doi:10.

1017/S0043933916000441

Efficacy of various post-moult feed

supplementations in poultry: an empirical
review
H. ANWAR1*, A. IFTIKHAR1, M.U. SOHAIL1, G. HUSSAIN1, M.N. FAISAL2,
J.A. KHAN2, S.A. BUKHARI3 and Z. IQBAL4
1
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Government College
University, Faisalabad, Pakistan; 2Institute of Pharmacy, Physiology and
Pharmacology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; 3Department of
Applied Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan; 4Faculty of Vet Science,
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
*Corresponding author: drhaseebanwar@gcuf.edu.pk

Based upon its economical perspective, the phenomenon of forced moulting in the
poultry industry has become a common practice to increase the productivity and
reproductive life span of birds. Different feed supplements, including vitamins,
minerals, probiotics and prebiotics have been extensively used by poultry farmers
for many years. In the last decade, researchers have reported advantageous effects
of these supplements in improving different health biomarkers of post moult poultry
birds. Therefore, including with these supplements in post moult feed is believed to
exhibit better results than moulting alone. The current review is aimed at
highlighting the empirical data available on the importance of various feed
supplements that are considered favourable in ameliorating the health status of
moulted poultry birds.

Keywords: induced moulting; layers; protein; probiotic; supplementation

Introduction
Moulting is an episode of natural rejuvenation in the life of most avian species, including
both wild and domestic. Moulting refers to periodic shedding and feather replacement,
coinciding with a decrease in the reproductive efficiency function (Berry, 2003) and body
weight loss of about 25% (Mrosovsky and Sherry, 1980). Induced moulting is not new to
the poultry industry, as it came into practice in early 20th century (Rice, 1905; Rice et al.,
1908). This practice became the most adopted tool to maintain the production potential of
laying hens until the early eighties. Most commercial farmers in the egg producing
regions of the world adopted this technique until the start of this decade. Due to the

© World's Poultry Science Association 2016

World's Poultry Science Journal, Vol. 72, September 2016
Received for publication December 10, 2015
Accepted for publication April 18, 2016 1
Supplementation of moulted birds: H. Anwar et al.

widespread criticism of fasting or severe feed-restriction moult induction methods,

scientists have developed various alternate methods of moulting. These include high
dietary zinc supplementation (Sandhu et al., 2006), low calcium (Breeding et al.,
1992) and low sodium diets (Berry and Brake, 1985), wheat middling (Biggs et al.,
2003), using barley (Onbasilar and Erol, 2007), cottonseed meals (Davis et al., 2002),
jojoba meal (Vermaut et al., 1997), alfalfa (Donalson et al., 2005; Landers et al., 2005;
Aygun and Olgun, 2010), oat (Fletcher et al., 1981; Aygun and Yetisir, 2009) and rice
bran (Santos et al., 2014) in diets.
The most significant benefit of forced moulting is the restoration of reproductive
performance of hens resulting from improved tissue efficiency, loss of adipose tissue,
gonadal development and the re-development of tissues and organs. All of these factors
ultimately improve post-moult performance (Berry, 2003; Park et al., 2004). Likewise, it
is well known that forced moulting improves male reproductive performance by
improving the volume of semen and sperm number per ejaculate (Woodward et al.,
1975; Khan et al., 2013b). The phenomenon of moulting of poultry birds has been in
practice for many years with great success; however, this success can be extended to even
a higher level by providing new ideas to facilitate moulting, which are discussed in the
following review.

Post-moult supplementations
Supplementation of poultry feed with beneficial additives has been in practice for a long
time. Various feed supplements such as vitamins, minerals, probiotics and prebiotics are
commonly used by the poultry industry. However, the use of these supplements in the
diet of post moult poultry birds is a new practice. Merging the phenomenon of moulting
with the supplementation of beneficial feed additives is believed to increase the
advantageous effects of simple moulting. The health status of the moulted birds could
be enhanced by providing various supplementation protocols which may be beneficial in
reducing the stress of induced moulting as well.

