i n e r s e t s the s a c r i f i c e i n m o t i o n : i t i s he who r e v e a l s t h a t the erha

are o f f e n d e d . However, i t i s not o n l y to g a i n p r o t e c t i o n or a s s i s t a n c e

t h a t the Edo s a c r i f i c e to the e r h a . They a l s o respond i n thanksgiving.

A. VOTIVE SACRIFICES

Case 1

M r . C . M . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h one c o c k .

H i s purpose was to g a i n the e r h a ' s a s s i s t a n c e f o r h i s son who was w r i t i n g

h i s GCE e x a m i n a t i o n . He promised h i s e r h a t h a t i f h i s son passed the

e x a m i n a t i o n , he would o f f e r one w h i t e goat and a b o t t l e o f g i n as thanks-

giving. T h i s f o l l o w s the u s u a l Edo p a t t e r n : r i t u a l a c t i o n to get the

e r h a ' s a s s i s t a n c e w i t h the promise o f f u r t h e r offerings and s a c r i f i c e s if

the e r h a a c t s on h i s b e h a l f . It i s worthy n o t i n g t h a t i n t h i s particular

case we have a f a t h e r o f f e r i n g a s a c r i f i c e on b e h a l f o f someone e l s e .

Case 2

M r . 0 . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h one l e g o f

a n t e l o p e and k o l a n u t s . H i s purpose was to a l l o w him to succeed i n p a s s i n g

h i s trade t e s t . L i k e C M . he promised t h a t i f he succeeded he would

s a c r i f i c e one goat as a t h a n k s g i v i n g .

Case 3

M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s erha o f some f i s h and

rfufu. The purpose was to persuade the e r h a to stop t r o u b l i n g one o f h i s

 - 195 -

sons who was not p r o g r e s s i n g v e r y w e l l i n s c h o o l .

Case 4

M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h a g o a t . His

purpose was to a v e r t the q u a r r e l l i n g between two sons who were w o r k i n g

at S a p e l e , 35 m i l e s from B e n i n . The d i v i n e r s a i d t h a t a s a c r i f i c e should

be made to the e r h a to a v e r t the quarrel.

Case 5

M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h a g o a t . His

purpose was to be d e l i v e r e d from the r e b e l s who were o c c u p y i n g B e n i n C i t y

at the time o f s a c r i f i c e . This p a r t i c u l a r s a c r i f i c e was made to the erha

for deliverance and p r o t e c t i o n . T h i s same man a l s o came b e f o r e the aruerha

and promised t h a t at the end o f the war a goat would be sacrificed.

Case 6

M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h a g o a t , cock

and t o r t o i s e . This p a r t i c u l a r s a c r i f i c e was the r e s u l t of a v i s i t to

the d i v i n e r . The f a t h e r p r o b a b l y had a dream and sent h i s w i f e to the

d i v i n e r to i n q u i r e about the dream's meaning. The d i v i n e r s a i d t h a t a

s a c r i f i c e had to be made to the e r h a . This p a r t i c u l a r s a c r i f i c e was made

at the time o f the F e d e r a l Government's l i b e r a t i o n o f the M i d - W e s t . The

purpose o f the s a c r i f i c e seemed to be to g a i n a g e n e r a l end: t h a t things

would 'get b e t t e r ' in Benin.

B. THANKSGIVING SACRIFICES

Case 7

M r . E . E . o f Usen V i l l a g e near B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s erha

 - 196 -

w i t h one s h e - g o a t . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s a c r i f i c e was t o thank h i s e r h a ,

on the o c c a s i o n o f h i s g r a n d - d a u g h t e r ' s d e l i v e r y of a c h i l d , for sparing

him t o l i v e t o an advanced age so t h a t he c o u l d see the b i r t h o f a g r e a t

grandchild. T h i s s a c r i f i c e was from the h e a r t and was not d i v i n e r m o t i v a t e d .

Case 8

M r . I . U . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e t o h i s e r h a o f one g o a t ,

and one c o c k . H i s purpose was to thank h i s e r h a f o r h i s w i f e ' s delivery

o f a male c h i l d . She had not had a s i n g l e male c h i l d b e f o r e , h a v i n g g i v e n

b i r t h t o (three d a u g h t e r s .
4
Thus by t h i s b i r t h , M r . I . U . would now have

someone t o succeed h i m a f t e r h i s d e a t h . H i s p r o p e r t i e s would no l o n g e r go

to h i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r b i r t h was a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s depar-

ted erha. Now h i s name w i l l not d i e i n the f a m i l y circle.

•Case 9

M r . J . E . made a s a c r i f i c e t o h i s e r h a o f one g o a t . H i s purpose

was t o thank h i s e r h a f o r the work done f o r h i m and h i s f a m i l y d u r i n g the

B i a f r a n o c c u p a t i o n o f the Mid-West from August 9, 1967 to September 2 0 ,

1967.

III. THE EHO 'FESTIVAL AS RESPONSE TO THE ERHA

The most i m p o r t a n t r i t u a l d i r e c t e d t o the e r h a i s the Eho F e s t i v a l .

T h i s i s the y e a r l y f e s t i v a l i n honour o f the d e p a r t e d e r h a at w h i c h a l l the

p a t r i l i n e a l descendants o f e r h a and h i s f a t h e r and t h e i r w i v e s , k n e e l one-

by-one b e f o r e the a l t a r , p r e s e n t i n g k o l a n u t s and o t h e r o f f e r i n g s and

p r a y i n g f o r the w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n .
 - 197 -

M a r r i e d daughters r e t u r n home to take p a r t i n the E h o . Patrilineal

c o l l a t e r a l s and o t h e r cognates may be p r e s e n t but they do not k n e e l b e f o r e

the a l t a r (Bradbury 1957: 5 5 ) .

The Eho b e g i n s w i t h the Ihonmwhona or the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f men-

s t r u a t i n g women. T h i s cerembny must take p l a c e b e f o r e the a c t u a l p e r -

formance o f the E h o . The m e n s t r u a t i n g women cannot go near the ancestral

s h r i n e s i n c e they are i n a s t a t e o f i m p u r i t y .

M e n s t r u a t i n g women must c o n f i n e themselves to t h e i r room f o r seven

days. The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t bad s p i r i t s f o l l o w them d u r i n g t h i s state.

C e r t a i n a c t i o n must take p l a c e b e f o r e they can be brought to a s t a t e o f

purity. F i r s t a s m a l l c h i c k e n o r , i n i t s absence, an empty egg s h e l l

is purchased. Ikimwin l e a v e s from the t r e e known as the 'tree of deci-

s i o n ' are g a t h e r e d and t i e d to the s m a l l c h i c k e n . A dish containing

n a t i v e c h a l k , c o w r i e s and water i s prepared by a member o f the husband's

family. Chalk i s s a i d to b r i n g good f o r t u n e and the c o w r i e s w e a l t h .

A f t e r the n e c e s s a r y items have been g a t h e r e d , a j u n i o r member o f

the p a t r i l i n e a l l i n e w i l l take the c h i c k e n i n h i s r i g h t hand and the dish

i n h i s l e f t and r e p e a t the f o l l o w i n g i n c a n t a t i o n : ' A l l the bad s p i r i t s t h a t

come d u r i n g m e n s t r u a t i o n s h o u l d go away. The good ones can then come i n . '

W h i l e the i n c a n t a t i o n i s b e i n g s a i d the c h i c k e n i s swept around the house-

hold. The s m a l l c h i c k e n i s then l e f t to d i e , s i n c e the Edo b e l i e v e t h a t

it i s the bad s p i r i t s t h a t must k i l l him and then go away. The good

s p i r i t s are s a i d to feed the bad s p i r i t s .

The c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s event does not complete the Ihomwhonwa c e r e -

mony. The now p u r i f i e d women must cook f o r t h e i r husbands i n o r d e r to

p l e a s e them and as a s i g n t h a t the good s p i r i t s w i l l come. I t appears that

 - 198 -

the good s p i r i t s are l i n k e d w i t h c o n c e p t i o n , f o r the Edo b e l i e v e t h a t it

is a f t e r menstruation that conception w i l l take p l a c e . On t h a t n i g h t

no o t h e r woman must i n t e r f e r e w i t h the s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s of'--' a - purified

woman and her husband. As the purpose o f the Eho i s to ensure t h a t the

e r h a w i l l be p l e a s e d w i t h the s a c r i f i c e , one can r e a d i l y see the importance

of the Ihonmhonwa t o the Eho ceremony.

B e f o r e the a c t u a l s a c r i f i c e p r o c e e d s , the head o f the house will

set a d a t e . A l l r e l a t i v e s w i l l be n o t i f i e d o f the p r e c i s e d a t e . They

w i l l b r i n g t h e i r g i f t s to the house on the day b e f o r e the performance o f

the E h o . In some i n s t a n c e s g i f t s w i l l be brought i n b e f o r e the day o f

performance. In t h i s case they w i l l be s t o r e d . Dancing precedes the

s a c r i f i c e r i t u a l l y p r e p a r i n g the a n c e s t o r s f o r the s a c r i f i c i a l offering.

I t i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l f o r the compound to be i n a s t a t e o f c l e a n l i n e s s .

Each member o f the f a m i l y prays b e f o r e the s h r i n e , each presenting

a k o l a - n u t on the a r u e r h a : '0 f a t h e r , l e t me l i v e p r o s p e r o u s l y . L e t my

h o u s e h o l d be i n good h e a l t h . F o r at t h i s time next y e a r , I will come

a g a i n i n good h e a l t h and feed you more scrumptuously than l a s t y e a r . And

l e t me be b l e s s e d by the king. 1

A bell i s then rung to n o t i f y the a n c e s t o r s o f t h e i r approach to

them. The e r h a presences h i m s e l f i n the b o d i l y e f f l u g i a ( n a i l s , etc) that

have been b u r i e d i n the a r u e r h a . B e f o r e the s a c r i f i c e can p r o c e e d , the

a c t i n g p r i e s t must break a k o l a - n u t . A f t e r the k o l a i s b r o k e n , the headman

w i l l read i t s p o s i t i o n . This w i l l i n d i c a t e whether or not the s a c r i f i c e

has been a c c e p t e d . I f a l l i f not r i g h t f o r the s a c r i f i c e , f u r t h e r action

w i l l be n e c e s s a r y to r i g h t the s i t u a t i o n . The headman ( s e n i o r son a s s i s t e d

by the departed father's b r o t h e r ) w i l l p l a c e one p i e c e o f the four-sided

 - 199 -

k o l a on the s h r i n e ; the r e s t b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d to the members o f the family.

