.

BAND STRUCTURE

Outline of the Chapter

• Introduction
• Energy Bands - Introductory Remarks
• Formation of Energy Bands
• Band Diagrams
• Semiconductors
• Carrier Concentration
• MOSFET

Band Structure 1
 .

BAND STRUCTURE

Introduction
• We know: Electrons behavior in single atoms

• We will know: Electrons behavior in solids (nature

of electrical properties of solids)

• What to recall: - Bohr model of single atom;

- bonding models;
- crystalline structure;
- Pauli exclusion principle.

Band Structure 2
 .

Introduction

As a first step towards understanding band structure

and energy bands, let’s first define an energy unit that
is often used in semiconductor physics.

Electron Volts (eV)

In semiconductors, energies are usually very small and
we often use the unit of electron-volts (eV) instead of
Joules.

1 eV = Energy gained by an electron accelerated by a 1V

potential difference. We can therefore write,
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

Band Structure 3
 .

Introduction

To understand energy levels, let’s start by considering,

as a simple example, the interaction between visible light
and diamond crystal:

“Diamond is transparent to light” !

When we say light, we usually mean “visible light”.
But, to be more specific, this means photons of
particular energy. (visible light: λ ≈ 400 - 700 nm)

EPHOTON = hf = hc/λ
If we consider 500nm photons,

EPHOTON = (6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x 108)/(500 x 10-9) = 4 x 10-19 J

= 2.5 eV
Band Structure 4
 .

Introduction
♦ So we can now say that diamond does not absorb
photons with energies corresponding to visible light.
♦ When photons get absorbed in a crystal, since the
nucleus of the atoms is very small compared to the
overall diameter, we would expect the photon to be
absorbed by transferring energy to electrons.
♦ Electrons that are tightly bound to the nucleus cannot
readily change states so the photon energy is mostly
given to the outer electrons.
♦ Since the outer electrons are also involved with
bonding, photons are only absorbed if they have
enough energy to break the bonds.
Band Structure 5
 .

Introduction

A very simplistic picture of the variation of light

absorption with photon energy might look like this:

% absorbed

EBOND EPHOT
Band Structure 6
 .

Introduction

We can now say that an electron can be moved

between two states, “bound” and “loose”

“loose”
EBOND
“bound”

For diamond, EBOND ≈ 7eV

E = hc/ λ → → λ ≈ 180nm

NOTE: The source of energy to provide EBOND does

not have to be optical, it could also be thermal , or
electrical.
Band Structure 7
 .

Introduction
♦ Once the electron is “freed” from the bond, it could
move if a voltage was applied. The diamond could
then conduct electricity.

♦ If we try to obtain EBOND by thermal excitation, the

energy available is of the order of kT, where,
k : Boltzmann’s Constant 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
T : Absolute temperature
This gives kT = 25.9 meV at room temperature.

♦ Since this is much less than EBOND of diamond, we

can assume that diamond is a good insulator.

Band Structure 8
 .

Energy Bands - Introductory Remarks

♦ We can now imagine that we can create a “loose”

electron by supplying enough energy to move an
electron from one energy level to a “higher” energy
level.

♦ Since optical absorption occurs for a large range of

photon energies above the critical value, the upper
level must in fact be a band of energy.

♦ Any of the photon energy left over after breaking the

bond gives the “loose” electron some potential or
kinetic energy. → Heat

Band Structure 9
 .

Energy Bands - Introductory Remarks

♦ A simple picture of the allowed energies of the

electrons can be put up as follows:
EC
EG

EV

♦ This is called the band diagram of a material

♦ The “forbidden” region between the bands - the

energy required to “free” the electron from the bond -
is formally called the band gap, EG of the material.
Band Structure 10
 .

Energy Bands - Introductory Remarks

♦ Since we presume that the “free” electrons can move -

can contribute to electrical conduction - the upper
band is known as the conduction band, EC.

♦ The lower band is called the valence band, EV,

because it arises from the valence (outer) electrons of
the atom.

♦ So we are now in a position to formally state the

differences between insulators, semiconductors, and
conductors....

Band Structure 11
 .

Energy Bands - Introductory Remarks

♦ The terms insulator, semiconductor, and conductor

are based on everyday experience. The energy to get
an electron into the conduction band is usually
gained from heat, (thermal energy).

