International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

An analytical springback model for bending of welded tube considering the

weld characteristics
M. Zhan a,b,∗, L. Xing a,b, P.F. Gao a,b,∗, F. Ma c
a
State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
b
Shaanxi Key Laboratory of High-Performance Precision Forming Technology and Equipment, Xi’an 710072, China
c
Long March Machinery Factory, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, Chengdu 610100, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Predicting springback is important for improving the precision of tube bending forming. Compared with a ho-
Welded tube mogeneous tube, the springback of a welded tube is more complex owing to the uneven material properties
Springback after bending and geometric characteristics. An analytical springback model for welded tube bending was established accord-
Analytic model
ing to the static equilibrium condition, with the aim of improving the prediction accuracy for the welded tube
Uneven material properties
springback. In this model, the continuous variations of the weld material properties and the anisotropic param-
Weld position
eter (contractile strain ratio), as well as the effect of the weld position were considered. Using the model, the
springback angles of a QSTE340 welded tube in numerical control bending were predicted. Comparisons with
experimental results suggest that this springback model can accurately predict the springback angle and present
higher prediction accuracy than the existing models. In addition, the influence of description exactitude about
the weld material property on the prediction accuracy was analyzed. The results suggest that the continuous weld
material model adopted can significantly improve the prediction accuracy, and the improvement degree varies
with the position of weld during bending. Finally, the effects of the mechanical properties matching between
the weld and parent metal and the geometric parameters of the welded tube on the springback were determined
using the established springback model.

1. Introduction finite element (FE) simulation and theoretical analysis. Compared

From the viewpoints of weight reduction, improved collision safety,
and cost reduction, the application of tailor-welded blank and welded
tube is becoming increasingly widespread in the automotive industry
[1–3]. Usually, the welded tube requires a bending operation for form-
ing a wide variety of structural components. When the welded tube un-
dergoes the bending operation, elastic-plastic deformation occurs. After
bending, the elastic deformation recovers, resulting in a certain degree
of springback. The springback is an elastic unloading process, in which
the elastic strain energy is released and the stress and strain are redis-
tributed. It is controlled by many factors, including the geometry of the
tube, the flow stress, the elastic modulus, and the plastic anisotropy and
so on. The springback affects the geometric precision and shape accu-
racy of the bent tube, thereby affecting the use of the bent tube [4,5].
The effective method is to predict and compensate it. Therefore, it is
important to accurately predict the springback during tube bending.
At present, numerous studies on the prediction of tube bending
springback have been performed, which can be divided into two types:
with the former, the latter can quickly and conveniently predict the
springback angle and reveal the associated mechanism, law and major
influencing factors. Additionally, theoretical analysis has greater uni-
versality. In recent years, some analytical models have been developed
to predict the tube bending springback. Some researchers [6–10] de-
rived the analytical formulas for predicting the springback of plane or
spiral bending based on the classical springback theory. The classical
springback theory employed in these studies states that the springback
moment and the bending moment are equal in quantity and opposite
in direction. However, this theory is only applicable to the pure elastic
bending process. For elasto-plastic bending, residual deformation,
residual stress and residual bending moment still exist after springback,
making the springback moment unequal to the bending moment.
Considering this issue, Zhan et al. [11] proposed a method combining
FE simulation with analytical model to derive the springback angle
formula, by substituting the distributions of the stress and strain
obtained from FE simulation into the linear unloading theory. E et al.
[12] used the triangle similarity relation of the tangential deformation

∗
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: zhanmei@nwpu.edu.cn (M. Zhan), gaopengfei@nwpu.edu.cn (P.F. Gao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.10.060
Received 16 July 2018; Received in revised form 10 October 2018; Accepted 29 October 2018
Available online 30 October 2018
0020-7403/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

to deduce a springback formula. Zhan et al. [13] derived the springback (2) The welded tube is anisotropic, and it obey Hill ’48 anisotropic yield
model of Ti-alloy tube based on the static equilibrium condition and criterion.
the compatibility of deformation, finding that the prediction accuracy (3) The shear stress, shear strain, thickness stress and circumferential de-
of the model was higher than that of models based on other springback formation are ignored during welded tube bending and springback,
theories. As commonly known, some material properties (Young’s mod- which can be expressed by Eq. (4).
ulus E and anisotropic parameter of tube, contractile strain ratio CSR),
⎧
the wall thickness t and neutral layer vary with bending deformation. ⎪𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 0 (𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 )
It has been reported that the accuracy of springback prediction was ⎪𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 0 (𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 )
⎨𝜎 = 0 (4)
improved by considering these variations [8,13-15]. ⎪ 𝑡
However, the aforementioned studies all focus on the springback of ⎪𝜀 𝑑 = 0
⎩
homogeneous tubes in bending. For a welded tube, there are differences
in the material properties of the weld bead, heat affected zone (HAZ) (4) The stress neutral layer and strain neutral layer overlap during bend-
and parent metal, and they vary continuously within the HAZ [16–18]. ing.
These uneven material properties lead to a complicated stress-strain (5) The flattening during welded tube bending was neglected.
distribution during bending. In addition, Liu [19] and Ren [20] found (6) The frictions between the dies and welded tube are neglected during
that the position of the weld affects the stress-strain distribution during bending.
bending. Therefore, the springback of welded material is more com-
plicated than that of homogeneous one. Regarding the prediction of 2.2. Mechanical basis
the bending springback for welded material, Nguyen et al. [21] and
Chang et al. [22] employed FE simulation to predict the springbacks in The deformation of welded tube satisfies the following basic equa-
the U-bend of tailor welded blank. At the theoretical analysis aspect, tions of elastoplasticity [25–27]:
Zhang [23] and Han [24] deduced analytical models for predicting the
(1) Stress equilibrium differential equation;
springback of welded tube bending. These analytical models do not con-
(2) Deformation-coordination equation;
sider the uneven material properties and the geometric characteristics
(3) Volume invariant condition;
of the welded tube, increasing the error between the prediction results
(4) Generalized Hooke’s law.
and the experiment. To improve the prediction accuracy of the welded
tube springback, it is necessary to establish an analytical springback When the material undergoes elastic deformation, its stress-strain
model considering all the above material characteristics of the welded relationship follows the elastic generalized Hooke’s law;
tube.
In this study, an analytical springback model was established for (5) Total strain theory
welded tube bending based on the static equilibrium condition, with When the material undergoes plastic deformation, its stress-strain
the aim of improving the prediction accuracy. In the model, the con- relationship follows the total strain theory. The Hencky total strain the-
tinuous variations of the weld material properties, Young’s modulus, ory for considering the elastic deformation and material anisotropy is
contractile strain ratio, wall thickness and neutral layer and the effect shown in Eq. (5).
of the weld position are considered. Section 2 presents the theoretical
⎧ [ )] [ )]
basis, including the fundamental assumptions and the mechanical basis. 1 1( 1 𝐶𝑆𝑅 (
Section 3 describes the establishment of the model. Finally, the model is ⎪𝜀 𝑥 = 𝜀 𝑥 e + 𝜀 𝑥 p = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 + ′ 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧
⎪ 𝐸 0 2 𝐸 1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅
[ )] [ )]
⎪ 1( 𝐶𝑆𝑅 (
applied to predict the springback after the bending of a QSTE340 welded 1 1
⎨𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑦 = 𝐸 𝜎𝑦 − 2 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 + 𝐸 ′ 𝜎𝑦 − 1+𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧
e p
tube in Section 4. The results would provide valuable guidance for the
⎪ 0
[
prediction and compensation of the springback in welded tube bending. ⎪ 1 1( )] 1
[
𝐶𝑆𝑅 ( )]
⎪𝜀z = 𝜀𝑧 + 𝜀𝑧 = 𝐸0 𝜎𝑧 − 2 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝐸 ′ 𝜎𝑧 − 1+𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
e p
⎩
2. Theoretical basis
(5)
2.1. Fundamental assumptions (6) Yield condition