Role of vitamins
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a non-essential vitamin for avian species because they
naturally produce the gluconolactone oxidase enzyme that is necessary for the
biosynthesis of ascorbic acid (Lin et al., 2006). Therefore, no recommendation for the
addition of ascorbic acid in poultry feed has been established in feed standards (NRC,
1994). However, in a study by Zapata and Gernat (1995) on moulted white leghorn hens,
a significantly increased egg shell weight and increased egg production in the vitamin C
supplemented group was observed. Furthermore, Khan et al. (2014) observed that
vitamin C supplementation in post moult broiler breeders improved the cellular
immunity of the birds by increasing macrophage engulfment percentage. In post moult
male birds, vitamin C is considered beneficial in improving reproductive performance by
significantly reducing the dead sperm concentration and decreasing oxidative stress of
seminal plasma thorough enhancing antioxidant defence of post-moult broiler breeders
(Khan et al., 2013b; 2013c). It is well reported that induction of moulting causes severe
oxidative damage (Anwar et al., 2012b). This stress can constitute a significant factor of
physiological damage and is regarded as the cause of several pathological conditions that
affect poultry growth and development (Avanzo et al., 2001; Iqbal et al., 2001). Vitamin
C is considered very helpful in ameliorating this stress by improving the oxidative stress

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 Supplementation of moulted birds: H. Anwar et al.

index (OSI) by decreasing total oxidant status (TOS) and increasing total antioxidant
capacity (TAC) when supplemented in feed for post moult broiler breeders (Khan et al.,
2013a) and layer breeders (Iftikhar et al., 2015). Vitamin C plays a supportive role in the
recovery from liver damage caused by induced moulting by reducing the serum levels of
ALT and AST (Khan et al., 2013a).
Vitamin D (1, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) is an essential vitamin for the maintenance
of immune response, egg production, eggshell formation and calcium homeostasis in
poultry (Yannakopoulos and Morris, 1979; Aslam et al., 1998; Salvador et al., 2009). It
is synthesised from 7-dihydrocholesterol present in the skin cells, and the process is
catalysed by UV from sunlight. Generally, commercial poultry are indoors; hence, birds
are usually deficient in vitamin D and hence it is added in feed. Likewise, to compensate
for the stress incurred by moulting the birds require additional vitamin D
supplementation. According to Do Nascimento et al. (2014) adding vitamin D in post
moult diets significantly improved production performance and egg quality and improved
feed intake and feed conversion ratio of post moult layer birds. Vitamin D is required by
the embryo in order to mobilise calcium from the shell, thereby improving hatchability
(Narbaitz et al., 1987). Kazemi-Fard et al. (2013) reported increased hatchability in
moulted broiler breeder hens when given vitamin D supplementation after moulting.
Yolk colour index was changed significantly when given vitamin D supplementation
in moulted poultry birds (Park et al., 2005; Kazemi-Fard et al., 2013).
Similar to vitamin C and D, vitamin E is an important component of feed as it is
needed for the integrity and optimal function of muscular, reproductive, circulatory,
nervous and immune systems in poultry (Leshchinsky and Klasing, 2001; Rengaraj
and Hong, 2015). Vitamin E is not synthesized naturally in the avian body, hence it
is highly recommended to supplement it in feed (Chan et al., 1998). In conjunction with
extensive research on its role in pre moult cycle, its advantage during the post moult
period is as significant as that seen during first production cycle. Khan et al. (2014) and
Mahmood (2014) found that, in post moult birds, vitamin E supplementation improved
immune response by significantly increasing macrophage engulfment percentage (Khan
et al., 2014). Khan et al. (2013a) observed that vitamin E caused a reduction in oxidative
stress caused by moulting stress. In similar research it was found that vitamin E also
decreases ALT and AST levels significantly, which are an indicator of liver damage.
Khan et al. (2013b) results of semen quality parameters revealed that volume, motility
and capacity for fertilising eggs were significantly higher in the vitamin E fed group of
post moult male broiler breeders. Vitamin E causes a significant increase in the size and
area of FSH, LH gonadotrophs and lactotrophs. These results showed that vitamin E
alone may play some role in the enhancement of semen quality and growth of
gonadotrophs and lactotrophs. Vitamin E helps improve the metabolic hormones level
including T3 and T4 in post moult layer breeders (Iftikhar et al., 2015) and broiler
breeders (Khan et al., 2013a).