♦ An insulator is a material for which the bandgap is so

large compared with kT that there are almost no
thermally generated carriers.
Example: diamond, EG = 7eV

♦ A semiconductor is a material for which the bandgap is

“medium”.
Example: Si ( 1.1 eV), Ge (0.7 eV), GaAs (1.4 eV)

Band Structure 12
 .

Energy Bands - Introductory Remarks

♦ And a conductor has no bandgap.

A metal is not bonded covalently and we don’t think
of it as having a bandgap at all!

Until now, we have been looking at a simplified

treatment of energy bands.

NOW, let’s determine the origin of

these energy bands, and see how these
bands are formed…….

Band Structure 13
 .

Formation of Energy Bands

In a diamond crystal, atoms have

covalent bonds, i.e., they share
electrons.

In covalent bonds, electrons interact

due to electrostatic (Coulomb) forces.

According to Pauli exclusion

principle, no two electrons in an
interacting system may occupy same
quantum state.

A solid state is an interacting system!

Band Structure 14
 .

Formation of Energy Bands

♦ The strength of the interactions depends on the

electron separations, which are not constant.

♦ Therefore, the energy levels associated with these

bonds broadens into a band.
(all the levels for all the atoms are slightly
different, and the number of electrons is huge,
therefore we can consider all levels as a band).
♦ Obviously, the amount of interaction between
electrons in different atoms depends on how close
the atoms are.

Band Structure 15
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
HYDROGEN MOLECULE
e- e-
rA rB

H H

ψ1s(rA) ψ1s(rB)

r
d=∞
When two hydrogen atoms are infinitely separated,
each atom has 1s electron with the same wavefunction
and the same set of quantum numbers.
Band Structure 16
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
HYDROGEN MOLECULE

ψσ= ψ1s(rA)+ψ
ψ1s(rB)
As two atoms approach
each other, their
wavefunctions overlap,
r and two new molecular
a
wavefunctions with
different energies and
hence different
quantum numbers
r emerge. One is the sum
of atomic
wavefunctions, another
ψσ∗= ψ1s(rA)-ψ
ψ1s(rB) is their difference.
Band Structure 17
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
HYDROGEN MOLECULE

E
ψσ∗
Bonding
energy
Eσ*(r) ψ1s
E1s
ψσ
Eσ(r)
Eσ(a)
a ∞ Interatomic distance, r
As r decreases, the energy of ψσ passes through minimum at r = a.
Therefore, this state is energetically more favorable than two isolated H
atoms, and both electrons occupy this state.
The wavefunction ψσ corresponding to the lowest energy level is called
the bonding orbital, and ψσ∗ is the antibonding orbital.
Band Structure 18
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
HYDROGEN MOLECULE

Eσ∗ When the two electrons in

the H2 molecule occupy the
E1s E1s bonding orbital, the
Eσ negative potential energy
arising from the electron-
proton attractions is
stronger than the positive
potential energy arising
from electron-electron and
H H
proton-proton repulsions.

Band Structure 19
 .

Formation of Energy Bands

Diamond crystal
When interatomic distance decreases so that electrons interact, and
their energy levels broadens (splits) into bands.

2p (6N states)

Energy
2s (2N states)

1s (2N states)

(Assume N atoms in our crystal.)

Atomic separation
Band Structure 20
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
Diamond crystal

Conduction band “2p+2s” (8N states)

forbidden 4N
gap E 6N 2p (6N states)
G

Energy
4N 2N 2s (2N states)
Valence band

1s (2N states)
Atomic separation
Diamond crystal spacing Band Structure 21
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
Diamond crystal
s-orbital
In the single carbon atom, there
are two 2s and two 2p electrons.
The 2s and 2p energy levels are
close, so when C atoms
approach each other, the
interaction results in the four
p-orbitals
orbitals mixing together to form
new hybrid orbitals, which are
directed in tetrahedral
directions and have the same
energy. This process is called sp3
hybridization.
sp3 hybrid orbitals
Band Structure 22
 .
Formation of Energy Bands
Diamond crystal

When we further move atoms close to each other, two

hybrid orbitals of neighbor C atoms overlap and form
bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals.