Deformation processes are extremely complicated during welded The Hill’48 anisotropic yield criterion followed in welded tube bend-
tube bending and springback due to nonuniform material property. The ing process is shown in Eq. (6) (the derivation is shown in Appendix A).
analytic model for welded tube bending springback is developed based 2𝐶𝑆𝑅
on the following assumptions: 𝜎𝑥2 − 𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎𝑦2 = 𝜎𝑠2 (6)
1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝑥 𝑦
(1) The welded material during deformation satisfies the stress-strain (7) Static equilibrium condition
relationship shown in Eq. (1).
{ After springback, the welded tube reaches a static equilibrium state
𝐸𝜀, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜎 ≤ 𝜎𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝜀 ≤ 𝜀𝑠 that the sum of the axial forces on the cross section is zero, as shown in
𝜎= (1)
𝐾 (𝜀 + 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜎 > 𝜎𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑠 Eq. (7).
where E is Young’s modulus, K is strength coefficient, n is hardening 𝐴
exponent, b is a constant, 𝜎 is the flow stress, 𝜀 is strain, 𝜎 s is the yielding 𝐹𝜃 = 𝜎 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 0 (7)
stress, 𝜀s is the yielding strain. ∫ 𝜃
0
The variations of the Young’s modulus and CSR with deformation
where 𝜎 𝜃 r is the residual axial stress on the cross section of the bent
were considered in this study. Their variations are assumed as a func-
tube, A is the cross-sectional area of the bent tube.
tion of equivalent strain, which can be expressed by Eqs. (2) and (3),
respectively.
{ 3. Establishment of springback model for welded tube bending
𝐸0 , 𝜀 ≤ 𝜀𝑠
𝐸= (2)
𝐸 ′ (𝜀̄ ), 𝜀 ≥ 𝜀𝑠 During welded tube bending, the wall thickness of the outer arc area
decreases and that of the inner arc area increases owing to the tensile
𝐶𝑆𝑅 = 𝑓 (𝜀̄ ) (3) and compressive deformation, respectively, in these two zones. There is

595
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

where t0 is the initial wall thickness and t is the wall thickness after
bending; r is the inner radius of the welded tube, 𝜌0 is the initial bend-
ing radius, y is the distance from the measured point to the geometric
center of the welded tube, 𝜑 is the position angle, De can be written as
Eq. (10) [29].
√
𝐷e = 𝜌0 −𝑟 (𝜌0 ∕𝑟)2 − 1 (10)
The variation of wall thickness after bending is shown in Eq. (11).
( )
⎧ 𝜌0 − 𝐷 e 𝑡 0 𝜋
⎪ , 𝜑=
⎪ 𝜌0 2
𝑡=⎨ ( √
) ( )2 ( )
⎪ − 𝜌0 + 𝑟 cos 𝜑 + 𝜌0 + 𝑟 cos 𝜑 + 4 cos 𝜑𝑡0 𝜌0 − 𝐷e 𝜋
⎪ , 𝜑≠
⎩ 2 cos 𝜑 2
Fig. 1. Sketch of bent tube cross section. (11)
After bending, the elastic deformation was recovered, and spring-
a stress neutral layer and a strain neutral layer between the outer tensile back occurs. The axial strain during springback can be expressed as
region and the inner compression region. To balance the moment be- Eq. (12).
tween the inner and outer sides of the welded tube, the stress and strain 𝜌 −𝑦
Δ𝜀𝜃 = ln e (12)
neutral layers shift and no longer coincide with the geometric neutral 𝜌e + 𝐷 e
layer [28]. The offset is De, as shown in Fig. 1. De and the variation of where 𝜌e is the springback radius. Due to the large springback radius,
the thickness affect the strains in the bending and springback. 𝜌 −𝑦 −𝑦−𝐷
ln 𝜌 𝑒+𝐷 can be simplified as 𝜌 +𝐷 𝑒 .
Elastic deformation occurs first during welded tube bending. With 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒

the increase of the external load, the innermost and outermost materi-
3.2. Calculation of elastoplastic boundaries position angles
als of the welded tube first reach the yield limit, and plastic deforma-
tion begins to occur. Closer to the neutral layer, less plastic deformation
The inner and outer elastoplastic boundaries position angles (𝛼 and
occurs. A part of the material near the neutral layer only experiences
𝛽) are deduced as Eqs. (13) and (14), respectively. The detailed calcu-
elastic deformation in the entire bending process. Therefore, the cross
lations are stated in Appendix B.
section of the welded tube can be divided into two elastic deformation [( ] 1
) 1
zones and two plastic deformation zones in the outer and inner parts, 𝜌0 −𝐷e e− H 𝜀s −𝜌0 e− H 𝜀s
respectively, as shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the position an- 𝛼 = arccos 1
(13)
gles at the inner and outer elastoplastic boundaries, respectively. For a 𝑟e− H 𝜀s + 𝑡0
welded tube, the position of the weld affects the stress and strain distri- [ 1 ] 1
bution during bending and springback. Therefore, this study discusses ( 𝜌0 − 𝐷 𝑒 ) 𝑒 𝐻 𝜀 𝑠 − 𝜌0 𝑒 𝐻 𝜀 𝑠
the stress and strain distributions when the weld located in the large 𝛽 = arccos 1
(14)
deformation zone (outside) and the small deformation zone (geometric 𝑟𝑒 𝐻 𝜀𝑠 + 𝑡0
neutral layer), respectively, and establishes the analytical springback
3.3. Calculation of stress distribution during welded tube bending and
models under the above two cases. Figs. 2(a) and (b) show the cross
springback
sections of the welded tube when the weld locates on the outside and
the geometric neutral layer, respectively.
3.3.1. Calculation of stress during bending and springback
The establishment of the analytical springback model in this study
In the elastic deformation zone, the stress-strain relationship of the
mainly includes the calculations of the strain during bending and spring-
material obeys the general Hooke’s law. Combined with Eq. (4), the axial
back, the elastoplastic boundaries position angle, the stress distribution
stress-strain equations during bending and springback can be obtained
during bending and springback, and the springback angle. Among these,
as Eqs. (15) and (16), respectively.
the strain calculation is based on the deformation-coordination theory,
and the effects of De and the variation of the thickness are taken into ac- 𝐸0
𝜎𝜃𝑒 = 𝜀𝜃 (15)
count. The stress calculation follows the Hencky total strain theory. To 1 − 𝜐2
obtain an accurate stress distribution, the variations of E and CSR with
𝐸′
deformation were embedded, and a constitutive model considering the Δ𝜎𝜃𝑒 = Δ𝜀𝜃 (16)
1 − 𝜐2
continuous variation of the welded material properties was employed to
describe the mechanical properties of the weld. Finally, the springback where 𝜎 𝜃 e is the axial stress in the elastic deformation zone during
angle was deduced according to the fact that the residual stress after bending,⊿𝜎 𝜃 e is the axial stress during springback.
springback satisfied the static equilibrium condition. In the plastic deformation zone, according to Eqs. (4) and (5), the
equivalent stress and strain can be expressed by Eqs. (17) and (18), re-
spectively.
3.1. Calculation of strain during welded tube bending and springback √ √
2𝐶𝑆𝑅 2𝐶𝑆𝑅
𝜎̄ = 𝜎𝜃 + 𝜎𝐷 −
2 2 𝜎 𝜎 = 1− 𝐷 + 𝐷2 ||𝜎𝜃 || (17)
When the welded tube is bent, the thickness strain and the axial 1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝜃 𝐷 1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅
strain with neutral layer offset can be written as Eqs. (8) and (9), re- 2𝐸0 𝐶𝑆𝑅 + 𝐸 ′ (1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅)
spectively. where 𝐷 = .
2(𝐸0 + 𝐸 ′ )(1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅)
𝑡 √
𝜀t = ln (8) 1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅 2𝐶𝑆𝑅
𝑡0 𝜀̄ = √ 𝜀𝜃 2 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀𝐷 2 = 𝐻 ||𝜀𝜃 || (18)
1 + 2𝐶𝑆𝑅 1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝜃 𝐷

