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Power Plant Chemistry by Ramesh PDF
Power Plant Chemistry by Ramesh PDF
Power Plant Chemistry by Ramesh PDF
De aeration
Clarification
Filtration
Demineralization
DEAERATION
Aeration is the process of bring water and air into close contact
Removes dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide by decarboxylation H2S and NH3 by stripping
Aeration is the effective method of bacterial control and Gases ( carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide) Methane Ammonia
The common ion effect may be used to obtain almost complete removal of these gases by
aeration.
In the case of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen ion concentration may be
increased by the addition of an acid.
HS- forms H2S and Bicarbonate and carbonate ions in the water will form carbon dioxide, which
can be removed by aeration
H2S H+ + HS-
Increase in hydroxyl ion concentration through the addition of caustic soda aids in the removal of
ammonia.
3. Volatile organic chemicals such as benzene Di, Tri, and Perchloroethylene etc.
1. Cascade Aerators
Cascade aerators consist of a series of steps which the water flows over
2. Cone Aerators
3. Draft aerator
Draft aerator consist external blowers mounted at the bottom of the tower to induce air from the
bottom of the tower. Water is pumped to the top and allowed to cascade down through the rising air
Three basic control tests are involved in the operation of the aeration process:
1. Dissolved oxygen 2. pH 3. Temperature
DO TEST : DO Test is used to estimate whether the process is over or under aerated.
PH TEST
The pH test will give an indication of the amount of carbon dioxide removal.
pH increases as the carbon dioxide is removed.
pH can also be used to monitor the effective range for hydrogen sulfide, iron, and manganese removal.
TEMPERATURE
The temperature is important as the saturation point of oxygen increases as the temperature decreases.
CLARIFICATION
Clarification process consist
COAGULATION
Brownian motion keeps the colloids in suspension. Impossible to remove colloids by gravity settling
Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by addition of chemicals that neutralize the negative
charges the chemicals are known as coagulants, usually higher valence cationic salts (Al 3+, Fe3+ etc.)
Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into large size particles known as flocs which
can be effectively removed by sedimentation or flotation.
SEDIMENTATION
JAR – TEST
The jar test – a laboratory procedure to determine the optimum pH and the optimum coagulant
dose
CLARIFIER DIAGRAM
1. ALUM
Extensively used coagulant, is aluminum sulfate (Al/S04)3 ·14 HP), also known as alum.
Available in blocks, lumps and powder with a density of 1000 -1100 kg/ m3 and specific gravity of 1.25
to 1.36.
ADVANTAGE S OF ALUM
DISADVANTAGE S OF ALUM
2. FERROUS SULPHATE
Ferrous sulphate, ordinarily known as copperas,
It is granular acid compound and green to brownish yellow color
Available in granules, crystals and lumps.
This is fed usually in solution form with strength of 4 to 8 %.
The alkalinity and pH value of natural water are too low to react with copperas to form the
desired ferric hydroxide floc,
But oxidation ferrous sluphate to ferric hydroxide occur at pH > 8.5.
Along with the ferrous sulphate lime is added to water to increase pH
The dose of lime required is approximately 0.27 mg/L to react with 1.0 mg/L of copperas.
Generally the floc formed by the reaction of copperas and lime is feathery and fragile, but has a
high specific gravity.
COAGULANT AIDS
POLYELECTROLYTES
1
DM
FLASH
SUMP
MIXER 5M
6
NON DM
CLARIFIER Gravel 2-5mm 500mm
FIRE Sand 0.5mm 50mm
WATER Anthracite 1.0mm 500mm
Water 2500mm
Total depth of RGF 3750mm
Aeration is the process of bring water and air into close contact and Removes
1. Dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide by decarboxylation Chlorine is dosed at stilling chamber to control microorganism and algae
H2O + CO2 H+ + HCO3
2. H2S and NH3 by stripping H2O + Cl2 H+ + Cl- + HOCl
+ -
H2S H + HS
H2O + NH3 NH4 + OH-
+ HOCl H+ + O Cl-
3. Oxidize dissolved metals such as iron and manganese.
4Fe (HCO3) + O2 + H2O 4Fe (OH) +8CO2 At 7.5 pH 50% HOCl and 50% OCl- are exist and at lower than 7.5pH HOCl
2Mn (HCO3)2 + O2 2MnO2 +CO2 +H2O predominates and controls microorganisms effectively
4. Volatile organic chemicals such as benzene Di, Tri, and Perchloroethylene etc.
Large particles in water is settled by gravity but colloid particles (0.0001micron and 0.00001micron) are so small gravity settling not possible
Colloids have a net negative surface charge Electrostatic force prevents them from agglomeration. Brownian motion keeps the colloids in
suspension. Impossible to remove colloids by gravity settling. Colloid particles are removed by coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation in
clarifier.
Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by addition of chemicals that neutralize the negative charges. The chemicals are known as coagulants,
usually higher valence cationic salts (Al3+, Fe3+ etc.)1.Aluminum sulfate: Al2 (SO4)3.14 H2O 2. Ferrous sulfate 3.Ferric sulfate: Fe2 (SO4)3
Ferric chloride: Fe2Cl3
Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into large size particles known as flocs which can be effectively removed by
sedimentation
Sedimentation The large flocs formed by flocculation settles by gravity is called Sedimentation
Poly electrolytes are dosed to enhance the flocculation and the Lime is dosed to improve the pH of water
The coagulation most effective at pH 6.3 to 7.8
BY
RAMESH KOMMA
Senior Chemist /TSGENCO
KTPP-CHELPUR
FILTRATION
Filtration is used in addition to regular coagulation and sedimentation for removal of solids from
clarification water
Filtration is a simple mechanical process, actually involves the mechanisms of adsorption (physical and
chemical), straining, sedimentation, interception, diffusion, and inertial compaction.
Filters, designed vertically or horizon-tally, have cylindrical steel shells and dished heads filled with filter
media
GRAVITY FILTERS
Gravity filters use relatively coarse sand and other granular media E.g. Paterson's filter,
PRESSURE FILTERS
Pressure filters are similar to gravity filters
Pressure filters are usually operated at a service flow rate of 3 gpm/ft². E.g. Candy's filter
Activated carbon filter is generally used for removing free chlorine and / or organic compounds. Such as
humic or fulvic trihalomethanes (a class of known carcinogens)
Three forms of activated carbon used in water filtration systems are granulated activated carbon (GAC),
activated-carbon block and catalytic carbon.
Activated carbon can be made from coal, wood or coconut shells. Carbon is "activated” by adding a
positive charge,
Dual media filter contain anthracite (125-2.5mm) in combination with sand (1-1.5mm) supported by
pebble and gravels.
Mixed-media filters have two or more types of filter material to remove specific compounds from the
water. Contain fine sand to remove larger particles in the water, activated carbon to remove odors and
other compounds followed by a micro-screen filter that may contain bacteriostatic control agents.
Filter out let metal ions (Al & Fe) = <0.2 mg/kg
Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between electrolyte solutions. Ion
exchangers used for demineralization are resins, zeolites, montmorillonite, clay, and soil humus.
In power industry Reins are used for demineralization of water
HISTORY OF RESINS
1940's, ion exchange resins were developed based on the copolymerization of styrene cross and
divinylbenzene
More recently acrylic polymers have been developed Polystyrene-divinylbenzene resins are still used in
the majority of ion exchange applications
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESIN
CLASIFICATION OF RESINS
Industrial water treatment resins are classified into four basic categories:
AmberjetTM 1000 Na
Examples DowexTM Marathon C
LewatitTM Monoplus S100
AmberliteTM IRC86
Examples DowexTM MAC3
LewatitTM CNP80
Typical total capacity 3.7 to 4.5 eq/L [H+]
Quaternary ammonium
Functional groups
—N(CH3)3+ OH–
In hydroxyl form, they remove all anions
What they do In chloride form, they remove nitrate, sulphate and several
other ions
AmberjetTM 4200 Cl
Examples DowexTM Marathon A
LewatitTM Monoplus M500
Typical total capacity 1.0 to 1.5 eq/L [Cl–]
AmberliteTM IRA96
Examples DowexTM Marathon MWA
LewatitTM Monoplus MP64
In demineralization process water from filter passes through SAC, DEGASSER ,BA and MB
In special cases we have WAC before SAC and WAB after SAC
SAC resins remove nearly all raw water cations, replacing them with hydrogen ions, as shown below:
WAC resins remove cations that are associated with alkalinity, producing carbonic acid
Weak acid cation resins are used primarily for softening and de alkalization of high-hardness
SBA resins can neutralize strong acids and convert neutral salts into their corresponding bases.
SBA resins derive their functionality from quaternary ammonium functional groups
WBA functional groups primary (R-NH2), secondary (R-NHR'), or tertiary (R-NR'2) amine groups.