In single carbon atom, the valence shell is half-filled.

Therefore, all electrons will occupy the bonding orbital.

In diamond crystal, bonding and antibonding orbitals

split and form valence band and conduction band,
respectively.
Band Structure 23
 .
Formation of Energy Bands

Conduction band “2p+2s” (8N states)

forbidden 4N
gap E 6N 2p (6N states)
G

Energy
4N 2N 2s (2N states)
Valence band

Eσ∗
sp3 (8N states) 2p (6N states)
2s (2N states)
Eσ
Atomic separation
Diamond crystal spacing Band Structure 24
 .
Formation of Energy Bands

♦ In isolated carbon atom, there are 4 electrons in the

outer electron shell (2s2 + 2p2). Therefore, in our
diamond crystal there are 4N electrons in both
valence band (4N states available) and conduction
band (4N states available).
♦ At T=0K, all electrons will occupy states with lowest
energy, therefore, they fill up the valence band, and
conduction band will be empty of electrons.
♦ Fermi energy (EF) = energy level corresponding to
highest filled electron state at 0K.
♦ To conduct electric current, there must be vacant
states in the band.
Band Structure 25
Band Diagrams
Band Diagram: Diamond
EG - forbidden gap
EC - conduction energy
EC EV - valence energy

EG Thermal energy: of the order of

kT. At 300K, ETh=25.9 meV.
EV
λ
Photons: EPHOTON = hf = hc/λ
= 1.8 - 3.1 eV
at λ = 400-700 nm (visible light).

For diamond : EG = 7 eV.

Band Structure 26
 .

Band Diagrams
Band Diagram : Metals

Conduction band

EF
EF

Valence band

Partially filled band Bands overlap

(e.g., copper) (e.g.,magnesium)

Band Structure 27
 .
Band Diagrams
Band Diagram : Semiconductors, Insulators
Conduction band

EG EG

Valence band

Semiconductor : EG < 2eV Insulator : EG > 2eV

Filled valence band, empty conduction band; separated
by forbidden gap.
Band Structure 28
 .

Semiconductors
Electrons and Holes

When the electron is excited to the conduction band, it

leaves a vacant state. This state is called a hole.

Like electrons in the

conduction band, holes
EC in the valence band are
mobile and act like
EG positively charged
EV particles. However,
holes are NOT particles.
Hole is just the absence
of an electron.
hole Band Structure 29
 .

Semiconductors
Electrons and Holes

Therefore, electrical conduction in a semiconductor

includes movement of both electrons in conduction band
and holes in valence band: electron and hole currents.

e- h+
is equal to:

Band Structure 30
 .

Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor

♦ A pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic material.

(i.e. no foreign atoms are present) Its properties are
intrinsic to that material.

♦ One very important property of an intrinsic

semiconductor is that electrons and holes can only be
created in pairs: “electron-hole pairs”

♦ Therefore in an intrinsic semiconductor, the electrons

and holes are present in equal numbers.

Band Structure 31
 .

Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor - carrier generation

At T=0K, the conduction band is empty,

e- the valence band is full. At T>0K,
electrons are excited thermally across the
h+ band gap to the conduction band, leaving
holes in the valence band. It is called
electron-hole pair generation.

Why electrons are being thermally

EC excited, though thermal energy is
EG much smaller than EG ?
EV (25.9 meV vs 1.11 eV in case of Si)?

Band Structure 32
 .

Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor - carrier generation

Due to thermal energy, the

atoms in the crystal are
constantly vibrating,
therefore, they deform
h+
interatomic bonds. Thus, in
some regions, at some
e-
moments, bonds may be
overstretched, and the bond
energy may be smaller than
thermal energy.

Band Structure 33
 .

Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor - carrier generation

In intrinsic semiconductor, the electron concentration in

the conduction band, “n” (electrons per cm3 ) is always
equal to the hole concentration in the valence band, “p”
(holes per cm3 ) :

n = p = ni
ni = intrinsic carrier concentration

♦ The process opposite to the electron-hole pair

generation is also important to maintain the steady-
state balance. This process is called recombination.
Band Structure 34
 .