Now the s a c r i f i c e can b e g i n . I f a t i t l e d man i s p e r f o r m i n g the

ceremony, the l i v e s t o c k w i l l be brought b e f o r e the a l t a r . A cock, goat,

and cow w i l l be s a c r i f i c e d i n that order. The f i r s t son i s f o r b i d d e n to

h o l d the s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l s i n c e t r a d i t i o n has i t t h a t the f a t h e r ' s brother

s h o u l d h o l d the a n i m a l . First, the a n i m a l ' s b l o o d i s s p i l l e d on the shrine.

The Edo c l a i m t h a t the b l o o d i s used by the e r h a : they a r e hungry and want

food. One informant s t a t e d t h a t the b l o o d i s p r o v i d e d f o r the erha's

'sustenance' i n erimwin.

After s p i l l i n g the b l o o d on the a r u e r h a , the b l o o d i s marked on the

forehead o f the headman f o l l o w e d by the heads o f the f a m i l y . The Edo

believe that ' i t i s the head t h a t d i r e c t s the body, the body b e i n g u s e l e s s

w i t h o u t the h e a d . ' No one e l s e i s a l l o w e d t o do the b l o o d - m a r k i n g . Per-

formed by the headman, t h i s a c t s i g n i f i e s h i s t r u s t e e s h i p o f the ancestral

shrine.

If a cow has been s a c r i f i c e d b e f o r e the s h r i n e , the v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s

of the a n i m a l w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d . One l e g o f the cow must go to the p a l a c e .

This part i s c o n s i d e r e d to be the b e s t ; i t w i l l be sent to the p a l a c e w i t h

kola-nuts. The Oba w i l l r e c i p r o c a t e t h i s g i f t by s e n d i n g a v a l u a b l e gift

which may i n c l u d e a g o a t , cocoanuts and the t r a d i t i o n a l k o l a .

Prayer i s then o f f e r e d by the headman who w i l l by then have washed

his hands o f the b l o o d . 'It i s n e c e s s a r y f o r one to feed the f a t h e r s with

clean hands.' Food i s brought a g a i n to the s h r i n e . A s m a l l p i e c e o f meat

is cut from the s a c r i f i c e , d i p p e d i n a n a t i v e soup and t h e n p l a c e d on the

shrine. The erha are b e l i e v e d to be p r e s e n t dp p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the feast.

The neck o f the s a c r i f i c e d a n i m a l i s g i v e n to the c h i l d r e n . The

 - 200 -

r e a s o n f o r t h i s , s t a t e d by the a c t o r , i s t h a t t h i s i s the way i t has

always been done. The w a i s t o f the cow i s r e s e r v e d f o r the w i v e s .

(The w a i s t i s r e l a t e d t o the womb and i s supposed t o promote the fer-

t i l i t y o f the women). The r e s t i s d i s t r i b u t e d as the headman c h o o s e s ,

a l t h o u g h the f a t h e r ' s b r o t h e r w i l l r e c e i v e a share f i r s t . The meat is

t a k e n from the a n i m a l ' s h e a d , the jaw t i e d t o g e t h e r and p l a c e d on the

wall. This w i l l indicate status.

The n a t u r e o f the s a c r i f i c e i s r e l a t e d to o n e ' s s o c i a l s t a t u s . A

poor man may use an a n t e l o p e l e g w h i c h i s b e l i e v e d to be the l o w e s t

a c c e p t a b l e o f f e r i n g to the e r h a . There i s no need f o r a poor man to call

a dance because t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s p e r f o r m i n g the Eho w i t h the p r i m a r y

i n t e n t i o n o f becoming r i c h , o f r e c e i v i n g the e r h a ' s b l e s s i n g . He comes

to the e r h a more out o f need t h a n o f t h a n k s g i v i n g . My informant s a i d t h a t

even though the erha are not r e c e i v i n g any b l o o d a t l e a s t they a r e b e i n g

remembered. The poor man prays to h i s e r h a so t h a t he w i l l be l i f t e d up

to a higher s t a t u s . One informant t o l d me t h a t the a n c e s t o r s love antelope

(uzo) meat more than any o t h e r bush meat. When a poor man comes b e f o r e

the s h r i n e , the s a c r i f i c e f o l l o w s the same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n except that

t h e r e w i l l be no d a n c i n g .

The cock i s an a c c e p t a b l e o f f e r i n g because i t i s presumed to awaken

the e r h a . I t s use .serves as a symbol o f t h i s i n t e n s e d e s i r e to awaken the

e r h a i n o r d e r t h a t they might hear and f u l f i l l prayers. The a c c e p t a b i l i t y

of the goat s a c r i f i c e i s r e l a t e d to the f a c t t h a t the erha 'love' certain

types o f a n i m a l s more t h a n o t h e r s . The goat i s b e l i e v e d to be the most

v a l u a b l e a n i m a l i n the s i g h t o f the e r h a . The h e - g o a t i s used f o r the

male a n c e s t o r s s i n c e t h i n g s male a r e used f o r the male a n c e s t o r s . One

 - 201 -

informant t o l d me t h a t i n the past the Edo had n o t used a cow f o r sacri-

f i c e to the e r h a . In p r e s e n t times the cow i s used p r i m a r i l y as an

i n d i c a t o r o f s o c i a l s t a t u s , but not to the e x c l u s i o n o f the goat.

The Eho i s performed p r i m a r i l y to remember the erha as a living

p a r t o f the l i n e a g e . ' I f you remember the e r h a , they w i l l remember y o u . -

To f o r g e t them w i l l mean t h a t t h e r e w i l l be bad r e p e r c u s s i o n s f o r t h a t

p a r t i c u l a r person. 1
The f a m i l y head i s under a g r e a t d e a l o f p r e s s u r e , as

a t r u s t e e o f the a r u e r h a , to perform the Eho ceremony. He h o l d s the key

to the success and w e l f a r e o f the e n t i r e f a m i l y u n i t . 'What the e r h a

handed over to you must be performed and p r e s e r v e d . ' A n o t h e r purpose o f

the Eho i s to bestow p r o s p e r i t y upon the f a m i l y . A secondary end, but an

i m p o r t a n t one, i s the o c c a s i o n f o r the r e u n i o n o f the f a m i l y . The f a m i l y

can observe how the f a m i l y has grown. The f a m i l y a l s o p a y s . r e s p e c t once

more to the head o f the f a m i l y , h i s a u t h o r i t y b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d by t r i b u t e

and gift.

THE EDION

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f e d i o n w i l l be l i m i t e d t o the e d i o n o f the village

« *

unit, i . e . the c o l l e c t i v e p r e d e c e s s o r s o f a v i l l a g e .

I. THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF EDION

The e d i o n are thought to be the o r i g i n a l o c c u p i e r s o f the v i l l a g e

l a n d and as a l l the e d i o n who have s i n c e l i v e d and been b u r i e d t h e r e

(Bradbury 1957: 5 6 ) . A l l v i l l a g e s have e d i o n s h r i n e s w h i c h c o n t a i n an

a l t a r decorated w i t h ukhurhe. These s h r i n e s (ogwedion) a l s o serve as

 - 202 -

meeting p l a c e s . The odionwere as the p r i e s t o f the e d i o n makes regular

• • •

offerings t h e r e , and h i s i n f l u e n c e w i t h the e d i o n s p i r i t s i s a p o w e r f u l

sanction p a r t i c u l a r l y with reference to h i s c o n t r o l o f the age-grades.

Promotions are made i n the ogwedion and the odionwere h i m s e l f i s invested

• * *

there.

We have a l r e a d y seen t h a t the d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f dead c o r r e s p o n d

to a s t a t u s c a t e g o r y among the l i v i n g . Each o f the i n c o r p o r a t e d dead has

his own f i e l d of authority. As Bradbury has p o i n t e d out (1966), for a l l

t h r e e types the act o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n i s a p a r t o f a complex s e r i e s o f

mortuary and s u c c e s s i o n r i t e s . From the a c t o r ' s standpoint these rites

do t h r e e main t h i n g s . F i r s t , they ensure the deceased h i s r i g h t f u l p l a c e

i n erimwin. Second, they r e f o r m u l a t e and r e g u l a t e h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s with

those among the l i v i n g f o r whom he has r e l e v a n c e by v i r t u e o f the same

statuses. T h i r d , the r i t e s e f f e c t o f s y m b o l i z e the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e s e

s t a t u s e s to one o r more s u c c e s s o r s . The e d i o n o r e l d e r s , t h e n , are the

undifferentiated deceased e l d e r s o f k i n s h i p , t e r r i t o r i a l and a s s o c i a t i o n a l

groups. The c h i e f s ( e n i g i e and oba) have t h e i r own p r e d e c e s s o r s for which

t h e r e are s p e c i a l r i t e s (Bradbury 1966: 1 3 8 ) .

The e d i o n demand t h a t the l i v i n g e l d e r s s h o u l d u p h o l d the customs

and r u l e s they have t r a n s m i t t e d to them, and a f f o r d them m y s t i c a l s a n c t i o n s

to a s s i s t them i n d e a l i n g w i t h i n f r a c t i o n s . I t seems t h a t j u s t as relations

w i t h the a n c e s t o r s image f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s , so do r e l a t i o n s between the

v i l l a g e e d i o n and t h e i r c o n g r e g a t i o n r e f l e c t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g a s p e c t s o f

the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the l i v i n g e d i o n and t h e i r apparent h e i r s .

 - 203 -

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF THE EDION

S i n c e the sphere o f i n f l u e n c e o f the e d i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d to the

village, the v i l l a g e r s b e l i e v e t h a t the e d i o n i n t e r v e n e i n t h e i r affairs;

causing disaster o f b o t h a g e n e r a l and i n d i v i d u a l n a t u r e . The f l o u t i n g

of an e l d e r ' s a u t h o r i t y and cases o f a d u l t e r y are p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s

events and w i l l i n c u r the r e t r i b u t i v e a c t i o n o f the e d i o n . It is through

the events t a k i n g p l a c e i n the v i l l a g e t h a t the l i v i n g w i l l know t h a t the

e d i o n are d i s p l e a s e d — e v e n t s t h a t t h r e a t e n the whole v i l l a g e . When ' t h i n g s

are g o i n g p o o r l y ' i n the v i l l a g e t h i s i s t a k e n as a s i g n t h a t the e d i o n

have been o f f e n d e d . T h i s l e a d s to a c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a d i v i n e r who t e l l s

what a c t i o n i s needed t o r e s t o r e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the l i v i n g and

the dead e d i o n .

III. THE EDO RESPONSE TO THE EDION

The Edo respond to the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the e d i o n i n t h e i r affairs

i n the f o l l o w i n g w a y s . I f i t i s d i v i n e d t h a t the e d i o n are dissatisfied

w i t h some a s p e c t o f l i f e i n the v i l l a g e i t i s n e c e s s a r y to s a c r i f i c e to

them b e f o r e the a n c e s t r a l shrine. The s a c r i f i c i a l items are c o l l e c t e d

and a l l o f the v i l l a g e g a t h e r s at the s h r i n e . The items f o r sacrifice

w i l l be h a n d l e d by the odionwere who invokes the e d i o n t o g u i d e the living

• • •

b o t h at home and a b r o a d .