WBA resins readily re-move sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids,
PH = 7.0 – 9.2
MB vessel contains both cation resin and anion resin removes both ions as above
MB WATER CHARECTARISTICS
SELECTIVITY COEFFICIENTS
Preference for ions of particular resins is often expressed through an equilibrium relationship using the selectivity
coefficient. The coefficient is described below.
Resin X + Y Resin Y + X
Equilibrium represented by
Ba > Pb > Sr > Ca > Ni > Cu > Mg > Ag >> Cs > K > NH4 > Na > H > Li
TRIVALENT > DIVALENT > MONOVALENT
SO4 > CrO4 > NO3 > CH3COO > I > Br > Cl > F > OH
A resin is considered to be exhausted when the ions in the resin have mostly been replaced by the
ions that are being removed from the solution.
CATION EXHAUSTION
Exhaustion of cation determined by sodium leakage, decrease in conductivity of cation leaving water
and increase in conductivity of anion leaving water
During exhaustion of cation bed consist layers of resin in different ionic form
Ca++
Mg++
Na+
H+
CO-FLOW REGENERATION
H+
Ca++
Mg++
Na+
In counter – flow regeneration the water and regenerate solution flows in opposite direction
Water leaving the bed would be in equilibrium with the most highly regenerated resin
So extremely low levels of sodium leakage will be observed because Na+ ions layer present on top of the
bed after regeneration. so sodium slippage in counter flow regeneration beds is low when compared to
Co -flow regeneration
++
Na+
Ca Mg++
Ca++
Mg++
H+
+
Na
H+
In the counter flow regeneration the chemicals are passed through the bed in opposite direction to the
service water flow
In this service flows upwards and regenerate flows downwards and vice versa
Several designs of unit have been adopted to prevent rise and mix they are discussed below
An inert granular material pushes the bed down during regeneration, under air compression.
The inert material is usually polypropylene, which floats when the upper part of the vessel is filled with
water, and comes down when it is full of air
The inert resin prevents contact between the air and the active resin.
The acid passes through bed from bottom and leaves by regenerant collector
SERVICE AIR
INLET INLET
REGENERANT
COLLECTOR
COLLECTOR
WASTE
ACID
SERVICE INLET
WATER PRESSURE
WASTE WATER
SERVICE OUTLET
ACID INLET
SPLIT
In split-flow vessels, regeneration is carried out simultaneously from the top and from the bottom
of the bed.
The regenerant collector is located in the upper third of the resin bed. An additional regenerant
distributor is required above the resin bed.
The idea is to allow the upper part of the bed to be backwashed to remove accumulated debris
without disturbing the lower layers of the bed that are responsible for the good treated water
quality.
There is no inert or inactive resin,
the system does not consume extra water,
but the regeneration flows are sometimes difficult to adjust.
ANION EXHAUSTION
Anion exhaustion determined by silica leakage as it releases first and decrease in conductivity of anion
leaving water
ANION REGENERATION
1. CO-FLOW REGENERATION
SO4
OH-
Cl
SO4--
SiO2 Cl-
SiO2-
SO4--
SO4 Cl-
SiO2-
Cl
OH-
SiO2
Degassed water storage Tank (RCC 1 200m3, 8.0m x 8.0m x 3.2m + 0.3m
FB
Epoxy)
Bulk Acid Storage Tanks (MSRL) 2 50m3, 3000mm Dia x 6200mm LOS
Bulk Alkali Storage Tanks (MSRL) 2 30m3, 2500mm Dia x 5600mm LOS
(MSRL)
For UF Plant
MB RFT
WBA SBA
CONDENSER
ECONOMISER
HOT WELL
COOLING TOWER
`
S
FDF
CEP
PAF CPU
& Air
Coal powder
IDF
FOREBAY
ESP
LPH 1,2,3
MILL
A B
DEAERATOR
CHEMICALS DOSING TO
COOLING WATER
DRUM SAMPLE
CPU IN LET
SAMPLE
COOLING
WATER SAMPLE
Ph=
B O I LE R WAT E R C H E M IST RY
TSGENCO
BY
RAMESH KOMMA
Senior Chemist /TSGENCO KTPP Stage-I
CHELPUR
HARDWATER
Water that reacts with soap solution to form a white scum only without producing lather easily, is said
to be hard water. Hardness Of water is two types
TEMPERORAY HARDNESS
Magnesium bicarbonate [Mg (HCO3)2 is called temporary hardness because on heating, all are
substantially removed as insoluble carbonates
PERMANENT HARDNESS
The hardness of water is due to CaCl2, CaSO4 and MgCl, MgSO4 known as permanent hardness. Since
the solutions are stable to heat at normal pressure.