Semiconductors
Recombination
When an electron in the
Conduction Band meets a
hole in Valence Band
(which means a vacant state CB
of lower energy), electron EC
occupies this state, falling EG
from CB down to VB. This EV
process is called
VB
recombination.
The excess energy is
released either in form of
light photon or as heat.
Band Structure 35
 .

Semiconductors
Recombination
The rate of recombination, ri , is proportional
to equilibrium concentration of both electrons
and holes:

ri = α n0 p0 = α ni2
e-

α : Constant
h+
n0 : Equilibrium electron concentration
p0 : Equilibrium hole concentration

Band Structure 36
 .

Semiconductors
Recombination

In steady state, the recombination rate must be equal to

the rate of generation (gi) of electron-hole pairs.

i.e. ri = gi in steady state.

♦ Recombination is a very important mechanism in

many devices, including anything with a p-n junction
in it.

♦ Recombination phenomenon may take many forms

and is used in electronics, like light emitting diodes
(LEDs), where light emission is the result of the
recombination. Band Structure 37
Semiconductors
Conduction
♦ Conduction takes place only when electron-hole pairs are
created. The energy for this creation may be:
Thermal (lattice vibrations), or
Optical (light photons) (photo-conductivity).

♦ At room temperature, the number of electron-hole

pairs, (ni) in Si is about 1.5×1010 cm-3.
♦ But there are >1022 silicon atoms/cm3.
♦ Intrinsic silicon is not a good conductor at room
temperature unless it is illuminated.
Band Structure 38
Semiconductors
Conduction

This will be evident if we look at the resistivity values:

Metal : ρ = in the range of 2 x 10-6 Ω-cm, whereas

Silicon : ρ ≈ 2.3 x 105 Ω-cm (Diamond : ρ ≈ 1 x 1016 Ω-cm)

ρ = resistivity, and R = ρ.l/A)

(ρ

To control the resistivity (i.e. to control the conductivity)

of semiconductors such as silicon, we use a process
called “doping” ……..
Band Structure 39
 .

Semiconductors
Doping, Extrinsic Semiconductor

Doping is the creation of carriers in semiconductors by

introducing impurities into the crystal. By this way we
gain extra carriers (electrons and/or holes) at room
temperature, thus changing the conductivity.

Such a doped semiconductor is referred to as extrinsic.

In extrinsic semiconductor, we can obtain predominant
concentration of either electrons or holes by controling
the nature and amount of impurities.
Predominant electron concentration : n-type semiconductor
Predominant hole concentration : p-type semiconductor

Band Structure 40
 .

Semiconductors
n-type doping
A semiconductor with an excess of electrons is known as
n-type semiconductor.
n-type Si is obtained by adding into a Si crystal small
amounts of a group V elements, such as phosphorus (P),
arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb).
Each of these elements has 5 valence
electrons. However, in Si lattice
these atoms cannot form 5 bonds
since most of the atoms are fourfold e-
bonded Si. Therefore, one of
electrons is still weakly bonded to
phosphorus
impurity atom.
Band Structure 41
 .

Semiconductors
n-type doping
Phosphorus, arsenic or antimony atoms are referred to as
donors in silicon since they donate an extra electron.

EC
ED EC ED

EV EV
T = 0K T > 50K
The energy needed to excite electrons is very small (30-60
meV), therefore, at temperatures above 50K most of the
donors will be ionized (positively charged).
At T = 0K, therefore there is NO electrons in the conduction
band. Band Structure 42
 .

Semiconductors
p-type doping
A semiconductor with an excess of holes is called p-type.
p-type Si is obtained by adding into a Si crystal small
amounts of a group III elements, such as boron (B),
aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga) or indium (In).
Each of these elements has 3 valence
electrons. Therefore, in fourfold bonded
Si lattice one of bonds will miss an
electron. As we learned, the vacant
electron state is a hole. The nearby
electron from Si-Si bond can tunnel into
this state, thus, moving hole away from boron

the B atom, which turns into negative

ion. Band Structure 43
 .

Semiconductors
p-type doping
Due to Coulomb interaction, hole gets attracted by the
negative charge of B ion and take an orbit around it. The
binding energy is about 30-60 meV.
EC EC

EA EA
EV EV

T = 0K T > 50K

Boron, aluminium, gallium and indium atoms are

referred to as acceptors in silicon since they accept an
extra electron.
Band Structure 44
 .