𝜌0 + 𝑦 𝜌 + (𝑟 + 𝑡) cos 𝜑 1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅
𝜀𝜃 = ln = ln 0 (9) where 𝐻 = √ .
𝜌0 − 𝐷 e 𝜌0 − 𝐷 e 1 + 2𝐶𝑆𝑅

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M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

Fig. 2. Sketch of weld tube cross section: (a) weld locates on outside; (b) weld locates on the geometric neutral layer.

According to Eqs. (1), (17) and (18), the relationship between the The axial stress-strain relationships of the HAZ during deformation
axial stress and strain in plastic deformation during bending is as follows are shown in Eqs. (24) and (25) [30].
(Eq. (19)):
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
( )𝑛 𝜎𝐻 = 𝜎𝑤 − ( 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑝𝑒 )(1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 ) (24)
𝜎𝜃 = 𝐾𝑃 𝐻 𝜀𝜃 + 𝑏 (19)
1
where 𝑃 = √ . 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
2𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝜎𝐻 = 𝜎𝑤 − ( 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑝𝑝 )(1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 ) (25)
1 − 1+𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝐷 + 𝐷2
For a welded tube, the material properties differ among the parent
metal, weld bead and HAZ, and they vary continuously within the HAZ. 3.3.2. Distribution of axial stress during bending
Therefore, the stress- strain behavior of materials in each area is differ- The stress distribution of the welded tube depends on the position of
ent. According to Eqs. (15) and (19), the axial stress-strain relationships the weld during bending. In this study, the stress distributions when the
of the parent metal under the elastic and plastic deformations are given weld locates on the outside of bending and the geometric neutral layer
by Eqs. (20) and (21), respectively. are analyzed.
𝐸𝑝 When the weld locates on the outside of bending, the axial stress of
𝜎𝑝𝑒 = 𝜀𝜃 (20) the welded tube symmetrically distributes about the center section of
1 − 𝜈𝑝2
the weld. Therefore, in this study, a half- tube model is used to analyze
( )𝑛 the axial stress distribution, as given by Eq. (26).
𝜎𝑝 𝑝 = 𝐾 𝑝 𝑃 𝑝 𝐻 𝑝 𝜀 𝜃 + 𝑏 𝑝 𝑝 (21)
𝑝
Owing to the narrow weld, it is difficult to determine the stress-strain ⎧𝜎 𝑤 , 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤2
⎪ 𝑝
relationship of the weld via a direct tensile experiment. Therefore, this is ⎪𝜎 𝐻 , 𝜑𝑤2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻2
usually done using an indirect method. Xing [30] adopted a mixed ma- ⎪
𝜎𝜃 = ⎨𝜎𝑝𝑝 ,
𝑜 𝜑𝐻2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝛽 (26)
terial specimen (including the parent metal, welded bead and HAZ) and ⎪ 𝑒
established a continuous weld constitutive equation based on the static ⎪𝜎 𝑝 , 𝛽≤𝜑≤𝛼
equilibrium. Accordingly, the axial stress-strain relationships of the weld ⎪ 𝑝
⎩− 𝜎 𝑝 , 𝛼≤𝜑≤𝜋
bead under elastic and plastic deformation are shown in Eqs. (22) and
(23), respectively. When the weld locates on the geometric neutral layer, the axial stress
𝐸w distribution during bending exists the following three cases according
𝜎w e = 𝜀𝜃 (22)
1−𝜈w2 to the location of the elastic zone:

(1) When the elastic deformation zone all located in the weld bead,
𝜎𝑤 𝑝 = 𝐴 𝜎𝑚 𝑝 + 𝐵 𝜎𝑝 𝑝 (23)
the axial stress distribution during bending was expressed by
(𝜙𝑚1 − 𝜙𝑚2 ) Eq. (27.1).
where 𝐴 = ,
𝜙𝑤2 − 𝜙𝑤1 − 1𝜉 (𝑒−𝜉𝜙ℎ2 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜙𝑤2 ) − 1𝜉 (𝑒−𝜉𝜙𝑤1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜙ℎ1 ) 𝑝
⎧𝜎 𝑝 , 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻1 , 2𝜋 − 𝛽 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋
𝜙𝑚2 + 𝜙𝑤1 − 𝜙𝑚1 − 𝜙𝑤2 − 1𝜉 (𝑒−𝜉𝜙ℎ2 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜙𝑤2 ) − 1𝜉 (𝑒−𝜉𝜙𝑤1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜙ℎ1 )] ⎪ 𝑝
𝐵= ⎪𝜎 𝐻 , 𝜑𝐻1 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤1
𝜙𝑤2 − 𝜙𝑤1 − 1𝜉 (𝑒−𝜉𝜙ℎ2 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜙𝑤2 ) − 1𝜉 (𝑒−𝜉𝜙𝑤1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜙ℎ1 ) ⎪ 𝑝
⎪𝜎 𝑤 , 𝜑𝑤1 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝛽
and 𝜎m 𝑝 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑃𝑚 (𝐻𝑚 𝜀𝜃 + 𝑏𝑚 )𝑛𝑚 , 𝜎 m p is the flow stress of the mixed ⎪ 𝑒
⎪𝜎 𝑤 , 𝛽≤𝜑≤𝛼
material; 𝜑m1 and 𝜑m2 denote the central angle at the left and right 𝜎𝜃𝑜 = ⎨ 𝑝 (27.1)
edges of the mixed material specimen, respectively; 𝜑w1 and 𝜑w2 denote ⎪− 𝜎 𝑤 , 𝛼 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤2
⎪ 𝑝
the central angle at the left and right interfaces between the weld bead ⎪− 𝜎 𝐻 , 𝜑𝑤2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻2
and HAZ, respectively; 𝜑h1 and 𝜑h2 denote the central angle at the left ⎪ 𝑝
⎪− 𝜎 𝑝 , 𝜑𝐻2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝛼
and right interfaces between the HAZ and parent metal, respectively; 𝜉 ⎪ 𝑒
is the coefficient. ⎩𝜎 𝑝 , 2𝜋 − 𝛼 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝛽

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M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

(2) When the elastic deformation zone located in the weld bead and According to the equilibrium condition (Eq. (7)), the springback cur-
HAZ, the axial stress distribution after bending was expressed by vature 𝜌 +1𝐷 can be obtained. The residual curvature of the welded tube
e 𝑒
Eq. (27.2). after springback satisfies Eq. (31).