ALKALINITY IN WATER
Soluble
H2S, O2,CO2 Corrosion of boiler tubes
gases
Dissolved
solids Salts of Ca,Mg, Na,Si Scale and corrosion
1. Scaling
2. Deposition
3. Corrosion of plant items
4. Effects water treatment process
The amount of solute dissolve in a solvent is called its solubility. Solubility is different for different
solutes. Solubility of compounds depends on temperature. If solubility of compound decreases with
increase temperature ,then the solubility limit may exceeded as the temperature raises excess solute
initially in the solution as will now separate from the solution as solid. It precipitate and form a hard
deposit (scale) on heat transfer surface. This could leads to serious loss of heat transfer area
When two different type of electrolytes are dissolved, interaction of ions from dissolved compounds can
lead to precipitation of third compound which may form scale on heat transfer area of plant
CORROSION
When environment favors metals converts into metal oxide by reaction with oxygen or oxygen source
such as water is called corrosion
The most common causes of corrosion are
1. Dissolved gases (primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide)
2. Low Ph
3. Attack of areas weakened by mechanical stress, leading to stress and fatigue cracking.
Many corrosion problems occur in the hottest areas of the boiler like
1. Water wall, 2. Super heater tubes 3. Deaerators, 4 Feed water heaters, 5. Economizers.
CORROSION MECHANISM
In this corrosion cell Iron anode and Cu cathode immersed in sodium chloride salt solution
At anode at cathode
Fe Fe + O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4(OH-)
The product of anode and cathode diffuse to wards one another and form precipitate of Ferrous
Hydroxide
When mild steel immersed in de aerated water treated with alkali forms magnetite Fe3O4. Magnetite
is dense oxide layer firmly adhere to metal surface, this oxide film becomes a physical barrier between
the metal and the water this is called as “passivity”
Metal poses oxide film on its surface, when it is exposed to air or water the film may crack at some
points due to differential stresses, temperature, conductive deposits
The cracked area becomes anode and remaining area become cathode, at this point it will be easier for
metal ion to leave the metal lattice (i.e. corrosion)
DIFFERENTIAL AERATION
Areas of metal where the oxygen concentrations are high will become cathode. Areas of metal where
the oxygen concentration is low will become anode this effect is known as differential aeration
This type of corrosion occur in boiler tube, water tanks, condenser tube and in the situation where
deposits impede access of oxygen
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
Under operation condition FeCl2 FeCl3 are not stable, diffuses away from reaction and forms Fe 3O4 and
HCl again. This acid is then available to attack more iron The reaction sequence produces a rapid
thickening of iron oxide layer on metal surface This process once established cannot stopped even if we
increase the alkali content.
To arrest the acid corrosion, boiler tubes are soaked with hot NaOH, Plant operated at low load with a
boiler water containing substantially excess of NaOH. NaOH slowly penetrates into corrosion area and
neutralizes acid chloride
Low makeup or feedwater pH can cause serious acid attack on metal surfaces in the preboiler and
boiler system. , feedwater can become acid by improper operation or control of demineralizer cation
units and cooling water contamination from condensers
Acid corrosion can also be caused by chemical cleaning operations, Excessive exposure of metal to
cleaning agent, and high cleaning agent concentration. Failure to neutralize acid solvents completely
before start-up has also caused problems.
In a boiler and feedwater system, acidic attack can be localized at areas of high stress such as drum
baffles, "U" bolts, acorn nuts, and tube ends.
Another effect frequently observed is Hydrogen embrittlement or decarburization of the tube metal i.e.
H2 formed in corrosion reaction reacts with carbon in alloys and form CH4. Carburization of metal
reduces the thickness of tube. The extent of carburization depends on rate of corrosion. Once the cyclic
process of corrosion and carburization established can continue even alkali concentration of boiler
water increased or boiler is taken off load. To arrest this kind of corrosion Replacement of tubes is
preferred
STRESS CORROSION
Localized concentration of dissolved salts in the evaporation section of plant causes stress corrosion
cracking. Stress conditions is may be due to operating condition, structural constraints and residual
stress in the tubing,
Stress corrosion is less common than acid chloride and caustic attack
Stress corrosion observed in mild steel and austenitic steel
1. The rate of corrosion of iron depends on different factors like temperature, fluid velocity, pH and
content of oxygen.