Semiconductors
Doping : summary

Typical dopant concentration

is about 1016 - 1018 cm-3 because
Material electrons holes at room temperature almost all
n-type majority minority dopants are ionized.
p-type minority majority (i.e. dopant concentration = carrier
concentration)
Note that this is 6 - 8 orders of
magnitude more than that in intrinsic
material. (1.5 × 1010 cm-3.)

This type of doping is called substitutional because

dopant atoms are substitutes for Si atoms.
Band Structure 45
 .

Carrier Concentration
Density of States
How to calculate the number of electrons and holes
available for conduction? We need to know:
1. The number of states available at a particular
energy that can be occupied by electrons;
2. The fraction of these available states that is in fact
occupied at a particular temperature.
From that, we can calculate carrier concentration:
∞
n0 = Ec ∫ f(E)N(E)dE,
N(E) - density of states;
f(E) - Fermi function.
Band Structure 46
 .

Carrier Concentration
Density of States
Since conduction and valence bands consist many closely
spaced energy levels, and because each level can have a
number of electrons in it, we consider the number of
available states per unit volume - the density of states
(DOS).
The DOS can be calculated quantum-mechanically. The
expressions for the valence and conduction bands are:
 8 2π
NV ( E ) =  3 ( )
 *
 m p
3/2
(EV − E)
1/2 for E < EV
 h 
 8 2π
N C ( E ) =  3 ( )
 *
 m n
3/2
(E − EC )1/2 for E > EC
 h 
Band Structure 47
 .

Carrier Concentration
Density of States

EC N(EC ) = N(EV ) = 0

N(E)=0
N(E), cm-3 eV-1
EV

Band Structure 48
 .

Carrier Concentration
Effective Mass
Suppose we have electrons in the conduction band. If we
apply electric field to a material, electrons gain energy
from the field and move across. The driving force here is:
ε ε
Fext = e , where is electric field. Then the acceleration
of electrons should be given by:
a = Fext / me , where me is the electron mass in vacuum.
However, in the solid, electron interacts with the crystal
lattice atoms and thus experience internal forces Fint .
The potential energy of the electron changes with
distance. We must write then: a = (Fext + Fint ) / me
Fortunately, we can simplify this equation ...
Band Structure 49
 .

Carrier Concentration
Effective Mass
In a crystalline solid, atoms are positioned periodically,
and thus the variation of Fint and of electron potential
energy is also periodical.
It has been found that electron acceleration is still valid
in the crystal just after little modification:
a cryst = Fext / me*
where, me* is the effective mass of the electron.
Effective mass depends on the material.
For Si :mn* = 0.3 m0 , mp* = 0.6 m0
For GaAs : mn* = 0.067 m0 , mp* = 0.48 m0
m0 is the mass of electron in the vacuum : 9.11 x 10-31 kg.
Band Structure 50
 .

Carrier Concentration
Fermi Function
Electrons in solids obey
Fermi-Dirac statistics.
f (E ) =
The distribution of
1
electrons over a range of  E − EF 
allowed energy levels at 1 + exp  
thermal equilibrium is  kT 
described by f(E) .
This is Fermi-Dirac distribution function that gives us the
probability that an available energy state at E will be
occupied by an electron at temperature T.
At E=EF, f(E) = ½. Therefore, a state at Fermi level has a
probability of ½ of being occupied by an electron.
Band Structure 51
 .

Carrier Concentration
Fermi Function

T2 >T1 The shape of f (E ) depends

on the temperature:
f(E)
T=0K
At T=0K , it is rectangular:
1
f (E) = 1 at E < EF
½ T1 f (E) = 0 at E > EF
T2 At T >0K , some probability
0 exists for states above the
EF E
Fermi level to be filled.

The relative position of f (E) is governed by the value of EF .

Band Structure 52
 .

Carrier Concentration
Fermi Function

Remember:
The Fermi function f(E) gives us the probability that an
available energy state at E will be occupied by an electron
at temperature T.

Therefore:
The probability that an available energy state is occupied
by a hole will be:

1- f(E).

Band Structure 53
 .