𝑝
⎧𝜎𝑝 , 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻1 , 2𝜋 − 𝛽 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 1
=
1
−
1
(31)
⎪ 𝑝 𝜌𝑟e 𝜌0 − 𝐷 e 𝜌e + 𝐷 e
⎪𝜎𝐻 , 𝜑𝐻1 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝛽
⎪ 𝑒
⎪𝜎𝐻 , 𝛽 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤1 , 𝜑𝑤2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝛼
Then, during the bending and springback, the length of the strain
𝑜 ⎪ 𝑒
𝜎𝜃 = ⎨𝜎𝑤 , 𝜑𝑤1 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤2 (27.2) neutral layer remains unchanged, which can be expressed by Eq. (32).
⎪ 𝑝
⎪ 𝐻,
− 𝜎 𝛼 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻2
⎪ 𝑝
⎪−𝜎𝑝 , 𝜑𝐻2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝛼 ( )
⎪ 𝑒 𝜌0 − 𝐷e 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑟e 𝜃 𝑟 (32)
⎩𝜎𝑝 , 2𝜋 − 𝛼 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝛽

where 𝜃 r is the bending angle after springback.

(3) When the elastic deformation zone located in the parent metal, HAZ
Therefore, the springback angle can be obtained by Eq. (33).
and weld bead, the axial stress distribution after bending was ex-
pressed by Eq. (27.3).
𝜌0 − 𝐷 e
Δ𝜃 = 𝜃 − 𝜃 𝑟 = 𝜃 (33)
𝑝 𝜌e + 𝐷 e
⎧𝜎𝑝 , 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝛽, 2𝜋 − 𝛽 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋
⎪ 𝑒
⎪𝜎𝑝 , 𝛽 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻1 , 𝜑𝐻2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝛼, 2𝜋 − 𝛼 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝛽 The following will give the calculation results of the springback cur-
⎪ 𝑒
𝜎𝜃𝑜 = ⎨𝜎𝐻 , 𝜑𝐻1 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤1 , 𝜑𝑤2 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝐻2 (27.3) vature when the weld located on the different positions:
⎪ 𝑒 When the weld located on the outside the bend, the springback cur-
⎪𝜎𝑤 , 𝜑𝑤1 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜑𝑤2
vature can be obtained by Eq. (34).
⎪ 𝑝
⎩−𝜎𝑝 , 𝛼 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝛼
1 𝐶 + 𝐶20 + 𝐶30 + 𝐶40 + 𝐶50
= 10 (34)
𝜌𝑒 + 𝐷 𝑒 𝐶w0 + 𝐶𝐻0 + 𝐶p0

3.3.3. Distribution of axial stress during springback

The parameters in Eq. (34) are shown in Eq. (35).
Assuming that the deformation in springback is completely elastic,
according to Eqs. (20), (22), (24) and Fig. 2, the axial stress during
𝜑𝑤2 ( )
springback when the weld locates on the outside of bending can be ob- ⎧𝐶 = 𝑄 𝐴𝜎𝑚𝑝 + 𝐵𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑
tained using Eq. (28). ⎪ 10 ∫0
⎪
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 [ ( )( )]
⎧ 𝐸 w −𝑦−𝐷e , ⎪
′
𝑝 𝑝
0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜙𝑊 2 ⎪𝐶20 = ∫ 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑝𝑝 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 1 − 𝜈 2 𝜌e + 𝐷 e 𝜑𝑤2
⎪ w ⎪
⎪Δ𝜎 − (Δ𝜎 − Δ𝜎 )(1 − 𝑒−𝜍𝜙 ), ⎪
Δ𝜎𝜃 = ⎨ 𝑤 𝑤 𝑝 𝜙𝑊 2 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜙𝐻2 (28) ⎪ 𝛽
⎪ ⎪𝐶30 = 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑
⎪ ∫
⎪ 𝐸 ′ p −𝑦 −𝐷 e 𝜑𝐻2
⎪ , 𝜙𝐻2 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜋 ⎪
⎩ 1 − 𝜈p 2 𝜌e + 𝐷e ⎪ 𝛼
⎪𝐶40 = 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎪ ∫𝛽
Similarly, the axial stress during springback when the weld locates ⎪
⎨ 𝜋
on the geometric neutral layer can be obtained using Eq. (29). ⎪𝐶 = 𝑝
⎪ 50 ∫𝛼 −𝑄𝜎𝑝 𝑑𝜑
⎪
⎧ 𝐸′ ⎪
⎪ w −𝑦 − 𝐷e ⎪ 𝜑𝑤2 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( )
, 𝜙𝑊 1 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜙𝑊 2 𝑤
⎪ 1 − 𝜈w 2 𝜌e + 𝐷e ⎪𝐶 𝑤 0 = ∫ 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 1 − 𝜈 2
⎪ ( )( ) 0 𝑤
⎪Δ𝜎 − Δ𝜎𝑤 − Δ𝜎𝑝 1 − 𝑒−𝜍𝜙 , 𝜙𝐻1 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜙𝑊 1 , ⎪ [ ( ) ]
Δ𝜎𝜃 = ⎨ 𝑤 ⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( )
𝜙𝑊 2 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜙𝐻2 ⎪𝐶 = 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 −𝜉𝜑
⎪ − − 1−𝑒 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑
⎪ 𝐸 ′ p −𝑦 − 𝐷 ⎪ 𝐻0 ∫𝜑 1 − 𝜈 2 1 − 𝜈 2 1 − 𝜈 2
⎪ 𝑤2 𝑤 𝑤 𝑝
⎪ e
, 𝜙𝐻2 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 𝜙𝐻1
⎪ 1 − 𝜈p 2 𝜌e + 𝐷e ⎪
⎩ 𝜋 𝐸′ 𝑄 ( )
⎪ 𝑝
⎪𝐶 𝑝 0 = ∫ 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎩ 𝜑𝐻2 1 − 𝜈
(29) 2
𝑝
(35)

where C10 , C20 , C30 , C40 and C50 are the sum of the axial forces
in the weld bead, HAZ, outside plastic deformation zone of parent
3.4. Calculation of springback angle
metal, elastic deformation zones of parent metal and inside plas-
tic deformation zone of parent metal before springback, respectively;
The residual axial stress of the welded tube after springback can be
C10 + C20 + C30 + C40 + C50 is the sum of the axial forces of bent tube
obtained by Eq. (30).
before springback; Cw0 , CH0 , Cp0 are the -(𝜌e + De ) times the sum of
the axial forces in the weld bead, HAZ and parent metal during spring-
𝜎𝜃𝑟 = 𝜎𝜃 + Δ𝜎𝜃 (30) back, respectively; Cw0 + CH0 + Cp0 is the -(𝜌e + De ) times the sum of the