2. Low pH, acid solution, aerated solution is more corrosive than neutral solution.
3. High ph value and low oxygen level giving the lowest corrosion.
4. The minimum corrosion rates occur at pH value 9 – 12
5. , However serious corrosion occur in high alkaline as well as acid condition
6. Corrosion reaction also depends on rate of cathode and anode reactions
7. When large cathodic area coupled to small anodic area attack on the anode will be intense E.g.
steel bolts are used to faster copper or brass compound the bolts could sufferer very severe corrosion
A carbonate deposit is usually granular and sometimes of a very porous nature. the scale looks dense
and uniform Carbonate scale can easily identified by dropping scale in acid solution give carbon dioxide
effervescence
A sulphate deposit is much harder and more dense than a carbonate deposit because the crystals are
smaller and cement together tighter.
A Sulphate deposit is brittle, does not pulverize easily, and does not effervesce when dropped into acid.
A high silica deposit is very hard, resembling porcelain. The crystal of silica is extremely small, forming
a very dense and impervious scale. This scale is extremely brittle and very difficult to pulverize.
It is not soluble in hydrochloric acid and is usually very light colored.
Iron deposits, due either to corrosion or iron contamination in the water, are very dark colored Iron
deposits in boilers are most often magnetic. They are soluble in hot acid giving a dark brown colored
solution.
The formation of scale on boiler tubes would result in a loss of heat transfer and consequently a loss of
boiler output. If thickness of scale increases it could result in serious over heating and boiler tube
failure. Scale can be removed by chemical cleaning
Tri sodium phosphate is used to remove Ca and Mg sulphates. Tri sodium phosphate converts Ca and
Mg sulphates into insoluble Ca and Mg phosphates. These are removed by continuous blow down
But NaOH converts into Na2CO3 it is insoluble at high pressure and deposits on tube surfaces
In high pressure boiler Tri Sodium Phosphate TSP (Na3PO4) and Na2HPO4 are used as alkalinity source
If concentration of NaOH increases reaction moves to left side this is called coordinated phosphate. This
TSP and DSP maintain PH of boiler water between 9-12 and protect boiler from corrosion
In poor circulation and zone of high heat flux areas of boiler (feed and condensate). Alkaline agents like
Ammonia, hydrazine, occasionally organic amines are also used this called all volatile treatment (AVT).
Ammonia used to boost up PH and Hydrazine used to remove oxygen
PHOSPHATE VS PH GRAPHS
Phosphate Vs. PH graphs shows concentration of phosphate and at which corrosion can be minimized
Causes of corrosion are 1. Lack of control of feed water chemistry 2. Design feature
In feed and condensate system corrosion problems arises during start – up. During start – up initial
condensate formed on the steam side of feed heater tubes contains low level of ammonia (and pH) and
high in oxygen and carbon dioxide, this combination can lead to a much enhanced attack of copper based
alloy tubes
4Cu + O2 2Cu2O
If alloy contains Ni
In above process Cu metal forms a very thin film on the outside of the nickel oxide layer (exfoliation
corrosion) that readily become detached and are carried away with the heater drains into the feed water
Mild steel, alloy steel and titanium are used in feed and condensate system, greater than 9.2 PH and up
to 50µg/kg of oxygen develops stable protective oxide layer on metal surface, and corrosion can be
minimised
Oxygen levels in feed water is controlled by deoxygenating agents like Hydrazine N2H4 and PH is
increased by
ammonia NH3
PROBLEMS IN SUPERHEATER
Super heater corrosion problems are caused by a number of mechanical and chemical conditions
1. Major problem is the oxidation of super heater metal due to high gas temperatures
Deposits due to carryover from feed water (failures usually occur in the bottom loops-the hottest areas
of the super heater tubes)
2. Oxygen pitting, particularly in the pendant loop area, is another major corrosion problem in super
heaters. It is caused when water is exposed to oxygen during downtime.
Note: A nitrogen blanket and chemical oxygen scavenger can be used to maintain oxygen-free
conditions during downtime.