Next he breaks the k o l a and spreads i t on the f l o o r . He p l a c e s one

p i e c e on the s h r i n e and shares the r e s t w i t h the o t h e r s . Then he slaughters

the s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l ( e g . goat) and s p i l l s the b l o o d on the a l t a r . He

 - 204 -

takes t h e ukhurhe s t a f f and rubs t h e b l o o d on i t - - a n e s s e n t i a l aspect o f

the s a c r i f i c e . A f t e r t h i s i s done, t h e s t a f f i s p l a c e d back on t h e a l t a r .

The s a c r i f i c e i s f o l l o w e d by f e a s t i n g . This s a c r i f i c i a l pattern i s

followed at a l l s a c r i f i c e s before the edion s h r i n e .

As w e l l as r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e d i o n ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e i r a f f a i r s ,

i n f o r m a n t s t o l d me t h a t i n case o f an impending epidemic s a c r i f i c e s would

be made t o t h e e d i o n f o r p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e whole v i l l a g e . Judging from

the g e n e r a l p r a y e r o f f e r e d t o t h e e d i o n a t v a r i o u s o c c a s i o n s , t h e e d i o n

are a l s o c a p a b l e o f d r i v i n g away e v i l s p i r i t s o f c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e azen.

D u r i n g t h e i m p o r t a n t v i l l a g e d e c i s i o n s , p r o c e e d i n g s w i l l be con-

ducted b e f o r e t h e e d i o n s h r i n e . I n cases o f c o n f l i c t , f o r example, t h e

p a r t i e s would be summoned t o t h e s h r i n e where they would be d e a l t w i t h .

Every meeting i s opened w i t h t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e k o l a , f o l l o w e d by p r a y e r .

E d i o n , e d i o n n i r u n a g b a n wahia do s i k o k o niwa d o r i e evbare na wa

g h e g i e e v b o n i mayena v e , wagie o k p i a kevbe okhuo no r o ghama.

• •
Wa khue be ^Kevbe uwa r o r u e . Wa giomokpia kevbe omo okhuogha maubo.
• • •

Azen o k p i a kevbe azen okhuo nogha omwan vbe vbo waghi gbe.

Translation:

Departed s e t t l e r o f t h e v i l l a g e we i m p l o r e you t o see t h a t t h e com-

munity c o n t i n u e s t o m u l t i p l y i n c h i l d r e n and i n f o o d . L e t b o t h male

and female i n t h e v i l l a g e c o n t i n u e t o p r o s p e r . We i m p l o r e you people

to d r i v e away a l l w i t c h e s t h a t w i l l cause s i c k n e s s o r death t o t h e

community. L e t b o t h male and female c h i l d r e n c o n t i n u e t o l i v e l o n g .

Any w i t c h e s t h a t may cause s i c k n e s s o r d e a t h , may you g a t h e r t o

c o u n t e r a c t them.

In cases o f a d u l t e r y , t h e g u i l t y p a r t y w i l l be f i n e d .
 CHAPTER IX

THE A Z E N : BRIDGE BETWEEN AGBON AND ERIMWIN

I. T H E EDO R E P R E S E N T A T I O N OF T H E AZEN

The azen are anti-social spiritual beings. During the day they

are 'normal' human beings but in the night their spiritual part (orion)

is released from the body enabling them to carry out their evil activities.

Their s p e c i a l power lies in their ability to move from agbon to erimwin

without being permanently resident in one of the other. Of a l l the beings

in the Edo pantheon, the azen are the only beings capable of moving bet-

ween the agbon and erimwin realms. Even the a n c e s t o r s who once resided in

agbon are permanent members of erimwin after the proper burial. As social

beings the azen are able to gain an intimate knowledge of their fellows

which helps them to work evil against them. Thus their observations during

the day are utilized in their nefarious activities after dark.

A. CHARACTERISTICS OF T H E A Z E N ON T H E SOCIAL LEVEL

Witches, say the Edo, are incapable of functioning normally on the

social level. They are believed to behave in an a n t i - s o c i a l manner, and

if their actions appear 'good, ' it is only to disguise their fundamentally

evil motives. They are c h a r a c t e r i z e d as follows:

1. They w i l l provoke anger in the household. The Edo say that

palaver should never be made in the night, for the azen will
 - 206 -

f i n d t h e cause and w i t h t h e i r knowledge o f i n n e r weakness con-

tinue to multiply d i s t r e s s . They w i l l seek t o 'double' t h e

already e x i s t i n g state of a f f a i r s .

An azen may harm someone i n t h e d a y t i m e . I t may be t h a t when

two women a r e c o o k i n g soup t h a t one o f the women w i l l have

some meat and t h e o t h e r w i l l n o t . Jealousy may provoke t h e

azen t o p o i s o n t h e meat o f t h e more f o r t u n a t e w i f e .

A r e f u s a l t o meet an azen' s r e q u e s t may l e a d t o r e t r i b u t i o n a t

a l a t e r date. F o r example, a w i t c h may r e q u e s t money from a

r i c h man. I f t h e r i c h man r e f u s e s n o t knowing t h e s u p p l i c a n t

i s . a w i t c h , he may be t h e o b j e c t o f e v i l a c t i o n . I n such a

case as t h i s t h e Edo say t h a t the w i t c h e s are n o t i n t e r e s t e d

i n whether o r n o t a n y t h i n g i s s h a r e d , b u t i n f i n d i n g an oppor-

t u n i t y o r excuse t o work e v i l . The Edo a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t i f a

man r e f u s e s t o share some o f h i s w e a l t h he may be a v i c t i m o f

w i t c h c r a f t a c t i v i t y i n the night. Here we see c l e a r l y t h e

emphasis t h e Edo p l a c e on s h a r i n g and h o s p i t a l i t y .

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t an azen w i l l be m o t i v a t e d t o e v i l action

through j e a l o u s y . F o r example, i n a house where t h e r e i s more

than one w i f e , one woman may have s i x c h i l d r e n . The woman who

i s b e l i e v e d t o be a w i t c h w i l l have o n l y one. In order to reta-

liate, t h e b a r r e n woman w i l l d i r e c t e v i l a c t i o n a g a i n s t h e r

co-wife. I t should be n o t e d t h a t i f t h e j e a l o u s woman i s a b l e

to k i l l t h e o t h e r woman, t h e l i v i n g c h i l d r e n w i l l be cared for

by h e r s e l f . The Edo say t h a t i f a woman f e e l s t h a t t h i n g s a r e

not r i g h t w i t h i n t h e h o u s e h o l d , whether t h i s be m a n i f e s t i n t h e
 - 207 -

sickness of children or other evil omens, she w i l l direct her

witchcraft against another member of the household who appears

as a threat or hindrance to her social status. However, in

actual p r a c t i c e a c c u s a t i o n between co-wives does not seem to

occur very often. Bradbury states (1957: 60) that most recorded

instances of witchcraft accusations involved people who were

not close kinsmen. The c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n k i n was regarded as

having disturbed the unity of the kin group, thus making it

vulnerable to w i t c h c r a f t . The cases I have recorded seem to

verify Bradbury's hypothesis.

The Edo also believe that any good b e h a v i o u r by a witch is merely a

camouflage for them to gain their objective. For example, a w i t c h may be

very honest and show e x c e s s i v e f r i e n d l i n e s s as w e l l as showing the utmost

respect to a l l persons. This is a cover-up for evil motives. It is more

characteristic of a w i t c h , however, to manifest socially reprehensible

behaviour. If an E d o ' s behaviour contradicts accepted norms, they will

be asked: A z e n we k h i n r a ? 'Are you a witch?' Summing up, we can say that

the Edo believe that a w i t c h ' s behaviour on the social level is abnormal:

either too good or too bad.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF T H E A Z E N A S E R I M W I N BEINGS

The majority of witches in the Edo culture are female. There are

also male w i t c h e s (oso) but they are less common and have less power. The

azen are associated with darkness and are commonly known as the 'night

people.' During the night the azen are no longer limited to any physical
 - 208 -

locality, for while the body sleeps, the azen's orion flies away, usually

in the form of a bird. The Edo say that the azen fly out of the body

through the private orifices of the body. Once the orion has left the

body it is impossible to awaken the witch. It is also believed that if

one happens to be in the presence of a witch during the night that one

will feel dizzy.

An Edo may become a witch through inheritance. The children of

witches are quite likely to be w i t c h e s also. 'Witchcraft is frequently

said to be inherited. Closer questioning, however, reveals a belief that

a p r e g n a n t w i t c h may give witchcraft food to the child she is carrying;

the child of a witch is, therefore, more likely to be suspected than

others. New w i t c h e s can be recruited by putting the same substance, which

is invisible, into a person's food' (Bradbury 1957: 60). I was also told

that it was possible to buy 'witchcraft power' in the Afenmai Division and

thus be initiated into the witches' society. 1

One woman living in the area relegated to known Edo w i t c h e s by

Eweka II in the 1930's claimed that she had entered into the witches'

society because of her barrenness. She h a d lost many children due to the

malpractice of witches and in order to have children she became a witch

to protect herself f r o m any further child deaths. This woman did not

inherit her witchcraft, but underwent certain rituals suggested by a known

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e Edo c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f w i t c h e s does
n o t c o r r e s p o n d e n t i r e l y w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n by Evans-^
P r i t c h a r d i n W i t c h c r a f t , M a g i c a n d O r a c l e s Among t h e A z a n d e . See n o t e s in
C h a p t e r I o n Some p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n w i t c h -
c r a f t and s o r c e r y .
 - 209 -

witch or obonoyada.

The Edo have always believed that the azen possess a certain sub-

stance in the stomach. This substance is roughly akin to a tennis ball.

One way of detecting witches in the old days was to force the witch to

vomit up the witchcraft substance. In contemporary Edo culture this

method of detecting witches is banned. Needless to say, a number of cults

claiming to detect witches have arisen in Benin and the surrounding area.

The witches do not operate individually. Immediately upon leaving

the body, they fly away to a meeting of the witches (ikeniwarenason).

The w i t c h e s ' society is hierarchically structured. Citing Bradbury, he

states that the 'witches are said to be organized along lines parallel to

the territorial divisions of the Benin kingdom. Each v i l l a g e has its tree

in which the witches of the village are said to meet at night. There are

larger meetings for the more p o w e r f u l witches of the major geographical

areas of the kingdom and finally a central meeting which is attended only

by the most powerful witches from the Benin kingdom' (1957: 60). This

hierarchy is in no way related to social status on the agbon level. 'A

small man in agbon may be a big man in er i m w i n . ' One Edo w h o m my infor-

mant described as a very ugly, poor man claimed to be second in command

to the king of the azen. He also claimed to have controlled eight wives

in the .witches-.' society. One barren woman claimed to have had many children

while a member of the witches' society.

