FRESH-WATER SPONGES.

N. GIST GEE.
ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION,

PEKING, CHINA.

I. WHAT THEY ARE.

a. Systematic Position in Animal Kingdom.
In the popular mind the word sponge is usually associated with the
thought of a bath sponge and all too often a clear distinction is not even
then made between the real sponge and the common substitute for it which
is made out of a porous form of rubber. The ordinary bath sponge is a
marine form but it belongs to the same group of animals as the fresh-water
sponge does and the general principles of their structure are somewhat similar.
The animal kingdom is frequently divided into two main groups,
the Protozoa and the Metazoa. The first group, the Protozoa, includes the
simplest of all animals, which consist of but a single cell. All of the life
functions are carried on within that cell. The second group, the Metazoa,
includes all animals which are made up of many cells. In this group the
cells in various parts of the animal vary in structure and in function and
are specially designed to carry out the special type of work which they have
to do in the organism. In the higher animals, the cells are very greatly
differentiated and very highly specialized thus forming complicated tissues
and organs for the accomplishment of their several functions.
The sponges are the simplest of the many celled animals and each
fresh-water sponge consists of colonies of animals which are living together.
It would be almost impossible to tell where one individual sponge in the
colony stopped and another one began. One authority holds " that
the osculum (or exhalant pore) is the sign of the individual animal and that
there are as many separate sponge individuals in the colony as there are
oscula. The metamorphosis of a single sponge larva, the development of
a bud or of a gemmule results first in the formation of a single osculum;
not until the osculum is formed can the sponge feed, grow and perform its
usual functions. It then represents a physiological and a morphological center
and from several points of view forms the most satisfactory criterion of sponge
individuality."
b. Structure.
The fresh-water sponge consists of a skeleton composed of simple,
minute, needle-like spicules of silica bound together by the spongin which
covers the supporting spicules and gives form and shape to the colony of
animals. The sponge is perforated bv numerous holes or pores which give
the name, PORIFERA, to the group. These pores are of two general types;
the smaller ones, incurrent pores or osteoles, which are all over the surface
of the sponge are so small that they are often overlooked; these are the
channels through which the water enters into the sponge carrying oxygen
and food : the larger pores, excurrent pores or oscula, are usually considerably

The Hong Kong Naturalist.

 fresh-Water Sponges „ 125

more conspicuous and are much fewer in number than the smaller ones;
these oscula are the pores through which the water, bearing the waste:
materials, passes out of the sponge. After the water enters the osteoles it
is carried all through the sponge in small canals to the numerous small
chambers which are lined with flagellated or collar cells. The small flagellate
chambers occur at intervals along the canals within the sponge. These are
somewhat spherical in shape and are lined with the cells bearing long whip-
like lashes which direct the small food particles brought in by the water
into the cell itself. After the ingestion and digestion of the food has taken
place within the cells, then the waste products are thrown off into the cham-
ber and carried out through small canals into the larger common exhalant
canals through which the water flows to and out of the oscula. The accom-
panying labeled figure is diagrammatic and shows clearly all of the various
parts of the sponge named above. (Fig. I.)

Figure t.
A. Osteole, incurrent pore; B. Gemmule; C. Osculum, excurrent pore; D. Inhalant
Canal; E. Flagellated Cells; F. Exhalant Canal (adapted from Huxley).

c. Colour.
The colour of the sponge varies a great deal with the cleanness of
the water in which it is growing. If the water is clear and clean then the
colour is usually light brown, straw-colour or, sometimes almost white in
the water. If the water contains sediment or is coloured by organic matter,
this usually penetrates into the sponge and influences its colour and there
are some specimens in my collection from such waters which are almost
black. Then again some sponges are green in colour due to the presence
of small cells of the green alg2e scattered all through their structure. This
alga is a species of the genus Pleurococcus and it grows in a symbiotic,
and not a parasitic, relationship to the sponge host. The bright green
colour is generally present only in sponges which are exposed to bright
sunlight.

