Chapter 3

System Model Representation

Dr.-Ing. Azmi Mohamed Yusof

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Content

 Learning outcome
 Transfer Function
 State Space Representation
 Block Diagram Representation
 Signal Flow Diagram

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1.0 Learning outcome

At the end of this chapter, student should be able to state and apply
the fundamental principle of control system to:-
 write the transfer function from block diagram
 write state space representation of the systems
 represent the systems using block diagram and signal flow graph

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State Space Representation
 the state-space approach as an alternate method for representing the
physical systems

Important terminology
 State  the smallest set of variables (state variables)
 state variables  the variables making up the smallest set of variables
that determine the state of the dynamic system
 State vector  If n state variables are needed to completely describe the
behavior of a given system, then these n state variables can be
considered the n components of a vector x.
 State space  The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist
of the x1 axis, x2 axis, p , xn axis, where x1, x2, p , xn are state variables, is
called a state space.
 State-Space Equations
 Suppose the system has inputs of u1(t), u2(t),…, ur(t), output of outputs y1(t),
y2(t),…, ym(t) and the state variables: x1(t), x2(t),…, xn(t)
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State Space Representation
 The system may be described by (state vector - a set of differential
equations)

 The outputs (a set of algebraic equations) y1(t), y2(t),…, ym(t) of the

system may be given by

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State Space Representation
 The state equation is
𝑥ሶ = 𝑨𝑥 + 𝑩𝑢 where, A = state matrix ; B = input matrix
𝑦 = 𝑪𝑥 + 𝑫𝑢 C = Output matrix ; D = Direct transmission matrix

How do we know the minimum number of state variables to

select?
 The minimum number of state variable required equals to the order of
differential equation describing the system
 In most cases, the minimum number of state variables is to count the
number of independent energy storage elements in the system. E.g
mass connected to springs / dampers (for mechanical system) or
inductor or capacitor (for electrical system)

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State Space Representation
Example
 A dynamical system has a mathematical model of 𝑥ሷ + 3𝑥ሶ + 2𝑥 = 𝑢. Write
the state-space representation for the system.

Solution
The state variables,  𝑥1 = 𝑥; 𝑥2 = 𝑥ሶ ( x is the only output)
The state vectors, 𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥ሶ = 𝑥2 ; 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥ሷ = −3𝑥ሶ − 2𝑥 + 𝑢 = −3𝑥2 − 2𝑥1 + 𝑢

𝑥ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0
Write into matrix form, 1 = + 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 2 −2 −3 𝑥2 1
𝑥1
The output, 𝑦 = 1 0 𝑥 + 0 𝑢
2

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State Space Representation
Example
 Find the state equations for the translational mechanical system shown
in Figure below.

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State Space Representation
Solution 𝑚1 𝑦ሷ 1

 Draw FBD 𝑏𝑦ሶ 1

𝑘(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
 Obtain the equations of motion
𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2
−𝑏𝑦ሶ 1 − 𝑘 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 𝑚1 𝑦ሷ1
𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝑚1 𝑦ሷ1 + 𝑏𝑦ሶ 1 + 𝑘𝑦1 − 𝑘𝑦2 = 0 --- (1)
−𝑘 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 + 𝑢 = 𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2
𝑚2 𝑦ሷ 2 + 𝑘𝑦2 − 𝑘𝑦1 = 𝑢 --- (2)
 The output variables for this system are y1 and y2 . Define state variables
as
1 𝑥1 = 𝑦1
2 𝑥2 = 𝑦ሶ 1
3 𝑥3 = 𝑦2
4 𝑥4 = 𝑦ሶ 2
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State Space Representation
 Thus
𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑦ሶ1 = 𝑥2
𝑏 𝑘 𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 𝑘
𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑦ሷ1 = − 𝑦ሶ − 𝑦 + 𝑦 =− 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑚1 1 𝑚1 1 𝑚1 2 𝑚1 2 𝑚1 1 𝑚1 3