U< It is the job of the witches to steal a person's orion and take this

to the meeting of the witches. The purpose of the meeting is to cause

trouble and participate in a kind of communal feast. Once the witches

have seized someone's soul, they transform it into an animal

r
(usually a
 - 210 -

goat), k i l l i t and then f e a s t upon i t .

U n l i k e Esu who a c t s s u d d e n l y , t h e azen a r e b e l i e v e d t o t o y w i t h

an i n d i v i d u a l b e f o r e they f i n a l l y k i l l him. One informant t o l d me t h a t

the azen w i l l q u i t e o f t e n warn a p o t e n t i a l v i c t i m through dreams o f o t h e r

e x p e r i e n c e s g i v i n g h i m a means o f escape. The o c c u r r e n c e o f s t r a n g e

phenomena w i l l l e a d t h e p o t e n t i a l v i c t i m t o t h e d i v i n e r who w i l l r e v e a l

what must be done t o escape i n j u r y .

II. THE MANIFESTATION OF THE AZEN

1. The azen have t h e power t o s t o p c o n c e p t i o n . I t i s said that

they w i l l d r i n k a woman's c o n c e p t i o n . This i s absolutely

a b h o r r e n t t o t h e Edo. I t i s v e r y common f o r Edo women t o c l a i m

t h a t they have been pregnant o n l y t o l o s e t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n t o

the azen. The Edo a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e azen c a n h o l d a woman's

embryo i n t h e womb f o r as l o n g as f o u r y e a r s .

2. The azen can cause d i s t u r b a n c e s i n a woman's m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d .

3. The azen have t h e power t o r e n d e r a man impotent.

4. The azen can cause madness. They take c o n t r o l o f t h e b r a i n ,

causing v i o l e n t behaviour i n the s t r e e t s . The Edo u s u a l l y l e a v e

such people a l o n e f o r t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t h a t they can do t o

c o u n t e r a c t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e azen a f t e r a person has a c t e d

i n t h i s manner.

5. The azen c a n cause g e n e r a l s i c k n e s s . Stomach t r o u b l e i s a t t r i -

buted t o t h e i r a c t i v i t y as a r e poor b r e a t h i n g and some t h r o a t

problems. Most common o f t h e s i c k n e s s e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e azen

 - 211 -

are those connected with the loss of blood.

6. The azen can cause b l i n d n e s s . They are believed to have a super-

natural way of 'pointing the finger' in order to cause blindness.

7. The azen have the ability to empower various medicines.

8. The azen can r u i n individual Edo business enterprises.

Cases Revealing Some Information about the Manifestation of the Azen

Case 1

In 1961 a c e r t a i n man w o n ^ 5 0 0 0 in a lottery. He d i d not give a

feast or distribute any of the money to his relatives. Instead, he went

and dug a hole into w h i c h he placed his money. Later he became sick. Some

of the man's relatives went to the diviner who stated that the 'night

people' were the cause of the ailment. The man h a d failed to give the azen

any food; nor had he offered them a sacrifice. He remained adamant in

his r e s i s t a n c e of the azen and later died of dysentry. To this day the

family does not know where the money is. In this case the azen have first

caused the sickness and finally, after the warning, his death.

Case 2

In December, 1966 the village of Ekiadolor near Benin destroyed a l l

the dogs living within the boundary of the village. On three different

occasions it was reported that the dogs in the village had barked in an

unusual manner after the church b e l l s had rung for early morning prayers

and on each o c c a s i o n a c h i l d suddenly died. The village elders associated

the three events and came t o the conclusion that a l l dogs without exception

were affected with witchcraft (or at least the potential instruments of the
 - 212 -

azen) and were responsible, as v e h i c l e s of the azen, for the deaths of

the children. Consequently, a l l dogs were destroyed and new o n e s banned

from entering the village.

In this c a s e we see that the azen use lower animals as agents of

their nefarious activity. The azen w i l l give the unsuspecting animals

something to eat in the night, enabling them to control the dog's beha-

viour and u s e them to destroy the children. The second fact emerging

from this case is that the azen are believed to be capable of destroying

life. My informant told me t h a t the azen hate the church. Rejection of

the traditional religious system does not eradicate the belief in witches.

Witchcraft beliefs are s t i l l very much a part of the conceptual framework

of the Edo Christians.

Case 3

In December, 1966 a Nigerian Yoruba man w a s jailed for life in

London for beating to death a 19-year old g i r l who h e c l a i m e d was a witch.

The judge, Mr. Justice Jones, told the 36-year old Nigerian that the

repeated a s s a u l t s on a f e l l o w N i g e r i a n were so h o r r i f y i n g that he would

recommend a minimum of twenty years imprisonment. The girl's bruised body

was found parcelled i n brown paper in a north London s t r e e t where the

accused had taken it in a taxi. Upon discussing this particular case

with an Edo man, he said that i s was a case of 'disappointed love.' My

informant told me that a l l witches (and this would include the azen)

have the power to harass humans. The g i r l was a w i t c h and appeared to the

man in the form of snails, rats, and birds, causing him to become very

weak and confused. The man p r o b a b l y dreamt of the g i r l and believed that

s h e was a witch, continually plaguing and harassing him to the point where
 - 213 -

he c o u l d no longer study or function normally. Thus he killed her.

Extrapolating from this case, it is clear that the azen are not

limited to a particular locale. They are capable of travelling great

distances and can cause confusion through tormenting dream experiences.

Case 4

Mr. P. A. of Ova V i l l a g e near Benin discovered that the azen had

been responsible for the repeated miscarriages of his wife. He sought

Ogun who was reported to have killed the witch.

Case 5

Mr. I. 0. discovered through divination that the azen were res-

ponsible for his continually troubled sleep.

Case 6

Mr. E. I. of Iguosala Village discovered through divination that

the azen were the cause of his wife's abnormally developed embryo.

Case 7

Mr. I. 0. of Ugbogui persuaded Ogun t o obstruct t h e w i t c h who was

causing his wife to undergo irregular menstruation.

Case 8 .

Mr. I. 0. of Benin discovered through divination that the azen were

the cause of his declining transport business.

The azen manifest themselves to the Edo through the disrupting of

Cases 4-8 are taken from the data in the chapter on Ogun.
 - 214 -

activities on the s o c i a l l e v e l . They a l s o invade t h e n a t u r e o f man,

d i s r u p t i n g h i s normal f u n c t i o n i n g . Their presence, then, i s f e l t p r i m a r i l y

as a r e s u l t o f t h e e v i l ends o f t h e i r a c t i o n . The Edo 'read' t h e s i g n s

o f t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n : the c a u s a l l i n k i n an event b e i n g e x p l a i n e d i n

terms o f t h e a z e n .

III. THE EDO RESPONSE TO THE AZEN

The Edo seldom i n i t i a t e communication w i t h t h e w i t c h e s . The w i t c h e s

pose a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e harmonious f u n c t i o n i n g o f Edo s o c i e t y . There-

f o r e t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e Edo response t o t h e azen i s

appeasement. The azen must be k e p t a t a d i s t a n c e , o r p u t t i n g i t another

way, r i t u a l l y managed. Thus t h e m a j o r i t y o f s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e azen a r e

for t h i s s p e c i f i c purpose.

I f an Edo d e s i r e s t o harm another p e r s o n , he can i n t e r a c t w i t h a

known, confessed witch. Or he can o f f e r h i s c o m p l a i n t openly, promising

to give the witches something i f they c a r r y out h i s r e q u e s t . The Edo may

a l s o c o n t a c t t h e obonoyada i n o r d e r t o purchase some m e d i c i n a l power w h i c h

w i l l e n a b l e them t o g a i n s u p e r n a t u r a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e azen's activities.

B e f o r e examining a number o f cases o f s a c r i f i c e t o t h e a z e n , I w i l l

o u t l i n e t h e a c t u a l s a c r i f i c i a l process t o t h e 'night people.'

A f t e r t h e c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e obonoyada o r p o s s i b l y o t h e r diviners,

the s u p p l i c a n t w i l l go w i t h him t o t h e j u n c t i o n . The azen always want b l o o d .

Things a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i r t i n e s s and e v i l a r e a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e azen (My

informant t o l d me t h a t items k i l l e d on t h e road and r e j e c t e d by everybody

e l s e are acceptable) as w e l l as items a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l e f t (eg. the

l e f t foot of a goat). Some o f t h e items o f f e r e d t o t h e azen a r e t h e dog,

 - 215 -

goat, tortoise, hen, small egg, native mat, white c l o t h and fufu. The

purpose of the white cloth is to serve as an u n d e r c o v e r for the slaughtered

animal which is p l a c e d on a mat. The mat is believed to be used by the

azen to r o l l their ingredients i n when they travel away.

The individual goes with the obonoyada to the crossroads. The

reason for this according to the Edo is that the azen c a n come from the

cardinal points to partake of the offering. Before the sacrifice is made,

a horn (oru) is blown. After the sacrifice is made the obonoyada and the

supplicant go home.

Case 1

One informant told me o f a man who was troubled as he felt very

uncomfortable during the night. He approached an obonoyada who prepared

a t a l i s m a n and told him to bathe in Osun (there are various medicinal pots

associated with Osun, the divinity of medicine). He w a s also told to

sacrifice some pepper soup (oil is forbidden to be used in the preparation)

and a cock at the crossroads. I was told that it is necessary for the head

of the family to associate with the azen, as the junior members of the

lineage might k i l l him and take his position if he did not have strong

medicine. This particular sacrifice was made to appease them.

Case 2

In this case Mr. F. 0. had been falsely accused. He w a n t e d redress

for what he was accused of; in this desperate state of mind he sought the

azen at the crossroads (ada) praying blindly for their help. My informant

told me that this man w a s taking a very serious chance, for if 'everything

had not been a l l right in his life, ' the azen could e a s i l y have caused him
 - 216 -

harm. Apparently the azen granted, F . O . ' s request and his opponent later

fell sick. This led the accuser's family to seek the cause of the sick-

ness. The diviner revealed the nature of the<problem, stating that the

c a u s e was related to the a c t i v i t y of the azen and that the azen demanded

a sacrifice from the man. He w a s also told that the money should be given

bask to F.O.