Role of probiotics
Probiotics are the mixed culture of living microorganisms, which have a beneficial effect
on the host by improving the populations of the native microflora (Houndonougbo et al.,
2011; Dibaji et al., 2012). The mechanism of action of probiotics includes; microbial
antagonism (Fuller, 1989; Kelly and King, 2001; Walsh et al., 2004; Mountzouris et al.,
2006), competitive exclusion (Alexopoulos et al., 2004; Berchieri et al., 2006), vitamins
synthesis (Coates and Fuller, 1977), utilising indigestible carbohydrate (Prins, 1977) and
immune modulation (Perdigon et al., 2001; Toms and Powrie, 2001; Lan et al., 2005).

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Similar to its beneficial effects during growing and production in poultry, it is equally
useful during the post-moult production period. In a study by Khajali et al. (2008) when
post-moult laying hens were provided with probiotics they had improved egg production
and better feed conversion ratio, which was attributed to recovery from moulting induced
stress. In moulted hens supplemented with probiotics, faster restoration of egg production
was observed by Anwar et al. (2012a) in the post-moult production period. In a more
recent study, better egg production in probiotic supplemented moulted laying hens has
been attributed to the increased size of gonadotrophs in supplemented birds (Anwar and
Rahman, 2015b). Similarly, Abdelqader et al. (2013) observed an increase in egg weight,
production, mass, eggshell thickness and weight in probiotic-supplemented laying hens
during late phase of production when performance was dropping. Increased total
antioxidant capacity and lowering total oxidative status and homocysteine
concentrations in post-moult layers (Anwar et al., 2012b) and male layer breeders
(Iftikhar et al., 2015) have been observed in response to probiotic supplementation.
Likewise, Sohail et al. (2013) found that probiotics are helpful in ameliorating heat
induced oxidative stress by improving oxidative status of body.
The induction of moulting impairs the cellular and humoral immune response of bird
including an increase in heterophil to lymphocyte ratio which is an important indicator of
immune stress (Holt and Porter, 1992; Siegel, 1995). Post-moult probiotic
supplementation aids in the reduction of increased heterophil to lymphocyte ratio and
is thus considered helpful in reducing immune stress incurred by moulting (Khajali et al.,
2008). Khan et al. (2013b) and Mahmood (2014) observed improvements in different
immune parameters when probiotics were given to post moult male broiler breeders.
Anwar et al. (2015a) reported an improvement in humoral immunity of moulted white
leghorn hens given probiotics. Hence, overall it can easily be concluded that probiotics
supplementation during the post-moult period is helpful in revoking the oxidative and
immune stress caused by induced moulting.

Role of protein
Crude protein (CP) is an important parameter to modulate growth, reproductive
performance and development in poultry (Forbes and Shariatmadari, 1994). Similar to
its importance during the pre-moult period, it is equally essential for post-moult birds.
In a study by Anwar et al. (2012a), immunohistochemistry of the pituitary gland
revealed a significant decrease in size and area of lactotrophs in post-moult layers fed
a high protein diet. This indicated earlier post-moult recovery with better egg production
in the protein supplemented group as compared to control group. In another study by
Iftikhar et al. (2015), when post-moult layer birds were given high protein
supplementation, a significant increase in total antioxidant capacity (TAC),
paraoxonase, ceruloplasmin and arylesterase activity while a significant decrease in
total oxidant status (TOS) and homocysteine levels were observed, which indicated a
significant decrease in oxidative stress caused by moulting. Similar results were found by
Khan et al. (2013b) in post-moult broiler breeders.
During the post-moult stage, various feeding regimens varying from low to high CP are
in practice. Traditional diets are no longer sufficient to provide the protein requirement of
post-moult birds; hence, the supplementation with additional protein gives better
production results which are of great importance in the moulted layers.
Togun et al. (2004) studied the effects of varying levels of crude protein and follicle
stimulation on the recovery and performance of 100 post-moult Nera Black hens. Follicle
stimulation was enhanced in post-moult production in birds fed the 16% CP diet.