STEAM
Steam contains sodium salts (NaCl, Na2SO4), NaOH and silica as impurities, these impurities enters in to
steam via
1. Evaporation from boiler water,
2. Entrainment of boiler water droplets into the saturated steam
4. Spray or leakage of boiler water in to super heater steam
Low concentration of sodium salts observed in steam, form corrosion in super heater
As increasing temperature in super heater solubility of sodium salts and NaOH decrease, will deposit on
super heater tubes. Deposited sodium salts will form concentrated solution of NaOH in tube surface
and cause stress corrosion
SILICA IN STEAM
Allowed concentration of silica in steam is <20ppb. Excess concentration of silica in steam will deposit on
turbine blades leads to significant loss of unit output
When minor deposition of silica occur it will normally washed with condensate water When more
extensive deposits have been formed it may be wash with warm alkali, it re dissolves silica effectively
Silica in steam is controlled by solid alkali i.e. trisodium phosphate form silicates with silica. Then silicates
passed out by blow down
After over haul work or boiler tube repair silica concentration is high. During the over haul work or boiler
tube repair silica containing material like coal, ash and insulating material enters into boiler water. In
this case boiler can be operated with silica level of 50ppb and at reduced pressure and load un till the
concentration of silica in boiler water has been reduced
Generally silica is two types’ soluble silica and non reactive silica. Soluble silica can easily removed from
by water treatment process, where as non reactive silica can not removed by water treatment process
and carried forward with the make up water
This non reactive silica converts into soluble silica at boiler temperature and pressure
As super heated steam passed through the HP turbine, pressure and temperature decreases solubility
of sodium salts and NaOH decreases and will deposit on surface of turbine leads to stress corrosion
If reaheaters are pendent shape the condensate formed will then drain down to bottom bends with
Sodium sulphate
When the unit is taken offload and allowed to cool down condensation of steam occur in reheater lead
to re solution of the deposited salts. On return to service this Sodium sulphate solution will re-
evaporate leaving dry salt in the bottom. This cycle of on-load deposition off-load resolution and
accumulation of salt in the bottom bends of reheater leads to high concentration of Sodium sulphate
When air is admitted the reheater pitting attack of the reheater tubes and stress corrosion can takes
place which is enhanced by the Sodium sulphate
To avoid this problem, limiting the concentration of sodium and sulphate in steam and avoiding
carryover,
P R I M A R Y WAT E R F O R
G E N E R AT O R C O O L I N G
IN THERMAL POWER PLANT
TSGENCO
BY
RAMESH KOMMA
Senior Chemist /TSGENCO
KTPP-CHELPUR
In KTPP 500 and 600MW Hydrogen & water cooling system used remove the heat from stator coil
For stator water cooling the stator bars are equipped with hallow strands
MAKE UP FILTER
GENERATOR
STORAGE
MAIN FILTER
TANK
PHE
DEIONIZER
PHE
2PUMPS
NaOH
NOTE :- Filters are used to remove the debris in stator water circuits that may block stator coil because
stator coil hallow conductors are typically 1 to 3mm wide and 3500 to 12000mm long they are packed in to
the stator bar with numeric bends
Deionizer used to remove dissolved solids in stator water, in this deionizer strong acid cation and strong base
anion resin used in 1:1 ration. The deionizer resin is replaced when primary water conductivity is raised
Plate heat exchanger are used to cool the circulating stator water which gains heat in generator
Generator provided with hallows strands/conductors connected to common header at inlet and outlet of the
winding. The conductors and headers are commonly made up of copper
As the water enters into the hallow conductor , Copper comes in contact with water and forms cuprous oxide
( Cu2O) red colour and cupric Oxide (CuO) black colour depends on the electrochemical potential which
varies with temperature and PH of water. The copper Oxide forms passive layer on the inner surface hallow
copper conductor, the stability of the passive layer increases with increase in pH.
The copper corrosion low at high oxygen level but has the maximum in the 100 to 500ppb range. Also an
increase in PH reduces copper corrosion considerably, it suggest that alkalization of stator water could
bebeneficial. the rate of corrosion depends on PH and DO
The makeup water enters into low DO type stator water system, copper release copper oxide excess of the
solubility limit at operating temperature (85oC ). One part of copper oxide forms passive layer another part
moves in circuit and deposits at critical areas of the winding it is called plugging. The re deposition of copper
oxides causes blockage of strands. The solubility of the copper oxides depends up on PH and temperature of
water
pH 8 to 9
DO <100
CONDUCTIVITY
<2
at 25oC µS/cm
C OA L
TSGENCO
BY
RAMESH KOMMA
Senior Chemist /TSGENCO KTPP Stage-I
CHELPUR
Definition:
Coal is a combustible fossil fuel sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons.
Advantage of Coal:
Easily combustible produces high energy upon combustion, distributed all over the world. It is easy to transport and
comparatively inexpensive due to large reserves and easy accessibility
Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal, fairly cheaply.