Case 3

Mr. I.E. of Iguosodin Village offered one he-goat, one small native

mat, some cowries, kolanuts and one tortoise to the azen. His purpose was

to implore them n o t to hinder the progress of his wife's pregnancy as she

was suffering from o c c a s i o n a l b l e e d i n g . The diviner advised him to offer

the aforementioned materials to the azen b e c a u s e one of the man's wives was

jealous of the other wife, thinking that she might give birth to a male

child thereby inheriting her husband's property upon h i s death. The only

thing he could do to escape the recurrence of attacks from the azen was

to sacrifice to them at the crossroads.

v \ In commenting on this case, my informant said that there is con-

siderable conflict within the polygamous family over succession rights.

One of the man's wives feared that her c o - w i f e would have a male child.

Apparently t h e woman succeeded in c o n c e i v i n g and the jealous wife was

banished.

Counteract ion of the Azen

The consciousness that the azen are constantly trying to disrupt

their lives leads the Edo to seek ways and means of counteracting them.
 - 217 -

The first means by which the E d o may obtain protection from the azen

is to interact with the divinities Ogun and Esu. In the chapter on

O g u n we e x a m i n e d a number of cases i n w h i c h Ogun was s a c r i f i c e d to in

order to counteract witch a c t i v i t y . My informant told me that in ninety

out of one hundred cases the diviner will lead the person troubled by the

witches to seek p r o t e c t i o n f r o m Ogun who is believed to be greatly feared

by the witches. The 'imported' divinity, Orunmila, is also believed to

be especially 'good' at detecting witchcraft. Obsession with the azen and

their anti-human acts has resulted in the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a number of

cults into the Mid-West. One such example is the Azelu cult introduced

from the AfenmaiDivision. Syncretist churches such as the Cherubim and

Seraphim also claim to have the power to counteract witches.

The E d o may gain special protection from the azen by bathing with

specially prepared medicines. The obonoyada, skilled in the preparation

of leaves, prepares a special medicine. He then asks the one in need of

protection to buy a goat. The blood from the goat is then sprinkled over

the leaves and everything is placed in a large clay pot. This is generally

known as Osun. The pot will be placed somewhere in the bush. The one

seeking protection will be asked to travel to the bush and bathe with

this medicine. No m e d i c i n e , say the Edo, can work without the aid of

erimwin beings. By b a t h i n g in this medicine, or others like i t , the Edo

can be protected from azen activity.

Another means of counteracting the azen is through the use of talis-

men. The diviner may make one out of a tarry substance in the shape of a

silver dollar. My informant s h o w e d me o n e he was u s i n g - - h e kept it tucked

in his watchpocket. I have also seen a number of broom p i e c e s stuck to-

gether with a tarry s u b s t a n c e and p l a c e d on the .inside of the front door.

 - 218 -

Once someone i s known as a witch, he i s expelled from the intimacy

of face-to-face contact and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the daily round of a c t i v i t i e s .

This l i m i t s their e v i l powers considerably since they are denied the

necessary intimate knowledge needed i n order to work their e v i l against

the Edo. Their power becomes limited to that of directing e v i l upon

p a r t i c u l a r individuals as a result of a nocturnal v i s i t by an individual

desirous of directing e v i l against some enemy.

 CHAPTER X

EHI: DESTINY IN T H E EDO T R A D I T I O N A L RELIGION

I. T H E EDO R E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F EHI

The Edo believe that every individual c o n s i s t s of two p a r t s : the

living person in agbon and the spiritual counterpart Ehi which is in

erimwin. It is a common b e l i e f that when a person is going to be born

in agbon he goes before Osanobua and tells him what he plans to do with

his l i f e on earth and requests the material and spiritual facilities for

accomplishing this. This act is expressed in the word Iii. If a man is

unsuccessful in the world he is said to have done this badly or to be

fighting against the fate which he has determined for himself and when

people are buried the mourners call after them to hi well next time

(Bradbury 1957: 58-9).

Osanobua has created a l l Ehi and has given them a number of func-

tions. An E h i acts as informant to Osanobua. The Edo say: Aghoghonorsoe

omwan v b a s e r i m w i n . 'When we shall get to erimwin, Ehi w i l l be my witness

The word used here for Ehi is aghoghon w h i c h means shadow. An E h i is lik

a shadow, constantly observing its agbon counterpart. An individual's Eh

witnesses a l l actions and when an Edo eventually goes before Osanobua for

judgment it is impossible to cover up, for his Ehi will bear witness.
 - 220 -

The destiny of an Edo is set before he comes into the world.''" The

element of fate is operative here for it is commonly believed that one

cannot r i s e higher than one's Ehi. If an Edo has a 'poor' Ehi, then he

is destined to be 'poor.' Upon observing an individual's unfortunate

behaviour, an Edo might remark: Ehi ere ima. 'That person's Ehi is not

good.' The name Ehimwenma (My Ehi is good) reflects this attitude as
• • •

well. This particular name no doubt reflects an attitude of thankfulness

before one's Ehi: possibly the birth of a child is attributed to Ehi's

* •
2

intercessional activity. A number of other names reveal a similar attitude

to Ehi. The name Ehiorobo (Ehi is a good doctor) is a praise name indi-

cative of a belief that Ehi is capable of interceeding on o n e ' s behalf.

This consciousness that good destiny is attributable to Ehi is further

seen in the name Ehizogie (Ehi has c r e a t e d me to be like a king). The

happiness over good fortune is expressed in the name given to the newly

born child.

It is obvious, then, that apart from the shadowing function, another

of an E h i ' s functions or spheres of influence is that of giving assistance

to his human counterpart. This takes the form of intercession before

Osanobua. It may be that if an E h i is s u c c e s s f u l Osanobua will send the

other divinities on a m i s s i o n on the supplicant's behalf. One informant

In an e s s a y "Ezomo's Ikegobo and the B e n i n C u l t o f the H a n d , ' R.

B r a d b u r y s t a t e s : ' A t one l e v e l t h e E h i r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n n a t e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s
f o r s o c i a l achievement w i t h w h i c h each i n d i v i d u a l i s b e l i e v e d to be endowed.
P r e d e s t i n y i s seen as a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c a p a c i t y to
a c h i e v e s u c c e s s t h r o u g h h i s own a c t i o n s ( 1 9 6 1 : 133-4).

2
Bradbury s t a t e s (1961: 133-4) 'In o p e r a t i o n the c u l t of the E h i
c a n be shown to h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o . b e g e t ,
o r b e a r , and keep h e a l t h y c h i l d r e n . T h o u g h o n e who h a s a s t r o k e o f g o o d '.;
l u c k s h o u l d , and o f t e n d o e s , t h a n k h i s E h i , i t i s more o f t e n i n v o k e d i n
c o n t e x t s o f f a i l u r e and m i s f o r t u n e . '
 - 221 -

3
told me that an Ehi is the 'last of a l l the divinities' because his

sphere of influence is limited solely to the personal level. The pro-

tecting function of an E h i is also revealed in the E h i names. The/',-

name IgbinEhi (I take shelter under Ehi) asserts the Edo belief that

an Ehi can give protection in dangerous situations. Ehisumwen (My

Ehi guards me) indicates that Ehi is being praised for protection through-

out trials imposed by enemies. E h i has stood by and enabled the individual

to remain free from.'bad intentions.'

At death the individual's Ehi ceases to exist. A s we h a v e seen

when an Edo child is born it is given an E h i by Osanobua; when dead the

Ehi ceases to function. An E h i , however, w i l l incarnate at the first

opportunity. The Edo b e l i e v e that death releases the orion into erimwin

where it takes its place assuming the new function of lineage guardian.

The exception to this are the i g h e l e - e r i m w i n who are wanderers (ghosts),

since they have not had a proper burial. The orion does not incarnate,

only the Ehi.

The Edo b e l i e v e that an E h i goes through fourteen cycles before

its final judgment before Osanobua. In a number of interviews with infor-

mants, I discovered that the Edo b e l i e v e that it is possible to identify

the incarnated Ehi. There are e s s e n t i a l l y four means of identification.

First, it is necessary for t h e woman to conceive 'contiguously with the

death of some member of the extended family.

FFB died and h i s Ehi incarnated

the FS. *

Diagram 5

3
As f a r as I have b e e n able to a s c e r t a i n , t h e r e i s no d i v i n i t y E h i
i n whom a l l E d o p a r t i c i p a t e . Further r e s e a r c h may b e n e c e s s a r y o n t h i s point. 1
 - 222 -

Secondly, markings on the child's body will be identical to the dead

person's. Thirdly, the child's behaviour through the years will be

similar to the deceased's. Fourthly, the diviner will identify the

child's Ehi.

In one case I was told that the FS had the FFB's Ehi, making the

child a 'brother to the father's father.' The following explanation for

this statement was given. One day the FFB came from the village of Orogho

and found that F was not at home. He told the FW t o prepare some food.

This she did. The FFB then said that he was going out and w o u l d return

shortly. Unfortunately he died on the road back to the village. During

the month the FW c o n c e i v e d . Shortly after her conception she had a

serious stomach problem. This led the husband to go to the diviner in

order to discover the nature of the problem. The diviner said that the

child wanted to be 'known' as the FFB's Ehi. The woman's sickness vanished

after they said that the c h i l d was the FFB's Ehi. The child's subsequent

behaviour reinforced this 'revealing.' For example, when the boy married,

he took an I t s e k i r i woman for a wife. This parallels the FFB's behaviour

and choice of a non-Edo for wife. My informant told me that Ehi will

always stay in the family.

Ehi and the Edo Belief in Uhumwun

In contrast to Ehi representing predestiny of the potentiality of

life is the Edo concept of the head (uhumwun), believed to be the seat of

the individual's capacity to organize his actions in such a way as to

survive and prosper. The uhumwun is recognized by the Edo to\be the seat
 - 223 -

of thinking (iroro), of judgment (enwae) and w i l l (ekhoe) as w e l l as of

most of the senses. Bradbury states (1961: 134):

While E h i implies a r e j e c t i o n of personal c o n t r o l over one's fortunes,

uhumwun a d m i t s a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e m . . . O n a
man's Head depends n o t o n l y h i s w e l l - b e i n g b u t t h a t o f h i s w i v e s and
c h i l d r e n ; and, s i n c e t h i s dependence i s r e c i p r o c a l , he serves t h e i r
H e a d s a t t h e same t i m e as h i s o w n . Thus t h e Head c u l t has a p a r t i c u -
lar association with family headship.

The Edo say that 'without the head, the body is useless.' One informant

told me t h a t it is the head that gives the body 'shape.' An Edo proverb

says: Uhumwunnamure a ya khian. 'It is the head that one has brought

from heaven that goes on w i t h (on earth).' If someone experiences i l l - l u c k

or behaves badly, he is said to have a bad head (Omijie 1968: 41).

Sacrifices and offerings are made to the head particularly after a

piece of good fortune s u c h as the winning of a court case or the birth of

a child (Bradbury 1957: 58). The individual s a c r i f i c e to the uhumwun begins

with prayer.