𝑥ሶ 3 = 𝑦ሶ 2 = 𝑥4
𝑘 𝑘 1 𝑘 𝑘 1
𝑥ሶ 4 = 𝑦ሷ 2 = − 𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑢 =− 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑢
𝑚2 2 𝑚2 1 𝑚2 𝑚2 3 𝑚2 1 𝑚2

 The state equation

0 1 0 0
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑘 𝑏 𝑘 0
− − 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑥2 0
= 𝑥3 + 1 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 3 0 0 0 1
𝑥ሶ 4 𝑘 𝑘 𝑥4
0 − 0 𝑚2
𝑚2 𝑚2

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State Space Representation
 The input
𝑥1
𝑦1 1 0 0 0 𝑥2
=
𝑦2 0 0 1 0 𝑥3
𝑥4

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State Space Representation
Example
 Given the electrical network of Figure below, find a state-space
representation if the output is the current through the resistor

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State Space Representation
Solution
 Select the state variables by writing the derivative equation for all energy
storage elements, that is, the inductor and the capacitor
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 ; 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 Find ic and vl using Kirchoffian network laws

1
𝑖𝐶 = −𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿 = − 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑖𝐿
𝑅

𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉(𝑡)
 Substitute into above equations
𝑑𝑉𝐶 1 𝑑𝑉𝐶 1 1
𝐶 = 𝑖𝐶 = − 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑖𝐿 ; =− 𝑉 + 𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 1
𝐿 = 𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉(𝑡) ; = − 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿

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State Space Representation
 the output is the current through the resistor, thus
1
𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑅

 The state space is

1 1
𝑉ሶ𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶 0
𝑅𝐶 𝐶
= + 1 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑖ሶ𝐶 −
1 𝑖
0 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿

 The output
1 𝑉𝐶
𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑅 𝑖𝐿

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State Space Representation
Class exercise
 For a torsional system shown below (1 as the output)
 Write the mathematical model of the system
 Write the state space representation of the system

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State Space Representation
Steps
 Draw FBD/KD for each mass
 Apply Euler 2nd law of motion
 Introduce state variables
 Write the state vector
 Write the state equation & output equation into matrix form
0 1 0 0
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑘 𝐵 𝐵 𝑥 0
− − 0 1 𝜏
𝑥ሶ 2 𝐽1 𝐽1 𝐽1 𝑥2
= 𝑥3 + 𝐽1 𝑢
𝑥ሶ 3 0 0
𝐵 𝐵 0 1 𝑥4 0
𝑥ሶ 4
− 0 0 0
𝐽2 𝐽2
𝑥1
𝑦1 1 0 0 0 𝑥2
=
𝑦2 0 0 1 0 𝑥3
𝑥4

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Exercise 3.1
 Represent the system shown in Figure below in state space.

Output : x3(t)

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Transfer function
 The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function)
 For n-th order time variant differential equation

 Assuming all initial conditions are zero, it reduces into

 Taking the ratio between the output [C(s)] and in the input [R(s)],

ℒ[𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡] 𝐶(𝑠)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐺(𝑠) = =
ℒ[𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡] 𝑅(𝑠)

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Transfer function
Writing the transfer function from block diagram
 Consider the block diagram as shown below, write the transfer function

 𝐸 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) ---- (1)

 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐵(𝑠) ---- (2)
 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐵 𝑠 = 𝐸(𝑠) ---- (3)
 Substitute (2) into (3)
 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) ---- (4)
𝐶(𝑠)
 Substitute (1) into (4)  𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)
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Transfer function
 Simplify the equation
1
 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
+ 𝐻(𝑠)

 The transfer function

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
 𝑅(𝑠)
=
1+𝐻 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

R(s) 𝐺(𝑠) C(s)

1 + 𝐻 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

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Transfer function
Example
 Write the transfer function for the following block diagram

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Transfer function
Solution
 Write the equations
 𝐸 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑠 a

 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 = 𝑎
 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 ± 𝑎 = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠)
 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 ± {𝐶 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 } = 𝐺
2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠

𝐶(𝑠) 1
 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝐺 ± 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) ± 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠
2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠
 𝑅(𝑠)
=
1± 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 ]

R(s) 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 C(s)
1 ± 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 [𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 ]

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Exercise 3.2
 Write the transfer function from each block diagram

a)

b)

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Block Diagram Representation
 Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems
 When multiple subsystems are interconnected, a few more schematic
elements must be added to the block diagram.
 summing junctions
 pickoff points

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Block Diagram Representation
Topologies for interconnecting subsystems
 Cascade form
 Parallel form
 Feed back form

A. Cascade form
 Figure below shows an example of cascaded subsystems
 Intermediate signal values are shown at the output of each subsystem.
 Each signal is derived from the product of the input times the transfer
function.

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Block Diagram Representation
Parallel form
 Figure below shows an example of parallel subsystems
 Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the
algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems

 The equivalent transfer function is shown below

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Block Diagram Representation
Feed back form
 This is a closed-loop systems and the block diagram is shown below

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Block Diagram Representation
Block diagram reduction
 Block diagram algebra for
summing junctions—equivalent
forms for moving a block
 (a) to the left past a summing
junction;
𝑅 𝑠 ± 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ± 𝑋 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠)
 (b) To the right past a summing
junction
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 ± 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
1
𝑅 𝑠 ±𝑋 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)

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Block Diagram Representation
 Block diagram algebra for pickoff points — equivalent forms for moving a
block. (a) to the left past a pickoff point. (b) to the right past a pickoff
point

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Block Diagram Representation
Block Diagram Reduction via Familiar Forms
 Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer
function

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Block Diagram Representation
 Simplify / reduce the block diagram
b

𝐺𝑠 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)
a

−𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑠 − 𝐻3 (𝑠)

 𝑏𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠) ---(1) ; {−𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑠 − 𝐻3 (𝑠)}𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑎 ---(2)

 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 + 𝑎 = 𝑏 ---(3)
𝐶(𝑠)
 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 − {𝐻1 𝑠 − 𝐻2 𝑠 + 𝐻3 (𝑠)}𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) 2 3

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)

 The transfer function, 𝑅(𝑠) =
1+ 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐺 (𝑠) [{𝐻 𝑠 −𝐻 𝑠 +𝐻3 (𝑠)]
2 3 1 2

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Block Diagram Representation

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Block Diagram Representation
Example
 Simplify the block diagram

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Block Diagram Representation
Example
 Simplify the block diagram

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Block Diagram Representation
Block Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
 Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer
function

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Block Diagram Representation
Solution

 Combining V5 & V8, the transfer function is,

 𝑉5 𝑠 𝐺3 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠) ; 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠 = 𝑉8 (𝑠) ; 𝑉4 (𝑠) − 𝑉8 (𝑠) = 𝑉5 (𝑠)

 Sub. 𝑉4 (𝑠) − 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻3 (𝑠) = 𝐺𝐶(𝑠)𝑠  𝑉4 (𝑠) = 𝐶(𝑠) 1+𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐻3 (𝑠)

𝐺3 𝑠
3

𝐺3 (𝑠)
 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑉4 (𝑠) 1+𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐻3 (𝑠)

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Block Diagram Representation
 Moving block at summing junction

𝐺1 𝑠

1 1
𝐺1 𝑠 𝑉4 𝑠 + 𝑉4 (𝑠) = 𝑉
𝐺2 𝑠
1
𝑉4 𝑠 +1 =𝑉
𝐺2 𝑠

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Block Diagram Representation
V 𝑠

K 𝑠

 𝑉 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 = 𝑉4 (𝑠)

 𝑉4 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾(𝑠)
1

 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐾 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)

 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝑉4 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 + 𝐻𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑉4 (𝑠)
1 1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠

𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 +𝐻2 𝑠 1
 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑉4 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠
+
𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠

𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
 𝑉4 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺1 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 +𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠

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Block Diagram Representation

1 𝐺3 𝑠
 𝑉4 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
+1
1+𝐺3 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠
=𝐶 𝑠

𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
 𝑅𝑠 1+𝐺1 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 +𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠
= 𝑉4 𝑠

𝐺1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 1 𝐺3 𝑠
 𝑅𝑠 1+𝐺1 𝑠 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 +𝐺2 𝑠 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠
+1
1+𝐺3 𝑠 𝐻3 𝑠
=𝐶 𝑠

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Block Diagram Representation
Summary : Block diagram transformation

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Block Diagram Representation
Summary : Block diagram transformation

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Exercise 3.3
 Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer
function
a) b)

d)

c)

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Signal Flow Diagram
 Signal-flow graphs (SFG) are an alternative to block diagrams.
 SFG consists only of branches, which represent systems, and nodes,
which represent signals.
 SFG components:
 System (a)
 Signal (b)
 Interconnection of systems and signals (c)

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Signal Flow Diagram
SFG Algebra

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Signal Flow Diagram
Converting Common Block Diagrams to Signal-Flow Graphs
 Convert the block diagram shown below into a signal flow graph

 start by drawing the signal nodes for that system. Next interconnect the
signal nodes with system branches

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Signal Flow Diagram
 Convert the block diagram shown below into a signal flow graph

 Solution

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Signal Flow Diagram
 Convert the block diagram shown below into a signal flow graph

 Solution

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Signal Flow Diagram
Example
 Draw SFG for the block diagram shown below

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Signal Flow Diagram
Solution
 Begin by drawing the signal nodes

 interconnect the nodes, showing the direction of signal flow and

identifying each transfer function

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Exercise 3.4
 Label signals and draw a SFG for the block diagram shown below
a)

b)

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Exercise 3.4
 Label signals and draw a SFG for the block diagram shown below
c)

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Signal Flow Diagram
Mason’s Rule
 It’s a technique for reducing signal-flow graphs to a single transfer
functions
 Loop gain. The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that
starts at a node and ends at the same node, following the direction of the
signal flow, without passing through any other node more than once.

 Loop gain are:-

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Signal Flow Diagram
 Forward-path gain. The product of gains found by traversing a path from
the input node to the output node of the signal-flow graph in the direction
of signal flow.

 Forward-path gains are:

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Signal Flow Diagram

 Nontouching loops. Loops that do not have any nodes in common.

 Nontouching loops : loop G2(s)H1(s) does not touch loops
G4(s)H2(s),G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s).
 Nontouching-loop gain. The product of loop gains from nontouching
loops taken two, three, four, or more at a time.
 Nontouching loop gains are:

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Signal Flow Diagram
 Mason’ rule : The transfer function, C(s) / R(s), of a system represented
by a signal-flow graph is

𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑘 𝑇𝑘 ∆𝑘
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑅(𝑠) ∆

 Where :-
 k = number of forward paths
 Tk = the kth forward-path gain
  = 1 –( loop gains) + ( nontouching-loop gains taken two at a time) – (
nontouching-loop gains taken three at a time) + ( nontouching-loop
gainstaken four at a time) -. . .
 k =  -  loop gain terms in  that touch the kth forward path: In other words;
k is formed by eliminating from  those loop gains that touch the kth forward
path:

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Signal Flow Diagram
Example
 Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in Figure
below.

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Signal Flow Diagram
Solution
 The forward-path gain is:
 The loop gains are:

 the nontouching loops taken two at a time are:

 the nontouching loops taken three at a time

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Signal Flow Diagram
 form 

 form k by eliminating from  the loop gains that touch the kth forward
path:

 Finally, apply Mason’s formula. Since there is only one forward path,
G(s) consists of only one term, rather than a sum of terms, each coming
from a forward path
𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑘 𝑇𝑘 ∆𝑘 𝑇1 ∆1 𝐺1 (𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐺4 (𝑠)𝐺5 (𝑠) [1−𝐺7 (𝑠)𝐻4 (𝑠)]
 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) =
∆
=
∆
=
∆

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Exercise 3.5
 Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph shown in
Figure below

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Answer
Answer (SFG)

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