The oil and gas transportation needs to setup high-pressure pipelines and back them with necessary security cover.
Most of the coal mining regions are well connected to the industrial belts by a rail network, which is again the one of the
cheapest mode of transportation available.
Disadvantages of Coal
it is Non-renewable and fast depleting. One of the biggest disadvantages of coal is air pollution. Numerous harmful gases,
including carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide and ash, are released. In fact, it tends to emit twice as much CO 2 than the other
fossil fuels.
Coal storage cost is high especially if required to have enough stock for few years to assure power production availability.
Coal power puts the lives of the people who dig the coal in danger, and it gives them poor lung quality. Coal-fired power
plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human health and the environment
A coal plant generates about 3,700,000 tons of carbon dioxide every year; this is one of the main causes of global warming.
A single coal plant creates 10,000 tons of sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain that damages forests, lakes, and buildings.
The basic function of the power plant is to convert energy in coal to electricity. Therefore, the first thing we should know is
how much energy there is in coal. Energy content of coal is given in terms of Kilojoules (kJ) per Kilogram (kg) of coal as the
Gross calorific value (GCV) or the Higher Heating value (HHV) of coal. This value can vary from 10500 kJ/kg to 25000 kJ/kg
depending on the quality and type of the coal.
The Calorific Value and other coal constituents analysed in the laboratory on ‘Air Dried’ basis is converted to ‘As received’ or
‘As Fired’ basis proportional to the moisture content.
Coal Price
COAL COAL
GCV PRICE GCV PRICE
GRADE GRADE
G1 above 7000 3896 G10 4301 - 4600 1400
G2 6701 - 700 3733 G11 4001 - 4300 1130
G3 6401 - 6700 3569 G12 3701 - 4000 910
G4 6101 - 6400 3336 G13 3401 - 3700 690
G5 5801 - 6100 3319 G14 3101 - 3400 610
G6 5501 - 5800 2360 G15 2801 - 3100 510
G7 5201 - 5500 1840 G16 2501 - 2800 574
G8 4901 - 5200 1700 G17 2201 - 2500 420
G9 4601 - 4900 1500
Heat Rate
Heat rate is the heat input required to produce one unit of electricity. (1 kw/ hr) One Kw is 3600 kJ/hr.
If the energy conversion is 100 % efficient then to produce one unit of electricity we require 3600 kJ.
Peat
Lignite
Bituminous coal
Anthracite
Peat
Lignite
Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is brownish-black in color.
It has carbon contents around 25-35%, a high inherent moisture content sometimes as high as 66%, and an ash content
ranging from 6% to 19%.
It is considered an “immature” coal that is still soft.
The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.
Lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than
higher ranking coals.
It is used for generating electricity.
Its high moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation and storage.
Bituminous coal
Bituminous Coal or Black Coal is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite coal.
The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80%; the rest is composed of water, air, hydrogen, and sulfur.
The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from (24 to 35 MJ/kg) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.
Bituminous coal is used primarily to generate electricity and make coke for the steel industry.
Anthracite
Also known as "hard coal" that was formed from bituminous coal.
It is very hard and shiny. This type of coal is the most compact and therefore, has the highest energy content of the five
levels of coal. It is used for space heating and generating electricity. Anthracite is coal has the highest carbon contents,
between 86 and 98 percent
The heat content of anthracite ranges from 26 to 33 MJ/kg on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.
Moisture
Volatile material
Fixed carbon
Ash
Moisture Content:
Water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing any chemical change to fuel.
1 g of fine powdered air dried coal is weighed in crucible. Crucible is placed inside oven & Temperature is maintained at 105
Loss in weight
Percentage of moisture = ------------------------ x 100
Wt. of coal taken
Moisture in coal evaporates during burning taking Latent heat of evaporation; hence moisture lowers the calorific value
Volatile Matter:
Dried sample from the crucible is covered with a lid & placed in an electric furnace.
Temperature is maintained at 925◦ C + 25◦ C for 7 minute. Then cooled first in air, then in a desiccator & weighed again.
Loss in weight is reported as volatile matter present in coal.
High volatile matter content means that high proportion of fuel will distill over as gas or vapour, a large proportion of which
escapes as unburnt. It will burns with long flame, high smoke and has low calorific value.
Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter and it reduces the calorific value of coal.
Ash also causes hindrance to flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature.
“Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is it’s calorific and betters the quality of coal.”