My h e a d , b e p r e s e n t w i t h me t o t a k e t h i s f o o d . I'm d o i n g i t f o r a
sign of thanksgiving for your guidance throughout t h i s troublous
period. I i m p l o r e y o u t o a l l o w me t o l i v e l o n g s o t h a t t h e w o r l d w i l l
n o t s a y t h a t I h a v e b a d l u c k (uhumwun d a n ) a n d a b a d E h i ( E h i dan).

My informant said that it is necessary to mention both Ehi and uhumwun

together. There doesn't seem t o be any s a c r i f i c e to t h e uhumwun without

the consciousness that one is invoking or honouring one's Ehi.

The actual s a c r i f i c e to uhumwun f o l l o w s the usual Edo pattern. A

sacrifice c a n be offered at any time either to thank uhumwun o r to change

the course of events. It is possible for the diviner to ask any Edo to

make a s a c r i f i c e to his uhumwun.

The individual who is making a s a c r i f i c e to his uhumwun (the cocoa-

nut is the favoured item) first cuts the cocoanut into 31 pieces. The
 - 224 -

thirty-first p i e c e must be circular in shape w h i c h contrasts with the

other thirty v-shaped pieces. A k o l a nut is then p l a c e d on top of the

circular shaped cocoanut. Native chalk is taken and rubbed on the front,

side and back of the head. The last place it is rubbed on is the chest.

After this is done the supplicant prays: 'Ehimwen, Uhumwunmwen come to me.

I am t h a n k f u l for the safe delivery to the child. M a y my w i f e and I live

to see the growth of the child.' A f t e r the s a c r i f i c e in the open courtyard

the sacrificial item is eaten by those gathered.

In contrast to the individual's s a c r i f i c e to his uhumwun is the

public ceremony (Igwe) to honour the Oba's head. The importance of this

particular ceremony derives from the Oba's position and status in the Edo

kingdom. The Igwe is head at the end of every year. There are a number

of rites associated with the Igwe Festival. In the morning just before

dawn children take burning brands from a fire and chase a l l evil things

out of Benin City to the junction of roads leading out of the town. This

is c a l l e d the ugie-ewere. Then they gather 'leaves of joy 1

(eb-ewere)
• • • • • •

which on their return they present to their parents and other adults. In

the evening the Ihogbe (priests of the past kings) present similar leaves

to the Oba. Only the last rite is regularly performed. It takes place on

the s i x t h day after the s a c r i f i c e s to the Oba's uhumwun (Bradbury 1957: 59).

The s a c r i f i c e to the Oba's head is a most impressive ceremony.

Thousands of Edo gather at the Oba's palace to observe the sacrifice.

Before the actual s a c r i f i c e the various titled chiefs salute the Oba.

These paramount chiefs enter the ceremonial ground with their entourages

and dance b e f o r e the Oba demonstrating their power and asking for his

blessing. They twirl the traditional eben and are acknowledged by the

Oba.
 - 225 -

Next the Oba's head is anointed with a medicine ritually prepared by

two of the Oba's assistants. After this is completed the sacrifice to the

Oba's uhumwun takes place. The first item to be sacrificed is the cock.

Held by one man, its throat is slit and the blood flows into a large wooden

bowl. Some of the blood is then taken and is anointed on the head of the

Oba. This is followed by the sacrifice of four goats. The same process

is c o m p l e t e d . , ; The final item to be sacrificed is the cow, brought before

the Oba's throne after being bludgeoned and subdued for the sacrifice.

There is a separate bowl for the cow's blood which some E d o say is a

surrogate for a human being. The cow's throat is slit and again the Oba's

head is anointed with the sacrificial blood. The atmosphere in the crowd

is extremely tense during the sacrifice of the various animals, but once

the final animal is slaughtered the Oba arises from h i s throne triumphantly.

Facing towards his wives, he twirls the eben.(ceremonial sword). He then

perambulates the carcasses of the slaughtered animals followed by men

blowing horns made out of elephant's tusks. The crowd also joins in

praise to the Oba. The people appear to have been brought out of a dan-

gerous period into protection. It is the Oba's head that gives direction

to the Edo people. Since the Oba is the depository of blessing for the

Edo, if he is blessed with a 'good destiny,' then his subjects will benefit

as well.

B l o o d i s a l s o a n o i n t e d on the head of one o f the h o l d e r s of "body-

t i t l e s " (egie-egbe). The h o l d e r s o f t h e s e t i t l e s r e p r e s e n t different
p a r t s and q u a l i t i e s o f t h e O b a ' s p e r s o n : t o r s o ( e r h a / o n y e ) ; head (ohoba);
feet (ehana), e t c . During the s a c r i f i c e to the Oba's"head, blood i s :

a n o i n t e d on t h e Ohoba t i t l e - h o l d e r .
 - 226 -

II. THE M A N I F E S T A T I O N OF EHI

As we h a v e seen from our analysis of Ehi-names, the Edo believe

that when things are going well (good destiny) their Ehi is doing his job

satisfactorily. Names like My Ehi is good; Ehi is a good doctor; My Ehi

• • •

guards me indicate that successful living is attributed to the workings of

an Ehi. On the other hand, if an E d o ' s way is u n s u c c e s s f u l he may attribute

this to the fact that his Ehi is not being honoured and is thus in need

of something. This may precipitate some ritual action designed to bring

the individual back into a harmonious relationship with his Ehi. An Edo

will r e c e i v e messages from h i s Ehi through the diviner who w i l l interpret

certain events as signs that his Ehi is displeased. Neither the dream-

media nor the possession-media are utilized by an Ehi.

III. T H E EDO R E S P O N S E TO EHI

Since an Ehi can be influenced, the Edo believe that they can pray

to their Ehi as w e l l as s a c r i f i c i n g to him. The sacrifice is made in an

open courtyard. Although the average Edo does not have an aruEhi, one

informant told me that one must reach 60-70 before one's own E h i shrine

could be obtained. This would consist of a pot containing a large amount

of chalk with cowries tied around i t . It would be placed in a separate

place in the house where Ehi c o u l d be invoked every year. And during the

burial ceremony the aruEhi would be buried with the dead person.

The Edo believe that they can sacrifice to their Ehi at any time.

The motivation to interact with E h i may come f r o m w i t h i n the individual

 - 227 -

or because of the diviner's request. I have not recorded a great number

of s a c r i f i c e s but the few I have may give some idea of s a c r i f i c e and the

Edo belief in Ehi.

Case 1

Mr. U. I. of Ogbe Q u a r t e r s in Benin City made a s a c r i f i c e to his

Ehi with one white cock, and a cocoanut. His purpose was to thank his Ehi

for sparing him to live to be a grandfather. This s a c r i f i c e was made as

a token of gratitude for allowing him to live to such a grand old age. Mr.

U. I. was conscious that his good fortune in life (old age and grandchildren)

were attributable to his Ehi's favourable a c t i o n on h i s behalf.

Case 2

Mr. J . E . of Benin City made a s a c r i f i c e to his Ehi with a cocoanut.

His purpose was to be delivered from danger. This particular sacrifice

was made during the Biafran occupation of Benin City, August 1967. Apparen-

tly whenever he was seen at a roadblock by the rebels, he was harassed.

He w e n t to the diviner seeking some guidance. The diviner suggested that

he s a c r i f i c e to his Ehi. This he did and repeated the sacrifice fourteen

days later. Here we can see that Ehi is being sought for his intercessional

functions. Ehi is approached and persuaded to go before Osanobua to plead

his cause. Ehi is able to perform this function more personalistically

than any of the other divinities such as Olokun, Ogun o r Esu. This fact

does not preclude interaction with these divinities for similar ends.

Case 3

•Mr. J . E. of Benin City made a s a c r i f i c e to his Ehi with a cock.

The purpose was for continued deliverance from r e b e l hands during the
 - 228 -

Biafran occupation of Benin.

The Edo respond to the personal divinity E h i when they are thankful

or when it is revealed to them that their plight might be related to their

Ehi's dissatisfaction with their activities in agbon. As seen from the

above cases, an E h i is also interacted with in order to alleviate 'dan-

gerous ' situations.

The potentiality of what an Edo c a n become is related to the status

of his spiritual counterpart in erimwin. Not only does an Ehi guide

individual Edo through their uhumwun o r present-life principle, but he

also intercedes before Osanobua on their behalf.

Thus when the uhumwun is the recipient of a sacrifice, it may be

that it is not the uhumwun p e r se that is actually receiving the sacrifice,

but the Ehi. This point seems confusing. Bradbury (1957: 58) states that

there is 'some d i f f i c u l t y . . . i n determining what, in the case of uhumwun and

obo"* (Bradbury regards the hand as a more positive symbol of wealth and

social achievement that either an E h i or the Head), is the actual object

of s a c r i f i c e or worship. In p r a c t i c e the Edo act as though making offerings

to their a c t u a l heads and arms though when questioned more closely some

informants will aver that the actual entities 'served' are in erimwin.

Hazarding a guess, I would say that when a sacrifice is made to

uhumwun, the individual Edo is directing his Ehi's attention to a particular

The Edo make s a c r i f i c e s to their hands (obo). One case I recorded

illustrates this. M r . 0 . 1 . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e o f k o l a n u t s ,
a l l i g a t o r pepper and one c o c k t o h i s o b o . H i s p u r p o s e was t o t h a n k h i s
h a n d f o r t h e good y i e l d o f l a r g e yams i n h i s f a r m . Mr. 0 . 1 . ' s success is
judged i n terms of w e a l t h . A c c o r d i n g t o B r a d b u r y (1961: 134) the s a c r i f i c e . )
s y m b o l i z e s h i s v i g o u r , e n t e r p r i s e and i n d u s t r y ; i n f a c t , a k i n d o f self-
congratulations .
 - 229 -

component of his body; in this case the head. For without a 'good' head,

no divinity is able to a s s i s t one in his activities. And further, without

a good Ehi, it doesn't matter how g o o d one's head i s .

Summing up, an E d o ' s destiny is set in erimwin. He can r i s e no

higher than h i s Ehi. However, there are various obstacles that hinder a

full, harmonious and successful l i f e . In such circumstances, Ehi can be

approached for assistance. It is important to note that the kind of

assistance the Edo receive from t h e i r Ehi is not of the same n a t u r e as that

received from the other divinities. E h i needs the a s s i s t a n c e of the other

divinities whereas Ogun, for example, can act independently of Osanobua.

Therefore when an Edo attempts to manipulate his destiny this is not para-

doxical because he can r e a l l y only manipulate his Ehi to help him achieve

a destiny that is not being fulfilled due to careless of even rebellious

behaviour as w e l l as the disruptive a c t i v i t y of Esu or the azen.