May 1931.
126 N. GIST GEE
II. WHERE THEY LIVE. —;,
Fresh-water sponges may be found in rapidly running streams, in
slowly flowing or stagnant canals, in ponds or lakes, in paddy fields, or even
at times in small stagnant pools. They cannot live in muddy water or in
water containing too large a quantity of solid matter of any kind, for the
solid particles clog up the pores and small canals within the sponge and
thus kill the animals. Sponges require a very delicate adjustment of con-
ditions in order to grow successfully, but when conditions are favourable they
may be present in great abundance covering stones, piles or plants, on snail
or mussel shells or on similar supports. In one place in the canals of
Soochow, Kiangsu Province, where sponges were formerly growing in
abundance none can now be found because that canal is now travelled a
great deal by motor boats using oil as a fuel and the waste oil thrown off
from the boats forms a film over the surface of the water and this has
evidently killed the sponges. There is one small drainage canal in Tsinan,
Shantung, which is very narrow and also quite shallow and which is very
stagnant most of the year. In this place the sponges (Ephydatia fluviatilis)
grow to be quite large, often projecting eight or ten centimeters, or more,
out from the stone wall of the canal into the water. In other places and
with different kinds of sponges the growth may be of quite a different type.
There is one small, rather uncommon sponge, (Spongilla conifera) in Central
China which grows in minute almost transparent patches of only a few
millimeters in extent on the leaves of a water grass, Vallisneria. So we see
that some sponges may form minute patches only a few millimeters in size
while other more hardy forms may grow to be as large as several square
decimeters in area but still be only a few millimeters in thickness.
Sponges are not found in all fresh waters, but need to have the
chemical composition of the water just right for their growth. So far as
we know, nothing has as yet been done in studying the conditions of water
composition and temperature for sponge growth in China. This furnishes
an interesting field for future investigation.
III. HOW SPONGES GROW AND REPRODUCE.
Where the climatic conditions are favourable, sponges may live and
grow throughout the entire year. In cases of this kind they have been
observed to form gemmules sometimes during even the hottest part of the
year and yet continue to live and grow. In other cases, they have been
observed to die and disintegrate even in warm weather after they have
formed gemmules.
In temperate climates, sponges usually form their reproductive bodies
when the cold weather comes or when the water in which the sponge is
living begins to dry up. While fresh-water sponges may form new colonies
by budding or by the development of regular sexual eggs, yet the usual
manner of tiding over unfavourable conditions which we have observed is
by the formation of asexual reproductive bodies called gemmules which are
peculiar to these sponges. Gemmules are small, usually spherical, or nearly
spherical, bodies covered by one or more chitinous (spongin) layers and a

The Hong Kong Naturalist,

Plate II. Figures I and 2 Spongilla.
Figures 3 and 4 Ephydatia,
 Fresh-Water Sponges 127

coat of small spicules which is characteristic of the species of the sponge

concerned. Inside of this gemmule is a mass of cells and these are rich in
stored food materials and this can be readily used when favourable conditions
for the growth of the sponge are secured again. The gemmule represents
a kind of resting stage which takes on renewed activity when the temperature
is suitable and when the proper food and water conditions are present. When
ready for growth, the cells flow out from the small opening in the gemmule
and begin to build up a skeleton of silicon,, spicules from the water; soon a
small sponge with all of its structural parts is formed and this gradually
grows larger forming a whole colony of animals vegetatively.
In many parts of China there is a wet season and a dry one. During
the dry seasons the water level is often much lower than it is during the
rainy season and frequently the water drops below the level at which the
sponges were growing and leaves them exposed to the dry air. As a means
of preventing the extermination of the animals, the sponges usually form
large numbers of these small gemmules which lie dormant in the dried up
skeleton of the old sponge until they are covered by water and the warm
sunshine of the following spring makes them start into active life and growth
again.