598
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

axial forces of bent tube during springback; the coefficient Q is shown (2) When the elastic deformation zone located in the weld bead and
in Eq. (36). HAZ, the springback curvature can be expressed by Eq. (37.2).
𝑄 = 𝑡2 + 2𝑟𝑡 (36) 1 𝐶 + 𝐶22 + 𝐶32 + 𝐶42 + 𝐶52 + 𝐶62
= 12 (37.2)
When the weld locates on the geometric neutral layer, the springback 𝜌𝑒 + 𝐷 𝑒 𝐶w2 + 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐶p2
curvatures in different situations are as follows:
The parameters in Eq. (37.2) are shown in Eq. (38.2).
(1) When the elastic deformation zone all located in the weld bead,
𝜑 𝑤2
the springback curvature can be expressed by Eq. (37.1). ⎧𝐶 = 𝑄𝜎𝑤 𝑒
𝑑𝜑
⎪ 12 ∫𝜑
1 𝐶 + 𝐶21 + 𝐶31 + 𝐶41 + 𝐶51 + 𝐶61 + 𝐶71 ⎪ 𝑤1
= 11 (37.1) ⎪
𝜌𝑒 + 𝐷 𝑒 𝐶w1 + 𝐶𝐻1 + 𝐶p1 𝜑𝑤1 [ ( )( )]
⎪ 𝑒 𝑒
⎪𝐶22 = ∫ 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑝𝑒 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑
The parameters in Eq. (37.1) are shown in Eq. (38.1). ⎪ 𝛽
⎪
𝛽 ( ) ⎪ 𝛼 [ ( )( )]
⎧ ⎪ 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 𝑒
− 𝜎𝑤 𝑒
− 𝜎𝑝𝑒 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑
⎪𝐶11 = ∫ 𝑄 𝐴𝜎𝑚𝑝 + 𝐵𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 +
∫
𝜑𝑤1 ⎪ 𝜑𝑤2
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ [ ( )(
⎪ 𝛼 𝛽 )]
𝑒 ⎪𝐶 = 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 𝑝
− 𝜎𝑤 𝑝
− 𝜎𝑝𝑝 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑
⎪𝐶21 = ∫ 𝑄𝜎𝑤 𝑑𝜑 ⎪ 32 ∫𝜑𝐻1
⎪ 𝛽
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 𝜑𝑤2 ( ) 𝜑𝐻2 [ ( )( )]
⎪ 𝑝 𝑝
− 𝜎𝑝𝑝 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑
⎪𝐶31 = −𝑄 𝐴𝜎𝑚𝑝 + 𝐵𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 ⎪ +
∫𝛼
𝑄 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑤
⎪ ∫𝛼
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 𝜑𝑤1 [ ( )( )] ⎪ 𝜑𝐻1 2𝜋
⎪𝐶 = 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 𝑝
− 𝜎𝑤 𝑝
− 𝜎𝑝𝑝 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑 ⎪𝐶42 = 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 + 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 41 ∫𝜑𝐻1 ⎪ ∫0 ∫2𝜋−𝛽
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 [ ( )(
⎪ 𝑝 𝑝 )] ⎨ 2𝜋−𝛽
⎪ + 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑝𝑝 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑 ⎪𝐶 = 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝜑
∫𝜑𝑤2 ⎪ 52 ∫2𝜋−𝛼
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 𝜑𝐻1 2𝜋 2𝜋−𝛼
𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 + 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 ⎪
⎪𝐶51 = ⎪𝐶62 = ∫ −𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑
⎪ ∫ ∫2𝜋−𝛽
0
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2
⎪ ⎪
⎨ 2𝜋−𝛽 ⎪ 𝜑𝑤2 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 (
⎪𝐶 = )
𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝜑 ⎪𝐶 𝑤 2 = 𝑤
𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 61 ∫2𝜋−𝛼 ⎪ ∫𝜑𝑤1 1 − 𝜐2
⎪ ⎪
𝑤
⎪ ⎪ [ ( ) ]
2𝜋−𝛼
⎪ ⎪ 𝜑𝑤1 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( )
⎪𝐶71 = ∫ −𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 −𝜉𝜑
⎪𝐶𝐻2 = ∫ −
𝜐
−
𝜐
−
𝜐
1−𝑒 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑+
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2
⎪ 𝜑 𝐻1
1 − 2
𝑤 1 − 2
𝑤 1 − 2
𝑝
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 𝜑𝑤2 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( ) [ ( ) ]
𝑤 ⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( )
⎪𝐶 𝑤 1 = 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑 ⎪
⎪ ∫𝜑𝑤1 1 − 𝜐2 − − − 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑
𝑤 ⎪ ∫𝜑𝑤2 1 − 𝜐𝑤 2 1 − 𝜐𝑤 1 − 𝜐𝑝
2 2
⎪ ⎪
⎪ [ ( ) ]
𝜑𝑤1 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( ) ⎪
⎪ −𝜉𝜑 ⎪ 𝜑𝐻1 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( ) 2𝜋 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( )
𝐶
⎪ 𝐻1 ∫ = − − − 1 − 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑+ 𝑝 𝑝
𝜑 1 − 𝜐 2 1 − 𝜐 2 1 − 𝜐 2 ⎪𝐶 𝑝 2 = ∫ 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑 +
∫
𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 𝐻1 𝑤 𝑤 𝑝 ⎩ 0 1 − 𝜐𝑝 2
𝜑𝐻2 1 − 𝜐𝑝
2
⎪ [ ( ) ]
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( )
(38.2)
⎪ − − − 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑
⎪ ∫𝜑𝑤2 1 − 𝜐2𝑤 1 − 𝜐2𝑤 1 − 𝜐2𝑝
⎪ where C12 is the sum of the axial forces in the elastic deformation zones
⎪ 𝜑𝐻1 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( 2𝜋 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( of weld bead before springback; C22 is the sum of the axial forces in the
⎪ 𝑝 ) 𝑝 )
⎪𝐶 𝑝 1 = ∫ 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑 +
∫𝜑𝐻2 1 − 𝜐2
𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑 elastic deformation zone of HAZ before springback; C32 is the sum of the
⎩ 0 1−𝜐 𝑝
2
𝑝 axial forces in the plastic deformation zone of HAZ before springback;
(38.1) C42 is the sum of the axial forces in the outside plastic deformation zone
of parent metal before springback; C52 is the sum of the axial forces
where C11 is the sum of the axial forces in the outside plastic defor- in the elastic deformation zone of parent metal before springback; C62
mation zone of weld bead before springback; C21 is the sum of the ax- is the sum of the axial forces in the inside plastic deformation zone of
ial forces in the elastic deformation zones of weld bead before spring- parent metal before springback; C12 + C22 + C32 + C42 + C52 + C62 is the
back; C31 is the sum of the axial forces in the inside plastic deforma- sum of the axial forces of bent tube before springback; Cw2 , CH2 , Cp2
tion zone of weld bead before springback; C41 is the sum of the axial are the -(𝜌e + De ) times the sum of the axial forces in the weld bead,
forces in the HAZ before springback; C51 is the sum of the axial forces HAZ and parent metal during springback, respectively; Cw2 + CH2 + Cp2
in the outside plastic deformation zone of parent metal before spring- is the -(𝜌e + De ) times the sum of the axial forces of bent tube during
back; C61 is the sum of the axial forces in the elastic deformation zone springback;
of parent metal before springback; C71 is the sum of the axial forces in
the inside plastic deformation zone of parent metal before springback; (3) When the elastic deformation zone located in the parent metal,
C11 + C21 + C31 + C41 + C51 + C61 + C71 is the sum of the axial forces of HAZ and weld bead, the springback curvature can be expressed
bent tube before springback; Cw1 , CH1 , Cp1 are the -(𝜌e + De ) times the by Eq. (37.3).
sum of the axial forces in the weld bead, HAZ and parent metal during
springback, respectively; Cw1 + CH1 + Cp1 is the -(𝜌e + De ) times the sum 1 𝐶 + 𝐶23 + 𝐶33 + 𝐶43 + 𝐶53
= 13 (37.3)
of the axial forces of bent tube during springback; 𝜌𝑒 + 𝐷 𝑒 𝐶w3 + 𝐶𝐻3 + 𝐶p3

599
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

Fig. 3. The flow chart of developing analytical springback model for welded tube bending.