Carrier Concentration
Fermi Function in intrinsic material
In intrinsic material, EF lies at the middle of the band gap
Eg because the concentration of holes in VB is equal to
concentration of electrons in CB.
E
at E = EC : f(E) ≠ 0 (but small)
CB
at E = EV : 1 - f(E) ≠ 0 (but small) EC

EF

EV
VB
f(E) 1 ½
Band Structure 54
 .

Carrier Concentration
Fermi Function in n-type material
In n-type material, EF moves towards EC because the
concentration of electrons in CB is higher than the
concentration of holes in VB.
E
at E = EC : f(E) gets larger
CB
at E = EV : 1 - f(E) ≈ 0 EC
EF

EV
VB
f(E) 1 ½
Band Structure 55
 .

Carrier Concentration
Fermi Function in p-type material

In p-type material, EF moves towards EV because the

concentration of holes in VB is higher than the
concentration of electrons in CB.
E
at E = EC : f(E) ≈ 0
CB
EC
at E = EV : 1 - f(E) gets larger

EF
EV
VB
f(E) 1 ½
Band Structure 56
 .

Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations

As we already know, the electron concentration in

the CB is:
∞
n0 = ∫ f (E ) N (E )dE
EC

For equilibrium conditions, we can replace all

distributed energy states in the CB by the effective
density of states NC , located at the energy EC . This
gives:
n0 = N C f (EC )
Band Structure 57
 .
Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations
Assuming that EF lies at least several kT below EC ,
(i.e. EC - EF > 3kT), f (EC) is expressed as:
 E − EF 
− C 
f (EC )=
1
 EC − E F 
≅e  kT 
 
1+ e  kT 

 E − EF 
− C 
Therefore, we can write: n0 = N C e  kT 

3
 2π m kT  * 2
where NC is a constant: N C = 2   n
2
 h 
Band Structure 58
 .

Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations

Similarly, the concentration of holes in the VB is given

by,

p0 = NV [1 − f (EV )]
Here, NV is the effective density of states in the valence
band.

Band Structure 59
 .
Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations
Again, assuming that EF is larger than EV by several kT,
(i.e. EF - EV > 3kT):
 E − EV 
− F 
1 − f (EV )= 1 −
1
 EV − E F 
≅e  kT 
 
1+ e  kT 

 E − EV 
− F 
Therefore, we can write: p0 = NV e  kT 

3
 2π m kT  * 2

NV = 2   p
where NV is a constant:
 h  2
 
Band Structure 60
 .

Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations
 E − EF   E − EV 
− C  − F 
n0 = N C e  kT  p0 = NV e  kT 

What follows from these equations?

♦ if T increases, then n0 and p0 go up dramatically;
♦ if EF moves up towards EC, then n0 increases and p0
decreases;
♦ if EF moves down towards EV, then n0 decreases and
p0 increases.
(These equations are valid for both intrinsic and doped
materials provided thermal equilibrium is maintained.)
Band Structure 61
 .

Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations
In case of intrinsic material:
 E − Ei   E − EV 
− C  − i 
ni = N C e  kT  pi = NV e  kT 

where ni, pi are intrinsic carrier concentrations and Ei is

the Fermi level for intrinsic material;

EC − EV
Ei ≅
2
− Eg

Hence we get: ni pi = n0 p0 = N C NV e kT

Band Structure 62
 .

Carrier Concentration
Equilibrium carrier concentrations
In intrinsic material, ni = pi , thus: − Eg

ni = N C NV e 2 kT
And:
n0 p0 = n 2
i

This very useful relation is called the mass action law.

Another way of writing the same thing:

 E F − Ei   Ei − E F 
   
n0 = ni e  kT  and: p0 = ni e  kT 

Band Structure 63
 .

Carrier Concentration
Conductivity & Mobility

Electrons and holes that are able to move can contribute

to electrical conductivity. The current depends on:
♦ carrier concentration (n, p)
♦ carrier speed ( vn , vp )
♦ carrier charge (q or e)

Therefore, current density (A/cm2 ) can be written the

following way:

J n = nev n and J p = pqv p

Band Structure 64
 .