Figure 2. Skeleton Spicules - various types.

Skeleton spicules vary from no to 400 microns in length and from 4 to 24 microns in width.

The gemmules may remain embedded in the skeleton of the old

sponge and develop later in that position. Very frequently, however, they
are torn from their old positions by the currents of water or by the gradual
breaking down of the old sponge and drift away and lodge in new
localities and start new sponge colonies in those places.
IV. HOW CAN THEY BE CLASSIFIED?
The skeleton of our common fresh-water sponges is built up of the
microscopic needle-like spicules of silica which are bound together by spongin.
Some of the spicules are smooth, some have minute spines or granules upon

May
128 N. GIST GEE
their surfaces: some have their ends tapering gradually to sharp points,
some have them rather abruptly sharp-pointed and still others have their ends'
bluntly rounded. While there is often great variation even in the spicules
of the skeleton, yet usually there is a more or less distinctive type of skeleton
spicule throughout the entire structure of the same sponge though they may
differ slightly in length and in thickness. We illustrate herewith several
common types of these spicules. (Fig. 2.)
The gemmules are usually covered ."by chitinous coats and nearly
always there are embedded in this covering the even more minute gemmule
spicules which are really the chief determining characteristic in the classifica-
tion of these sponges into genera and into species. The gemmule spicules
representing the three common genera of Chinese fresh-water sponges are
quite distinct types.

Figure 3. Genus Spongilla - types of gemmules.

These gemmule spicules vary in length from 72 to 106 microns, in thickness from 2 to 7 microns.

. Those representing the genus Spongilla are somewhat similar to the

skeleton spicules but are generally much smaller; they are needle-like, or
red-like, straight or curved, smooth or spined. Those types given herewith
illustrate several of the common species of Spongilla. (Fig. 3.)
The gemmule spicules in the genus Ephydatia resemble somewhat
the reel on which the films are rolled in a samera. There is a shaft with
two end disks and they are as a rule incised or indented producing numerous
triangular teeth-like points. The shaft varies in length in different species
and it may be entirely smooth or it may bear spines varying in number and
in size. The following illustrations show the characteristics of three species
of China Ephydatias. (Fig. 4.)

The Hong Kong Naturalist.

 Fresh-Water Sponges 129

a. b. c.
EPHYDATIA
Figure 4. a. E. fluviatilis; b. E. mulleri; c. E. bogorensis.
The gemmule spicules of the largest type vary in length from 70 to 80 microns; the medium
size vary from 35 to 50 microns; the smallest ones from 15 to 30 microns.

The gemmule spicules in the genus Trochcospongilla suggest to our

minds the ordinary collar studs; the spicules are usually smaller and more
delicate than those of the other two genera and have a short shaft with a
circular disk at each end. The disks always have smooth edges; though
the length of the shaft and the size of the disks may very quite a good deal.
One species of this genus is very common in the Yangtse Valley and its
gemmule spicule is like Fig. 5a. Another rarer form has its spicule like
Fig. 5b., still another like 5c.

CD -
O
O
a. b. e.

TROCHOSPONGILLAS
Figure 5. a. T. latowchiana; b. T. phillottiana var tunghucnsis; c. T. horrida var ningpoensis.
These gemmule spicules vary in length from 16 to 20 microns.

While it is quite frequently possible to distinguish the three different

genera of sponges named above from one another by examining the mass of
material, yet the only final and accurate way to settle the matter is by taking
a bit of the skeleton together with a few gemmules and boiling them in con-
130 N. GIST GEE