Table 1
The parameters in Eq. (37.3) are shown in Eq. (38.3).
Material parameters of the QSTE340 welded tube.
⎧ 𝜑𝑤2
𝑒 Parameters Parent Mixed material Weld bead HAZ
⎪𝐶13 = ∫ 𝑄𝜎𝑤 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 𝜑𝑤1 K/MPa 764.663 619.402 – –
⎪ n 0.266 0.048 – –
⎪ 𝜑𝑤1 [ ( )( )]
𝑒 𝑒
⎪𝐶23 = 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑤 − 𝜎𝑝𝑒 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑 b −0.1640 −0.0108 – –
⎪ ∫ 𝜑𝐻1 E0 /MPa 244,668 248,954 249,608 –
⎪ 𝜐 0.291 0.336 0.336 –
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 [ ( )( )] A – – 2.590 –
⎪ + 𝑄 𝜎𝑤 𝑒
− 𝜎𝑤 𝑒
− 𝜎𝑝𝑒 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑑𝜑 B – – −1.580 –
⎪ ∫𝜑𝑤2 𝜉 – – – 8.88
⎪
⎪ 𝛽 2𝜋
⎪ 𝑝
⎪𝐶33 = ∫ 𝑄𝜎𝑝 𝑑𝜑 + ∫ 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 0 2𝜋−𝛽 springback, respectively; Cw3 + CH3 + Cp3 is the -(𝜌e + De ) times the sum
⎪ of the axial forces of bent tube during springback.
⎪ 𝜑𝐻1 𝛼 2𝜋−𝛽
⎪𝐶43 = 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝜑 + 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝜑 + 𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎪ ∫𝛽 ∫𝜑𝐻2 ∫2𝜋−𝛼
⎪ 3.5. Implementation procedure
⎨ 2𝜋−𝛼
⎪𝐶 = −𝑄𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝜑 The detailed flow chart used to develop analytical springback model
⎪ 53 ∫𝛼
⎪ for welded tube bending is shown in Fig. 3.
⎪
𝜑𝑤2 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( )
⎪ 𝑤
⎪𝐶 𝑤 3 = ∫ 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑 4. Application of springback model for welded tube bending
⎪ 𝜑 𝑤1
1 − 𝜐 2
𝑤
⎪ [ ( ) ]
⎪ 𝜑𝑤1 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( )
First, the established analytical springback model was used to predict
⎪𝐶 = 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 −𝜉𝜑
− − − 1−𝑒 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑+ the springback angle of a QSTE340 welded tube in numerical control
⎪ 𝐻3 ∫𝜑 1 − 𝜐2 1 − 𝜐2 1 − 𝜐 2
⎪ 𝐻1 𝑤 𝑤 𝑝 (NC) bending. Then, the accuracy was evaluated via comparison with
⎪ [ ( ) ] other models and experimental results, and the influence of description
⎪ 𝜑𝐻2 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑤 𝐸′𝑝 ( ) ( )
⎪ − − − 1 − 𝑒−𝜉𝜑 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 Qd𝜑 exactitude about the weld material property on the prediction accuracy
⎪ ∫𝜑𝑤2 1 − 𝜐2𝑤 1 − 𝜐2𝑤 1 − 𝜐2𝑝 was analyzed. Finally, the influences of mechanical properties matching
⎪ between the weld and parent metal and the geometric parameters of the
⎪ 𝜑𝐻1 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( ) 2𝜋 𝐸 ′ 𝑄 ( )
⎪𝐶 = 𝑝 𝑝 welded tube on the springback were studied.
𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑 + 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑑𝜑
⎪ 𝑝3 ∫0 1 − 𝜐 2 ∫𝜑 1 − 𝜐2
⎩ 𝑝 𝐻2 𝑝

(38.3) 4.1. Prediction of springback angle of QSTE340 welded tube bending

where C13 the sum of the axial forces in the elastic deformation zones
of weld bead before springback; C23 is the sum of the axial forces in the
elastic deformation zones of HAZ before springback; C33 is the sum of
the axial forces in the outside plastic deformation zone of parent metal
before springback; C43 is the sum of the axial forces in the elastic de-
formation zone of parent metal before springback; C53 is the sum of the
axial forces in the inside plastic deformation zone of parent metal before
springback; C13 + C23 + C33 + C43 + C53 is the sum of the axial forces of
bent tube before springback; Cw3 , CH3 , Cp3 are the -(𝜌e + De ) times the
sum of the axial forces in the weld bead, HAZ and parent metal during
A QSTE340 welded tube with an initial outside diameter of 60 mm
and a wall thickness of 4 mm (D60 mm × t4 mm) was analyzed in this
study. The material parameters of this welded tube are shown in Table 1
[30,31]. The widths of the weld bead and HAZ were 0.4 and 13 mm,
respectively [30].
The variation of the Young’s modulus E with strain of the parent
metal was determined through a cyclic loading-unloading experiment
and linear fitting the stress-strain relations in elastic stage of each load-
ing curve, as shown in Fig. 4(a). The variation of the CSR with strain of
the parent metal was measured continuously through a uniaxial tensile