Carrier Concentration
Conductivity & Mobility
At low electric field, the carrier velocity is proportional
ε
to the field ( ):

v = µ  ε 
The proportionality constant µ is called the mobility.
vn = -µn ε
ε
vp = µp ε
The total current density is:

µn+ pµ
J = q(nµ µ p) ε = σ ε = ε /ρ.ρ. For Si, µn= 1350 cm2/Vs
µp = 480 cm2/Vs
“ σ ” is called the conductivity.
Band Structure 65
 .

Carrier Concentration
Temperature dependence
This is not quite obvious as using the equations we
derived before because:

♦ ni is a strong function of T:
3 − Eg
 2π kT 
ni (T )= 2  2  (m )
2 3
* * 4
n m p e 2 kT
 h 

♦ also, Eg is mildly T-dependent

Band Structure 66
 .
Carrier Concentration
Temperature dependence
A good description of the variation of n0 with T is
given by this figure:

Ni >> Nd dopants are ionized;

1017
at high T n0 ≈ Nd = const.
n0 (cm -3 )

1015 dopants
release
1013 Nd = 1015 cm-3 electrons at
ni T ≥ 100K
1011
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(high T) (low T)
1000/ T (K-1)

Temperature dependence of carrier concentration has 3 regions.

Band Structure 67
 .
Carrier Concentration
Compensation doping

Above we considered cases of either n- or p- doping

(n0 ≅ Nd or p0 ≅ Na, respectively). However,
semiconductor may contain both donors and acceptors.

EC
EF
ED ND > NA
Ei
NC = ND - NA
EA
EV
(here, the subscript “C”
stands for compensation)
This is compensation doping.

Band Structure 68
 .
Carrier Concentration
Charge Neutrality

In complex case as compensation doping, the

concentrations of electrons, holes, donors and acceptors
can be obtained from space charge neutrality law. The
material must remain electrically neutral overall.
Therefore, p +N +=n +N -
0 d 0 a

The consequence of this is that a material doped equally

with donors and acceptors becomes “intrinsic” again:
n0 = p0 = ni

because EF = Ei = EG / 2
Band Structure 69
 .
Carrier Concentration
Complete ionization

At room temperature, it is almost always assumed that

all dopants are ionized,
i.e., n0 = ND+ = ND .

Taking into account that EC - ED is only about 50 meV,

the probability of that level still being occupied by an
electron is extremely low. (the donor atom will easily
loose the electron into conduction band)

Band Structure 70
 .

Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

Dielectrics and semiconductors behave essentially the same

way, and as you know, the only difference is the bandgap
width.

Photons with the energy exceeding Eg are absorbed by

giving their energy to electron-hole pairs. They may or may
not re-emit the light during the recombination depending on
whether the gap is direct or indirect.

In direct bandgap semiconductors,

EC electron simply drops from the bottom of
EG CB to the top of VB, and excess energy is
EV emitted as a photon (GaAs is an example).
Band Structure 71
 .

Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

In indirect bandgap semiconductors, direct electron-

hole recombination does not take place. Recombination
process occurs in two stages via recombination centers
(usually defects) in the bandgap: electron falls from the
bottom of CB to the defect level, and then further down
to the top of VB. Electron energy is therefore lost in two
portions by the emission of phonons (lattice vibrations).
This process is also called non-radiative recombination.
(Si and Ge are the examples of indirect bandgap
semiconductors).

Band Structure 72
 .

Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

Hence, the absorption coefficient

104
α of germanium looks like this:
103
Semiconductors can look

α (mm-1)
“metallic” if visible photons are
102
all reflected (like Ge) but those
with smaller Eg look colored (like 10
CdS because it absorbs only 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
µm)
photons with λ ≥ 540 nm). Wavelength (µ

This picture is valid for pure materials but impurities can

add some extra absorption features...
Band Structure 73
 .

Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

Impurities create local levels in

the bandgap and thus allow
transitions with energies CB
smaller than Eg. EC
Recombination can be either hf1 phonons EG
radiative (produces photon) or hf2
non-radiative (produces EV
phonon) depending on the VB
transition probabilities.

p-n diodes usually contain a small amount of impurity to

promote recombination since Si is indirect material.
Band Structure 74
 .
MOSFET
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
MOSFETs make up the vast majority of electronic devices:
Pentium contains more than 3 million of them.
Cross-section: Gate length: 0.35 µm

Metal (or poly-Si)

oxide (SiO2)
Equivalent circuit:
n gate length n

p-substrate

Band Structure 75
 .
MOSFET
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor (MOSFET)

No current flows from the source to the drain because of

back-to-back diodes.