 CHAPTER XI

T H E EDO RELIGION: AN OVERVIEW

I. DIVINITY I N THE EDO R E L I G I O U S SYSTEM

. The Edo believe in a supreme Divinity, Osanobua, as w e l l as lesser

divinities. The relationship of the lesser divinities to Osanobua is

conceived of in genealogical terms: they are the 'children' of Osanobua

who have each been given a specific function or purpose to perform.

Osanobua is not a withdrawn God. He is active in the creative process.

Without Osanobua's consent, no Edo child could be born. Osanobua is also

closely related to the Edo individual in that he has given every one an

Ehi. A l l Edo know that it is the high g o d who h a s given them this Ehi;

that their destiny has been predetermined. Thus unfortunate events in

their life can be related to Osanobua who is sovereign over the Edo

individual. Further, Osanobua sends the dead back into the world in a

reincarnational cycle intimately linking him w i t h the continuity of life.

And lastly, Osanobua is the object of worship by a cult; the members of

the Holy Aruosa.

Each of the Edo divinities has a distinctive personality. Olokun

as gentle and g o o d may be contrasted with the capricious Esu and the

temperamental Ogun. Not only do the Edo divinities display various types

of emotions in their interaction with the Edo, but they have low or high

status in the hierarchically structured pantheon. The relationship between

Osanobua and Olokun is a particularly interesting one. Some Edo feel that
 - 231 -

the worship of Olokun has superseded that of Osanobua, that Olokun is

'more p o w e r f u l . ' The relationship between Osanobua-Olokun parallels that

of Jehovah-Christ. Just how much the Edo have been influenced by Christian

concepts of Divinity I cannot say here. Possibly Olokun has come to assume

his position in the hierarchy of divinities due to what he is believed to

be capable of doing for the Edo.

Each of the divinities in the Edo cosmology is believed to exist

as beings capable of manifesting themselves in culture. This is to be

expected for another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of personality is the ability to com-

municate. The bulk of the descriptive material in this thesis accentuates

the importance of this point: the actors within the system interpret

experience as the 'speech' of divinity. We h a v e seen that the Edo divini-

ties speak through dream-experiences, and the possession-experiences of

the ohen. But the most significant way in which the Edo experience divinity

is through the relating of fortunate and unfortunate events to a particular

divinity in the pantheon. Without going into great detail, we could say

that the Edo divinities enable the Edo to comprehend and order experience

by grounding these experiences in divinity. Thus a l l Edo experience is

'under' the sacred canopy of one/more divinities believed to live in erimwin.

Once the Edo have c l a s s i f i e d experience as either fortunate or unfortunate,

the experience w i l l be further c l a s s i f i e d according to the divinity it is

grounded in. For example, the death of a child, lack of children, menstrual

problems are a l l unfortunate events which would be grounded in either Esu

or the azen. Ogun is also capable of k i l l i n g but the nature of death

•

•*"In s e v e n of the thirteen cases i n my data, the Edo sacrificed to

Ogun in order to destroy a w i t c h who was believed to be the ground of
some ailment or disturbance.
 - 232 -

would not be the same as death attributed to Esu. And the gift of a child

would be grounded in Olokun. The entire Edo experience could be mapped

in this manner. Once the experience has been attributed to divinity it

can be comprehended and then managed through ritual interaction to the

divinity who has been divined as the ground of the experience or to another

divinity who can a s s i s t the individual in his diilemma.

II. RITUAL IN THE EDO RELIGIOUS SYSTEM

The Edo relationship with divinity, if placed on a continuum of

pure manipulation to pure communion, would be very close to pure manipu-

lation. Like other African religious systems (See Uchendu 1965: 15), the

Edo relationship with divinity is contractual. However, the communion

element is not entirely absent as there are selected individuals within

the culture who are able to achieve a kind of mystical communion in their

relationship to the divinities. Particularly relevant here would be the

Ogun and Olokun priests. Since the majority of the priests of Olokun are

women this is particularly significant. For with the possession-experience

comes power and control over cult members which usually includes some male

members.

The divinities of the Edo cosmology help them to maintain social

and cosmological balance. Any event that involves an 'affliction, ' or

disruption of the harmonious functioning of the Edo individual in culture

demands ritual action. Disruptions or obstacles in the way of the Edo

fulfillment of their goals are attributed to a number of divinities who

are associated with evil: Esu, the azen and other evil spirits. The
 233 -

diviner w i l l attribute some obstacle (Lack of a male child, lack of prog-

ress in business, various types of sickness) to the activity of a par-

ticular divinity. The diviner will set the disruptive event in the con-

text of social relationships relating the event to his relationship with

others and to a particular divinity as the ground of that experience as

well as to a particular divinity who is the balancing agent: the divinity

who is believed to be capable of restoring cosmological balance (The

counteraction of bad forces by the good) and social balance (The obstacle

is removed and the individual can function normally again). V. Uchendu

has an illuminating passage on a similar theme in the Igbo religious

system:

B u t t h e Igbo b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e s o c i a l c a l a m i t i e s and c o s m i c f o r c e s
w h i c h d i s t u r b t h e i r w o r l d a r e c o n t r o l l a b l e and s h o u l d be "manipulated"
b y t h e m f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e . The m a i n t e n a n c e o f s o c i a l and c o s -
m o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e i n the w o r l d becomes, t h e r e f o r e , a dominant and
p e r v a s i v e theme i n I g b o l i f e . They a c h i e v e t h i s b a l a n c e , f o r instance,
t h r o u g h d i v i n a t i o n , s a c r i f i c e , a p p e a l t o the c o u n t e r v a i l i n g powers of
t h e i r a n c e s t o r s (who a r e t h e i n v i s i b l e f a t h e r - f i g u r e s ) against the
powers o f t h e m a l i g n a n t and n o n a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s , and s o c i a l l y t h r o u g h
constant re-alignment i n their s o c i a l groupings (1965: 13).

What Uchendu has stated for the Igbo is also valid for the Edo who interact

with their divinities in order to solve their problematic situations which

2
are invariably related to three basic concerns of the Edo: health, wealth

and children. At the cosmological level there are beings for and against

the Edo: disrupters and restorers; malignant and non-malignant beings.

Some divinities disrupt and afflict primarily while others are 'mobilized'

to remove the affliction.

F i f t y percent of the s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d to Olokun were thanksgiving

s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d b e c a u s e O l o k u n was b e l i e v e d t o have overcome o b s t a c l e s
b l o c k i n g the f u l f i l l m e n t of g o a l s . One E d o w o m a n , f o r e x a m p l e t h a n k e d Olokun
t h a t he had fought a g a i n s t the azen f o r her.
 - 234 -

The Edo believe that the ancestors underpin the lineage and village

units within the social order. The hero-divinities have a yet wider

sphere of influence: the welfare of village or village-groups. The most

important divinities in the Edo cosmology are Ogun and Olokun and it!s

not surprising that they are 'concerned' for the welfare of individuals

regardless of lineage or village affiliation. The servitors of the free

divinities, Ogun and Olokun, are drawn f r o m many lineages and a l l villages.

Although a l l of the divinities are concerned with some aspect/s of Edo

experience, with the Edo it seems that the most important and powerful

divinities are concerned with the most highly valued matters in the culture.

This is not to say that only one divinity is pre-occupied with matters of

health. The erha, Ogun and Olokun are a l l capable of alleviating sickness.

The point is that Olokun is not limited to health concerns but is able to

give children and increase wealth.

The Edo achieve cosmological and social balance through sacrifice.

Sacrifice for the Edo demands that they procure at considerable expense

various items such as goats, hens, dogs and pieces of cloth and foodstuffs.

The items to be offered to divinity are determined by the diviner in a

patterned manner. With Olokun, for example, the favoured items are the

white female hen and the white goat. Ogun f a v o u r s the dog. These sacri-

ficial items have a symbolic meaning in the ritual context where the actors

say that they are interacting with divinity. I suggest this tentatively,

The economic t r a n s a c t i o n i n v o l v e d h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y i m p o r t a n t but

I did not have the time to determine the a c t u a l cost to the Edo. For a
paper on t h e e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f s a c r i f i c e see F i r t h ' O f f e r i n g and S a c r i -
fice: Problems of O r g a n i z a t i o n ' (1965: 185-194).
 - 235 -

but it may be that the desired end as s t a t e d by the actor, the items offered

and the ritual setting are analogous to the phrasing of words in meaningful

patterns in order to communicate. If we a c c e p t a t face v a l u e what the Edo

believers affirm: that sacrifice is meaningful to them because the divinity

can be manipulated and c o n t r o l l e d by offering items to him, then it may

be that the symbolic meaning of the sacrificial item lies in the actors

attempt to s t r u c t u r e messages in non-verbal media to beings, who though

personal, are not entirely subject to the communication patterns on the

social level. The Edo do say: 'Ogun h e a r s us better w h e n we g i v e him a

dog. 1
How a r e we to interpret such a statement? At one level, the

offering of goods to divinity uncovers a belief in the p o s s i b i l i t y of com-

munication with these 'extra-social' (to use Horton's phrase) beings.

Many w r i t e r s (Frazer, Robertson - Smith, Hubert and Mauss) on the

nature of sacrifice have noted that the importance of sacrifice is in the

communal sharing of the sacrificial offering. The communal aspect of

sacrifice does not seem t o be overly important in the day by day interaction

with, d i v i n i t y . I have seen a p r i e s t of Olokun sacrifice a hen to Olokun,

making certain that the blood was sprinkled in the proper place in front

of the shrine. After he had sprinkled the blood on the floor of the

shrine, t h e h e n was tossed aside. I was told time and time again that

it was only the blood that mattered. However, in the yearly thanksgiving

festivals the element of communion in the sacrificial rite is predominant.

In the Eho Festival, for example, there is a ritually defined sharing of

the sacrificed animal. It should also be noted that kinsmen partake of

other prepared foods. Here it seems obvious that the bonds of fellowship

b e t w e e n k i n members are being ritually reaffirmed. This is also true for

 - 236 -

the ceremonies honouring the various divinities where members see them-

selves as linked together in a single cultic community.

An interesting feature of both Edo and Dahomean r e l i g i o n is their

congregational structure. What H o r t o n (1960: 217) has said about the

Dahomean is also valid for the Edo. He h a s noted that 'so much of it

(is) marked by recruitment virtually unconnected with social provenance

and resulting in ritual groupings coincident with none of the enduring

structural units of the kingdom, (this) is a function of the character

peculiarities of the vodun.' Although this statement would not be entirely

accurate in pre-contact days, today the Edo religious system is essentially

cultic, that is, the structure of the most important cults in the Edo

culture crosscut lineages and descent groups. The Edo have come to view

their divinities in a highly i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c way as instrumental to the

attainment of various goals within an open, urban environment where there

is considerable struggle between individuals for both economic and poli-

tical ends. This is not to say, however, that the Edo are pursuing en-

tirely new goals. They are s t i l l able to pursue old goals (health, wealth,

fertility and status), even though the means to attain these goals may

have changed. For example, the divinities are now b e i n g sought for help

in lorry trade, to sell motorcycles, to pass exams or to obtain a better

job. Rather than rejecting a l l the divinities, it appears that certain

divinities who have not been identified with any enduring unit of the

social structure are helping the Edo adjust to the modern world.