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Fig. 4. The variations of (a) E (b) CSR with equivalent strain.
Fig. 5. The bending experimental installation for the QSTE340 welded tube.
test based on digital image correlation (DIC) technology [15], as shown
in Fig. 4(b). As shown in Fig. 4(a), the Young’s modulus gradually de-
creases with the increase of the equivalent strain and then becomes sta-
ble. In Fig. 4(b), the CSR first increases rapidly and then increases slowly
with the increase of the equivalent strain. Their variation trends can be
described by the exponential function, and the fitting results are shown
in Eqs. (39) and (40), respectively. In this study, it is assumed that the
E and CSR of the weld and parent metal have the same variation laws
during the deformation.
𝐸 ′ = 163.31 + 92.04𝑒−32.44𝜀̄ (39)
𝐶𝑆𝑅 = −1.46𝑒−373.35𝜀̄ − 0.35𝑒−79.24𝜀̄ + 0.79 (40)
Bending experiments of the QSTE340 welded tube were conducted
on a GQ W27YPC-159 rotary bender. The bending experimental instal-
lation mainly includes a bending die, a wiper die, a clamping die, a
pressure die, a cylindrical mandrel and several balls, as shown in Fig. 5.
The bending parameters for the QSTE340 welded tube are shown in
Table 2. After springback, the bending angle was measured using a uni-
versal bevel protractor.
Fig. 6 shows the springback angles predicted by the analytical model
obtained in this study and the experimental results. As can be seen from
Fig. 6, the springback angles gradually increase as the bending angle in-
creases, and this increasing trend is linear in the predicted result. When
the weld locates on the outside of bending (Fig. 6(a)), the predicted
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Table 2
Bending parameters of QSTE340 welded
tube.
Parameters Value
Mandrel diameter /mm 51
Bending radius /mm 180
Ball diameter /mm 50.9
Ball thickness /mm 20
Mandrel extension length /mm 5
Number of balls 2
results are lower than the experimental results, and the difference be-
tween them gradually decreases as the bending angle increases. Simi-
larly, when the weld locates on the geometric neutral layer (Fig. 6(b)),
the predicted values become closer to the experimental results as the
bending angle increases.
To intuitively observe the differences between the analytical and
experimental results, the relative errors were obtained, as shown in
Fig. 7. As seen from Fig. 7, there are differences between the analyti-
cal model and experimental results. The possible reasons for these dif-
ferences come from two aspects. On the one hand, the operational pa-
rameters are not considered in the analytical model. However, Gu et al.
[32] and Xu et al. [33] stated that the operational parameters have an
effect on the springback, and the springback decreases with the increase
of the mandrel extension length lm and increases with the increase of the
friction and clearance between the dies and the tube. On the other hand,
during the practical bending process, a certain degree of cross-sectional
flattening occurs. In this study, the flattening in the experiment is within
3%. This flattening will lead to a certain decrease in springback. How-
ever, this effect was neglected in the analytical model of the present
study. Specially, as can be seen from Fig. 7(a), when the bending an-
gle is 30°, the error of the predicted result relative to the experimental
results reaches 41.81%. With the increase of the bending angle, the rel-
ative error gradually decreases, and when the bending angle reaches
120°, the relative error is 3.94%. The relative error of the predicted
result in Fig. 7(b) has a similar trend to that in Fig. 7(a). That is, the
smaller the bending angle is, the larger the predicted error will be. In
the rotary bending process, not only the curve section is deformed, but
also the straight section has a certain degree of deformation. Therefore,
the springback measured in experiment comes from two parts: a part of
straight section and a part of curve section. While the analytical model
only captures the springback of the curved section. In most cases, the
springback of the straight section takes up a small proportion and can
be neglected. However, as the bending angle decreases, its proportion
gradually increases [13]. Therefore, the predicted error of the analytical
model is larger in small bending angle.
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al.
Fig. 6. Predicted and experimental springback angles: (a) weld locates on the outside of bending; (b) weld locates on the geometric neutral layer.
Fig. 7. Relative errors of welded tube springback: (a) weld locates on the outside of bending; (b) weld locates on the geometric neutral layer.
To confirm that the analytical model can predict the springback rea-
sonably well within the operating range of the operational parameters,
this study studies the prediction accuracy of the model at the limit op-
erational parameters. In the bending process, the significant parameters
affecting the springback include the mandrel extension length lm , the
frictions between the dies and the tube (one is between the mandrel
and the tube um , the other is between the bending die and the tube ub )
and the clearances between the dies and the tube (one is between the
mandrel and the tube cm , the other is between the bending die and the
tube cb ) [32,33]. More importantly, these parameters also affect some
forming defects in bending, such as the over-flattening of cross section,
wrinkling and cracking. To avoid these forming defects, the ranges of
these parameters were recommended as: 5 ≤ lm ≤ 10, 0 ≤ um ≤ 0.3, 0 ≤
ub ≤ 0.3, 0 ≤ cm ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ cb ≤ 1 [34–37]. When the tube is bent in
the above parameters ranges, the cross-sectional flattening keeps within
5%, which are in good accordance with the assumptions of this study.
On the other hand, the springback decreases with the increase of lm
and increases with the increase of um , ub , cm and cb [32,33]. Accord-
ing to these influence laws, two sets of limit operational parameters,
which will cause the springback to reach the maximum and minimum
values, respectively, were selected. Set1 is composed of lm = 5, um = 0.3,
ub = 0.3, cm = 1, cb = 1, and Set2 is composed of lm = 10, um = 0, ub = 0,
cm = 0, cb = 0. Then, the springback angles of the welded tube bending
under these two sets of parameters and a bending angle of 120°were ob-
tained using the established FE model as 5.02° and 3.32°, respectively.
While the predicted result of analytical model in this study (3.85°) is
between the two simulation values, with errors of 23.2% and 16.0%,
respectively. The above analyses indicate that although the analytical
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model does not consider the influence of the operational parameters on
the springback, it can predict the springback reasonably well within the
window of routine operational parameters.
According to the above analyses, the predicted results of the ana-
lytical model in this study can accurately reflect the variation law of
the springback angle and agree well with the experimental results, es-
pecially at large bending angles.
4.2. Evaluation of model accuracy
4.2.1. Comparison of prediction accuracy with other models
To evaluate the accuracy of the analytical model developed in this
study, the predicted results of our model and the existing springback
models of a welded tube (Han et al. [24]) and a homogeneous tube
(Li et al. [8], E et al. [12]), as well as FE simulation, were compared.
The FE model used was established in our previous work ([30]), only
the bending radius and material plasticity parameters were modified.
Fig. 8 shows the springback angles predicted by different models and the
experimental results. The influence of the weld position on the spring-
back angle is not considered in the welded tube model of Han et al. [24].
As seen from Fig. 8, the predicted errors of the homogeneous models (Li
et al. [8] and E et al. [12]) are larger than those of the model in this
study, regardless of the weld location. This means that using the homo-
geneous tube models to predict the springback of the welded tube re-
sults in a large error. Thus, to obtain accurate the springback results, it is
necessary to consider the effect of the weld in the springback model. Re-
garding the comparison of the welded tube models, the results of Han’s
model [24] are higher than those of this study’s, and the errors of this
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

Table 3
The characteristics of the different description case of welded tube property.

Case Characteristics

Case-P Ignore the weld bead and HAZ; Considered as homogeneous parent
Case-P + H Ignore the weld bead; Considered as parent + uniform HAZ
Case-P + W + H Considered as parent + welded bead + discrete HAZ
Case-P + W + CH Considered as parent + welded bead + continuous HAZ

angle obtained is only that of the curved section. Nevertheless, the pre-
diction errors in this study are the lowest among the above analytical
models. Especially in large angle bending, the error is less than 10%.
Therefore, it is still an effective method.
Through the above analyses, it can be known that the analytical
springback model developed in this study present higher prediction ac-
curacy than the existing other analytical models.