centrated nitric acid in a smalltesttube to get rid of all the organic part of
the sponge. After boiling, only the silica spicules are left and after thorough-
ly washing them these should be placed on a microscope slide, dried and
then mounted permanently in Canada balsam. This slide can be preserved
indefinitely and is the first essential in all systematic work. It is also a good
plan to prepare at the same time a cross section of the sponge mounted in
balsam showing the skeleton structure and sections through several gemmules.
A further aid is to prepare a third slide of gemmules from the same sponge
after they have been cleared for several days in xylol or cedar oil. With
these three slides and the original specimen of sponge in hand, it should
not be difficult to identify any of our common Chinese fresh-water sponges.
The external form of the same species of sponge varies so much
under the varying environmental conditions under which it may grow that
this is not a safe means of identifying sponges in fresh-water for those just
beginning the study of the subject.
V. WHEN AND HOW COLLECT SPONGES.
The best way to collect sponges is to take the whole mass, if it is
small. If it is large, thin and attached to some flat-surfaced support, it
should be removed from the support by means of a very thin spatula, for in
many of the sponges the gemmules are located in a thin layer at the base
of the specimen and unless one is careful to get the whole thing the layer
of gemmules may be left behind. Without the gemmules it is difficult to
make a positive determination of the species.
The best time of the year to collect the sponges from the water is
when it is already cold enough for them to have formed gemmules This
usually takes place from October on to the coldest winter weather in central
and north China. Sponges which are above the water level and are dry may
be collected at any time for they have most likely formed numerous gemmules
before they dried up. Each specimen could be carefully separated from the
other so that confusion by the mixing of spicules may not result.
VI. HOW TO DRY AND SHIP THEM.
The wet, specimens should be put aside in a shady place to dry. They
smell very badly when the organic matter is drying up and for this reason
should not be kept in one's living quarters. After they dry out thoroughly
they are almost odourless and I do not notice any decided odour even from my
large collection. I have also found them very free indeed from museum
pests. The pests, sometimes eat my boxes in which the sponges are kept
but they do not attack the sponges themselves.
When mailing sponges, wrap each specimen separately, with the
necessary data as to locality, kind of water, date, name of collector, etc., in
a piece of thin, soft paper. Do not use cotton for the fibre gets caught in
the spicules and it is very difficult to remove it altogether. Pack them
lightly, but tight enough so they will not be broken by shaking about in the
box, in a tin or strong light wooden box and send to me by parcel post.
VII. DISTRIBUTION OF CHINESE FRESH-WATER SPONGES.
Up to the present, there are 25 species and varieties of these sponges
•know from China. Out of this total 14 species and varieties are supposed

The Hong Kong Naturalist.

 Fresh-Water Sponges 131

to be new to science and peculiar to China. Some of these forms will de-
serve closer study later on and there may have to be some revision of the
above statements.
The largest number of rny specimens are from Kiangsu and Chekiang
provinces and we begin to feel that we know a little about the sponges of
those two provinces. Through the kindness of a number of collectors I now
have specimens from the following places in China: Soochow, Tai Hu,
Shanghai, Sunkiang and Nanking in Kiangsu; from Chi Jao, Chi Dai River,
Wan Dai River, Hangchow, Tung Hu, Ningpo, Kashing, Wenchow, Linhai,
Wenling, Tungloo, Taichow and Lanchi in Chekiang; from Harbin and
Mulin in Manchuria; from Shanhaikwan and Peiping in Hopei; from Tsinan
in Shantung; from Amoy in Fukien; from Canton in Kwangtung; from
Mongpan and Talifu in Yunnan; and from Tung Ting Lake in Hunan.
(The drawings for this paper were prepared by Miss Mildred E.
Gleichauf).
Explanation of Plate II.
No. I. A photograph of a piece of Spongilla showing the large number of oscula on small
rounded elevations on the surface of the sponge. (8 by 6 c.m.)
No. 2. A Spongilla forming a close covering over a twig which had fallen into the water.
The surface of the sponge is comparatively smooth. (15 by 5 c.m.)
No. 3. A cross section through a mass of Ephydatia showing the large osculum in the centre
of the sponge. (10 by 7 c.m.)
No. 4. A top view of large piece of Ephydatia, showing the ridges and valley-like depressions

May 1931.