The Edo traditional religious system is very resilient and does not

seem t o be dying. It is true that the traditional religious .system has

shifted f r o m an ancestral focus to a cultic focus. In general terms,

 - 237 -

lineages, clans, and other l a r g e - s c a l e groupings have decreased in impor-

tance as instruments to the attainment of goals. Ancestor worship has

become less and less important as the field in which individuals achieve

socially valued ends shifts away from lineage and village. And new

experiences in a modernizing s o c i e t y have not c a u s e d any demise of the

divinities. For example, Ogun t h e divinity of iron, has taken things

associated with metal, machinery and m e c h a n i c s under his canopy. Some-

thing of this adjusting of new e x p e r i e n c e to divinity came across to me

when observing the ugiOgun. The priest praised Ogun, stating that whenever

a bridge is built, this is due to his power. He also said that the

'Europeans' knew more about the power of Ogun t h a n the Edo. Further,

unfortunate experiences resulting from motor accidents in the modernizing

society are attributed to Ogun. The point here is that some of the tradi-

tional Edo d i v i n i t i e s have become the ground of new e x p e r i e n c e in a changing

society.

We h a v e seen that oppositions within the Edo social structure

were ritualized and that the p o l i t i c a l roles in the Benin Kingdom have

never been conceived of in terms of the c o m p e t i t i o n between segments based

on lineage affiliation. The Oba and Uzama p e r f o r m e d important rituals to

their r e s p e c t i v e ed i o n 'who laid down the customs and continue(d) to

uphold its values' (Bradbury 1967: 26). These rituals sanctioned the

opposition between them, but also set limits on their use of power. When

the Uzama served his edion, he did not do this to depose the Oba b u t to

f u l f i l l their divinely sanctioned function within the political structure.

It appears more likely that if the Oba w a n t e d to eliminate the Uzama or

any competitor, the edion-Oba wouldn't help him attain this particular end.
 - 238 -

In fact, in 1939 the 'struggle between the palace clique and the opposi-

tion c o a l i t i o n , which gained increasing popular support, grew to alarming

proportions. A s e n s a t i o n was c r e a t e d by the discovery of paraphernalia

of sorcery in the Residency garden. As was the custom in times of serious

crisis, the Oba sent chalk and kolanuts to many important priests for the

purpose of appeasing the gods in the interests of the people generally'

(Bradbury 1968: 239). The ancestors of royalty and the commoner were the

guardians of a divinely sanctioned social order and were not played off

against one another in the sense that any one divinity was 'used' to gain

power or influence over another group. For example, if a particular hero-

divinity is served by an e x c l u s i v e group of people, this divinity contri-

butes to the welfare of that village or village-group but does not serve

the interests of the worshippers qua group at the political level. At any

rate this would be u n l i k e l y in the Edo culture because of its structure

which is unlike the segmentary p o l i t i c a l system of the Nuer and Dinka.

If any ambitious young Edo p o l i t i c i a n wanted to get ahead, he had to enter

into alliances i n many directions. Bonds of kinship, affinity, and friend-

ship cut across the boundaries of chiefly orders and served as a basis for

political cooperation and intrigue (1968: 198). Thus competition is not

between segments of the social structure who see the divinities as able

to help them achieve their i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c ends. A l l Edo have access to

the same divinities, excluding the departed ancestors.

We m i g h t expect that a shift in the structural alignments within

the s o c i e t y would result in a shift in the Edo divinity to group coordina-

tion. To illustrate this, we turn to the Holy Aruosa church in Benin. I

do not want to examine the Holy Aruosa as a n a t i v i s t i c movement w h i c h seeks

 - 239 -

to perpetuate a selected aspect of its culture. Rather I w i l l view the

church as a response to new structural alignments in the social order.

When A k e n z u a II was coronated in 1933, schools had been introduced for

quite a few y e a r s , there were new e c o n o m i c opportunities and a growing

intelligentsia of teachers, clerks, and civil servants whose literacy

gave them access to Western political ideologies. Many Edo had interests

in timber and other commercial enterprises. The Oba h i m s e l f belonged to

the i n t e l l i g e n t s i a and so did some of his closest a s s o c i a t e s , but there

were others who saw t h e growing power of the palace clique as an obstacle

to their own interests (Bradbury 1968: 235).

It is possible to identify three fairly clearly defined sectors

within the modern B e n i n political class. The 'Old Guard' of titled chiefs

who had come to power in Eweka's reigh; the Oba, his retainers and func-

tionaries and the r a d i c a l modernist element (1968: 235). There was an

intense struggle between the palace clique and the opposition coalition.

During this time of p o l i t i c a l turbulence, it was discovered that the Re-

formed Ogboni Lodge, which had existed in Benin since the early 1930's,

was recruiting most of its members from the educated and commercial elites.

Before 1948 it had never been considered to have any direct political

significance. But it came t o be perceived as a menacing and sinister cabal.

This was due to the fact that its head, the Oluwo, was none other than the

new iyase. Further, it was a secret cult, with mysterious initiation rites.

Such r i t e s had never been allowed in Benin before. Moreover, it was an

alien cult, associated with the Yoruba and had no place in Benin culture

(1968: 244-5). By 1950 many Edo people felt they were at the mercy of an

oppressive oligarchy. Two distinct organizations emerged as anti-Ogboni.

 - 240 -

One was the Holy Aruosa. It developed as a focus of Edo values in opposi-

tion to the alien Ogboni cult. Bradbury says that it 'gained some success,

mainly among older people, and played a part in the mobilization of anti-

Ogboni sentiments (1968: 245).

The Holy Aruosa, then, emerged as a response to new a l i g n m e n t s in

the social structure. The Edo elite also achieved another purpose. They

were able to modify one aspect of the indigenous religious system: the

ritual approach to Osanobua. In no way did the Edo feel that their tradi-

tional religion was exhausted. They did recognize a need for change.

Possibly they thought that Osanobua would assist them in upholding Edo

values against these anti-Edo influences if they honoured him in this new

way. The H o l y Aruosa illustrates an important theme in the Edo religious

system. The system is able to adjust to new structural developments as

well as new ideas resulting from culture contact. This is not to say,

however, that the Aruosa has been able to counter effectively the new

developments in the society.

The Edo traditional->religious system has undergone significant changes

over the last hundred years. Some divinities have died, or have receded

into the twilight (Obiemwen and Ogiuwu) ; others have 'adjusted' to social

change resulting from the encounter with Western religious, economic and

political ideas and behaviour patterns. And some divinities such as the

Yoruba divinity Orunmila have only recently been added to the selection of

of divinities open to the Edo. In general terms, in the modern era a

divinity seems to be rejected or accepted on the basis of his ability to

assist the Edo to relate to a changing society with new p r o b l e m s , and

new tensions. For example, the 'imported' divinity Orunmils is believed

 - 241 -

to have special powers of counteracting Esu and the azen.

*

Thus the Edo 'pagans' remain undaunted in their worship of, Ogun,

Olokun, the ancestors and the hero-divinities. The coming of Christianity--

and there is much evidence of this new r e l i g i o n - - h a s had l i t t l e success in

•eradicating traditional religious practices. Native Christian ministers are

dismayed at how r e s i s t a n t the Edo are to the gospel, and often pray that

the Edo 'pagan' will see the light and leave their idols.

There are many Euro-american denominations in Benin City. These

range from the institutionally entrenched Catholic Church and the many

Protestant churches to the Jehovah's Witnesses sect. The Roman Catholics

rely primarily on their educational system to propagate their beliefs.

There is great variety within the Protestant ranks. A large Baptist

church situated in downtown Benin is clearly looking to its American

founder for guidance, the entire programme h a v i n g been taken from the

manuals of the western church. Pentecostal churches with their emphases

on divine healing, glossolalia, visions and intense emotional participation

are sprinkled throughout Benin. Most of the buildings are small and un-

impressive, but this group attracts a significant following.

As we h a v e seen, religion in Benin is not a mere contrast between

the old and the new. The introduction of new ideas, beliefs and ritual

patterns has led to the phenomenon of syncretism: the blending of two or

more religious systems to form something that is neither, but related to

4
both. The Cherubim and Seraphim are such a movement although the 'pagan'

elements in this cult are not traceable directly to any traditional religious
4
The C a t h o l i c a n t h r o p o l o g i s t and m i s s i o l o g i s t L. L u z b e t a k (1966:
115-121) has c o i n e d the term C h r i s t o - p a g a n i s m to d e s c r i b e such movements.
 - 242 -

system. Groups are found a l l over Benin, ranging from back alley shacks to

respectable white mud buildings.

The Cherubim and Seraphim are known by their distinctive shepherd

garb. Led by supernaturally commissioned prophets, the worshippers dance

and sing to the accompaniment of bell-ringers, drummers and samba players,

as glowing candles waft incense heavenward. Although prayer is the core

of the cult, the prophets seek for the God-sent vision or dream experience,

for they believe that it is through dreams and v i s i o n s that God reveals

his messages through his chosen prophetic medium. The cult also practices

b a p t i s m by immersion, confirmation, communion and fasting. I was told by

one prophet that the Cherubim and Seraphim is a distinctive African church.

It is easy to see that the Edo have numerous cults to choose from

to help them solve their problems and relate to a changing society. How-

ever, the old people and the semi-educated s t i l l adhere to the traditional

system in its modified form, and the professing Christians cannot escape

the influence of problem-solving divinities, the evil forces which are

believed to disrupt and h i n d e r progress and the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the

burial ceremony. The b e l i e f in witchcraft is s t i l l widespread, and a

Christian does not find it contradictory to v i s i t the diviner or seek some

protection from the w i t c h e s . Part of the impact of the Cherubim and Sera-

phim cult is that it takes the Edo 'fear' of witches seriously. Although

the Cherubim and Seraphim and possibly some o t h e r churches relegate the

Edo d i v i i f i t i e s to the evil spirit category, it is now the Holy Spirit and

Jesus who serve as instruments, albeit more powerful ones, to enable the

Edo to overcome particular problems. It is difficult to predict the

future of the Edo traditional religion, but I think that the system i s far

from moribund, and that it will continue to be one of the options in the
 - 243 -

market-place of competing belief systems.

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