To make channel conductive, gate electrode is used.

There is an insulator between the metal and
semiconductor, therefore, electric field builds across
oxide layer if potential difference is applied.

Band Structure 76
 .
MOSFET

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor:

+ Q=CV,
+++++++++++++++ +Q
d V
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Q where C = capacitance.

C = ε0 A /d,
where ε0 - dielectric constant,
A - electrode area,
d - electrode separation.
The charge accumulates on the surface of the plates
because either extra electrons or too few electrons are
presented close to the plate surface.
Band Structure 77
 .
MOSFET

In case of metal plates, charge cannot penetrate too deep

into the metal.
Consider A=1 cm2, d=1 µm, V=10 V.
C = ε0A/d = 8.85×
×1014×1/10-4 = 8.85×
×10-10 F;
×10-9 Coulombs;
Q = CV = 8.85×
×10-9/1.6×
Q = nq, thus n = 8.85× ×10-19 = 5.5×
×1010 electrons.
Assume that typical metal has about 3× ×1023 atoms/cm3 at
the surface and that one electron per atom can be
displaced; then: ×1023 × A × l (ll - charge layer
n = 3×
penetration depth)
×10-13 cm.
l = 1.8×
Band Structure 78
 .
MOSFET

Taking a lightly doped substrate with p = 1015 cm-3, we

obtain: ×1010/ 1015 = 5.5×
l = 5.5× ×10-5 cm = ½ µm.
That means, we can create a space charge layer in the
semiconductor under the gate in MOSFET!
The charge polarity depends on the gate voltage polarity.

Three operation modes can be distinguished:

1) Accumulation mode
2) Depletion mode
3) Inversion mode
Band Structure 79
 .
MOSFET
MOSFET: Operation Modes
1) Accumulation mode. -
Negative voltage applied to the
+++++++++
gate increases the number of holes
p-type substrate
at the interface.
2) Depletion mode. +

A small positive voltage on the + + + +

gate repels holes. p-type substrate

3) Inversion mode. ++
A large positive voltage on the gate
----------
attracts electrons to the interface
making it locally n-type! p-type substrate
Band Structure 80
 .
MOSFET
MOSFET: Band diagram

Band diagrams are commonly used to describe work

mechanisms of semiconductor devices.
Evacuum •The work function
ECi
is the same for each
ECs material, therefore,
EVACUUM -EF= const.
Eis
EFm EFs •The substrate is
EVs p-type, therefore,
Fermi level is close
to VB.
EVi
metal oxide semiconductor
Band Structure 81
 .
MOSFET
Band diagram
Evacuum
χ
qχ
ϕ
qϕ
EC
EF

EV
χ - electron affinity;
ϕ - work function (energy needed to “free” electron from
qϕ
the solid).
What if we bring two materials into contact?

Band Structure 82
 .
MOSFET
Band diagram: Metal-metal contact

Pt Mo

Φ2 Φ1 -Φ
Φ2=e∆
∆ϕ
Φ1 EF2

EF1
EF1 EF2

Φ1=5.36 eV Φ2=4.2 eV ∆ϕ =1.16 V

Band Structure 83
 .
MOSFET
Band diagram: Electric Field Effect

collision
Electric field linearly collision
EF0
drops across the solid (in
the materials with EF0-eV
uniform properties).
The band diagram bends V (x)
because electron potential
energy E = -eV. V

x
Band Structure 84
 .
MOSFET
MOSFET: Band diagram
When a voltage is applied:
- inversion mode
- accumulation mode

ECi
ECi
EFm ECs ECs
Eis E
EFs EFs is
qV EVs EVs
EVi qV
EFm

EF is now closer to E V , that means,

semiconductor is locally more p- EVi
type, there are more holes near Near insulator/semiconductor
insulator/semiconductor interface. interface: Ei < EF
i.e., n-type (inversion)
Band Structure 85