Ultimate Analysis:
Gives the Elementary composition of
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur in percentage by Weight
Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen:
Carbon:
Increase in weight of KOH tube * 12
% of C = ------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Weight of coal sample taken * 44
Hydrogen:
“Greater the percentage of Carbon and Hydrogen, better is the coal in quality and calorific value”.
“Nitrogen has no influence in the calorific value. A good quality coal should have very little nitrogen.”
Reporting:
Fuels are Heterogeneous in Nature so it is essential to report all the data analytically.
Basis of reporting
Run-of-mine (ROM).
As-received.
Air dried.
Dry.
Dry and ash free ( d.a.f ).
Dry and mineral matter free ( d.m.m.f ).
Moist mineral matter free or simply mineral free.
M I L LS OR P U LVA R I SE R S
I N T H E R MA L POW E R P L A N T
TSGENCO
BY
RAMESH KOMMA
Senior Chemist /TSGENCO
KTPP-CHELPUR
I
NTRODUCTION
The most efficient way of utilizing coal for steam generation is to burn it in pulverized form
Pulverized coal burns like gas, can be easily lightened and controlled
the pulverizer receives raw coal from coal feeder and pulverizes it to fine powder
The four principles involved in pulverization
1) Drying
2) Grinding
3) Circulation
4) Classification
Drying
In pulverizer Inherent and surface moisture of the coal is reduced by the hot from the air heaters
Grinding
Grinding of coal involves
1. Impaction: - coal is impacted by an outside force
2. Crushing: - coal is forced between two fixed objects
3. Attrition: - where the coal is ground by rubbing or friction
Circulation
With the help of primary air circulate through the pulaverizer due to the circulation of coal heavy
particles are removed by centripetal force
Classification
The circulation air is also used to classify the pulverized coal while carrying it to the burners
Classifier located at the top of the mill. It returns the oversize particles back to the pulverizer and allows
the proper sized coal to pass out the mills to the burners
Classifiers provides desired fine coal to the burners
TYPE OF PULVERIZERS
500MW 600MW
TYPE OF MILL XRP 1043 BOWL MILL
MILLOUTLETTEMPERATURE
66ºC -100ºC
RANGE
The capacity for bituminous/ sub-bituminous coal having hard grove index (HGI) as 52 and moisture
less than 9% and outlet fineness 70% thru’ 200 Mesh and 98% through 50 Mesh.
MILL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
1. Fineness
2. Coal grindability
3. Rejects
4. Capacity
FINENESS:
Fineness is the indication of quality of the pulverizer action, fineness of coal is measured by passing
100gr of coal through set of sieves i.e. 50,100,200.
A 70% coal passing through 200 sieve, 90% through 100 sieve and above 98% through 50 sieve indicates
optimum mill performance
If more than 70% coal passes through 200 sieve, power consumption and mill wears are increased
If less than 70% coal passes through 200 sieve, higher the carbon loss and fuel consumption
less than 98% of coal passing through 50 sieve indicates improper internal settings, boiler slagging and
high unburned carbon
Reduced fineness is the indication of problems in classifier vane position, loss of roller tension Roller wear
Classifier vane wear and exceeding mill capacity
COAL GRINDABILITY
The measure of the coal resistance to crushing is called coal grind ability
Grind ability of coal is measured by hard grove index (HGI) test
Moisture and ash content effects the grind ability of coal
1. A 50-gram sample of prepared coal that is uniform in size is placed inside a grinding unit
2. The unit undergoes a standard number of revolutions 60 under a specified pressure
3. Steel balls within the unit crush the coal sample
4. The coal fines are sorted and the quantity of coal less than a specified size is recorded and
converted into a Hardgrove Grind ability Index (HGI) value
HGI=13+6.93*W
COAL REJECTS
The foreign material, mixed with the coal, that cannot be g rinded is rejected by the mills and
discharged in a “pyrites box”
Rejects are the mixer of different materials such as pyrites, stones, tramp iron, Iron disulphide etc.
MILL CAPACITY
The grinding capacity of a mill depends upon the grinding mechanism and the operational conditions
NaOH
Tank DMCW overhead tank
10M3 DMCW SYSTEM IN THERMAL POWER PLANT
MD BFP TD CEP TURBINE HYDROGEN PRIMARY EXCITER SEAL OIL The DMCW system pipe line and pumps are made up
& BFP OIL COOLER WATER AIR COOLER of carbon steel and mild steel
BOILER
COOLER COOLER
FILL
PUMP The rate of corrosion of carbon is minimum in
alkaline medium