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Koelkebeck et al. (1991) observed significantly higher body weight, feed consumption
and feed conversion ratio in post-moult laying hens fed a 16.5% CP diet. Hens fed higher
protein diets returned to egg production faster than those fed lower protein diets. Javaid et
al. (2012) recommended that a dietary level of 16% CP may be suitable for hens during
the moulting process and increases above this level (up to 18%) leads to wastage of
protein. Gunawardana et al. (2008) mentioned that increasing the dietary protein by 2-3%
could result in an increase of 6% in feed intake of moulted birds, giving improved egg
quality and production.
Among the different amino acids, methionine is one of the most important amino acids
and layer diets are generally deficient in this amino acid. Even diets with low CP but
supplemented with necessary amino acids, especially methionine (Koelkebeck et al.,
1991; Bunchasak and Silapasorn, 2005) and L-carnitine (Arslan, 2006), are adequate
to alleviate the problems of protein insufficiency. Wu et al. (2005) reported a significant
increase in egg weight of moulted hens by increasing the protein, fat, linoleic acid, lysine
and methionine. Domingues et al. (2012) found a significant increase in egg production
in post-moult hens when supplemented with lysine and methionine.
CP level is crucial for achieving and maintaining reproductive performance of both
male and female poultry birds (Zhang et al., 1999; Laudadio et al., 2012). Although
feeding a high protein diet is considered beneficial for female reproductive performance,
both high and low levels of protein in the diet can adversely affect semen quality in male
birds (Wilson et al., 1971; Hocking and Bernard, 1997). To support this, Romero-
Sanchez et al. (2008) observed improved fertility rates when fed normal CP diet
rather than a high protein diet. A study by Khan et al. (2013b) showed improved
semen volume, sperm concentration and motility in post-moult male broiler breeders
when given a 14% CP diet. Muzaffar et al. (2016) observed significant improvements in
the reproductive performance of post-moult male layer breeders supplemented with a
12% protein diet. Although high protein diets are beneficial for improving many health
parameters of post-moult poultry, in post-moult male birds a medium range protein diet is
recommended instead of a very high protein diet.

Role of minerals
Although minerals are already used in poultry feed (Parker, 2013; Świątkiewicz et al.,
2014), their use in post-moult feed is a relatively new practice. Khan et al. (2011)
observed a significantly higher egg production when zinc, copper and aluminium were
supplemented in diets for post-moult layers. Likewise, Stanley et al. (2012) recorded
greater feed utilisation and egg production in selenium and zinc supplemented groups of
post-moult hens. Sirirat et al. (2013) observed significantly improved productive and
reproductive outcomes with chromium supplementation in post-moult layers. Do
Nascimento et al. (2014) found improved egg production rate, better feed conversion
and egg weights when calcium was added to layer feed in the second cycle. Hence
producers should be encouraged to use these minerals in diets for post-moult poultry to
get better subsequent results.

Conclusions
The data available in the literature comprehensively advocates the use of vitamin
supplementation for post-moult poultry, especially vitamin C and E, to get maximum
performance and recovery from moulting. It is evident from research that induced

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moulting augments physiological stress, and oxidative stress levels increase in moulted
birds. The increased oxidative level of the body directly influences other health
parameters. Due to the severity of the impact of different moulting techniques on the
welfare, animal care agencies all around the world have focussed on this issue. Keeping
in mind the economic benefits of moulting, scientists have started experimenting with
novel techniques to minimise the harm produced by free radicals. In addition to other
novel techniques, diet supplementation, particularly with vitamins E and C can assist the
early recovery from oxidative stress after induced moulting. Other published studies
provide good support to endorse the use of probiotics and minerals in the feed. Using
various feeding strategies can assist in post moulting recovery for birds, helping with
welfare issues as well as supporting second cycle productive performance.

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