4.2.2. Influence of the weld description exactitude on prediction accuracy

Fig. 8. Experimental and predicted springback angles by different models.
model are larger than those of this study, especially in large bending an-
gle. This is because the classic springback theory states that the bending
and unloading moments are equal, yielding a large unloading moment,
which results in over-springback. The static equilibrium springback the-
ory adopted in this study can avoid this issue by considering the residual
moment, which can more accurately reflect the springback deformation.
In addition, the power exponent hardening model adopted in this study
can describe the material properties of QSTE340 more accurately than
the linear hardening model used in Han’s model [24], especially under
large strain. Furthermore, the improvement in accuracy of this study
also lies in considering the heterogeneous material properties of the
welded tube, the influence of the weld position and the variations of
mechanical parameters.
Comparing the predicted results of this study with those of FE simu-
lation reveals that the former are lower, and the error is larger. This is
because the analytical model assumes a plane strain state for the bend-
ing process and ignores many boundary conditions, and the springback
For a welded tube, there are obvious differences in the material prop-
erties of the parent metal, weld bead and HAZ, and the material prop-
erties vary continuously within the HAZ. According to the description
degree of the above heterogeneity, the description models of the welded
tube property can be divided into the following four cases: case-P, case-
P + H, case-P + W + H and case-P + W + CH. Their description exactitude
on the heterogeneity of the welded tube is gradually improved. The char-
acteristics of these cases are shown in Table 3.
In order to clarify the influence of the description exactitude of the
heterogeneous material properties in the welded tube on the prediction
accuracy of the analytical model, the predicted results of springback in
the above different description cases are compared, as shown in Fig. 9.
As can be seen from Fig. 9(a), when the weld locates on the outside
of bending, all the predicted results are lower than the experimental
results. The results of case- P are basically consistent with those of case-
P + H, and those of case- P + W + CH are the highest. When the weld
locates on the geometric neutral layer (Fig. 9(b)), the springback angles
predicted by case- P are the largest, while those of case- P + W + CH are
the lowest.
Fig. 10 shows the average errors of the different predicted results
relative to the experimental results at 120° bending angle. As seen from
Fig. 10(a), when the weld locates on the outside of bending, the aver-
age error of the springback angle (𝛿Δ𝜃) in case-P + W + CH is smallest,
which decreased by 4.01%, 2.81% and 0.39% compared with those of
case-P, case-P + H and case-P + W + H, respectively. When the weld lo-
cates on the geometric neutral layer (Fig. 10(b)), the 𝛿Δ𝜃 in case-P is
the largest, reaching 9.06%. The 𝛿Δ𝜃 in case-P + W + CH decreased by
6.47% and 1.88% compared with those of case-P and case-P + H, respec-
tively, and is close to that of case-P + W + H. Therefore, the analytical
model in case-P + W + CH has a higher prediction accuracy. Comparing

Fig. 9. The springback angles predicted under different description cases of welded tube and experiment: (a) weld locates on the outside of bending; (b) weld locates
on the geometric neutral layer.

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M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al.
Fig. 10. Average relative errors of springback angle under the different description cases of welded tube: (a) weld locates on the outside of bending; (b) weld locates
on the geometric neutral layer.
Fig. 11. The variation of relative difference ΔA with bw /l.
Figs. 10(b) and 10(a) reveals that when the weld locates on the geomet-
ric neutral layer, the influence of description exactitude of the material
heterogeneity on the prediction accuracy is more significant. It is be-
cause the outside undergoes larger plastic deformation during bending,
and the percentage of elastic deformation is relatively small. While the
plastic deformation near the neutral layer is small, and the elastic de-
formation is the main one. In addition, the springback is a process of
elastic deformation recovery. Therefore, when the weld locates on the
geometric neutral layer, the description exactitude of the material het-
erogeneity has a significant impact on the prediction of the springback.
The above analyses indicate that with the improvement of descrip-
tion exactitude of the weld material property, the predicted accuracy
of the analytical model is gradually improved. The improvement of the
prediction accuracy is the most obvious when the weld locates on the
geometric neutral layer.
With the increase of the tube diameter or the decrease of the weld
size, the proportion of the weld size relative to the tube circumference
(bw /l) gradually decreases, and the effect of the weld on the springback
might be able to be ignored. To evaluate this effect, this study com-
pares the predicted results in case-P and case-P + W + CH models under
different values of bw /l when the weld locates on the large plastic de-
formation area (like the outside of bending) and small plastic deforma-
tion area (like the geometric neutral layer), respectively. Defined the
relative difference between predicted results as ΔA = (Δ𝜃 w - Δ𝜃 p )/ Δ𝜃 w ,
where Δ𝜃 p and Δ𝜃 w are the predicted springback angles in case-P and
case-P + W + CH models, respectively. The variation laws of the relative
difference ΔA with bw /l were obtained, as shown in Fig. 11. From the
figure, it can be seen that when weld locates on the outside of bending,
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609
Table 4
The virtual mechanical properties matchings
of the QSTE340 welded tube.
Parameters Initial Derivation
Kwp 0.81 0.65, 0.73, 0.89, 0.97
nwp 0.18 0.14, 0.16, 0.20, 0.22
Ewp 1.02 0.82, 0.92, 1.12, 1.22
𝜐wp 1.15 0.92, 1.04, 1.27, 1.38
in the situation of tube diameter variation, the relative difference ΔA
gradually decreases with the decrease of proportion bw /l. In the other
situation of weld size variation, the variation law between ΔA and bw /l
is similar to that of tube diameter variation. When bw /l is less than 2%,
the relative difference ΔA is reduced to 5%, in either situations. At this
point, it can be considered that the two results are in good agreement,
and the welded tube model can be replaced by homogeneous model.
When weld locates on the geometric neutral layer, the relative differ-
ences ΔA between the two models are always large in either situations.
In this condition, the weld cannot be ignored and the welded tube model
cannot be simplified.
4.3. Influence of mechanical properties matching between weld and parent
metal on springback
In general, the strength matching of the weld and parent metal is rep-
resented by the strength matching coefficient S = 𝜎 w /𝜎 p [38], which is
one of the parameters characterizing the non-uniformity of the mechan-
ical properties of welded joints. The cases of S > 1, S = 1, and S < 1 are
described as “super strong matching,” “equal strong match,” and “low
strong match,” respectively. As indicated by Eqs. (34) and (37), the me-
chanical properties matching between the weld and parent metal influ-
ences the springback, which was studied by comparing the springback
angles under different matching conditions of the mechanical proper-
ties (including the strength coefficient K, hardening exponent n, Young’s
modulus E and Poisson’s ratio 𝜐). In the analyses, definned the matching
of the aforementioned parameters between the weld and parent metal as
Kwp = Kw /Kp , nwp = nw /np , Ewp = Ew /Ep and 𝜐wp = 𝜐w /𝜐p . Taking the initial
matching of these parameters as reference values, the parameters float
10% and 20% upward and downward based on the reference values and
parent metal properties, as shown in Table 4.
Fig. 12 shows the effect of mechanical properties matching between
the weld and parent metal on the springback angle, when the weld lo-
cates on the outside of bending. As seen from Fig. 12(a), the springback
angle decreases uniformly with the increase of the matching of K, and
the decreasing trend increases with the increase of the bending angle.
This is because the increase of Kwp , that is, the strength of weld relative
to the parent mental increases, leads to axial forces on the outside of
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

Fig. 12. Effect of mechanical properties matching on springback angle (weld locates on the outside of bending): (a) Kwp ; (b) nwp ; (c) Ewp ; (d) 𝜐wp .

bending before springback increase, reducing the total axial force be- deformation in the weld during bending, when the weld locates on the
fore springback, as shown in Fig. 13(a). The springback process is the geometric neutral layer. Therefore, Kwp and nwp have almost no effect on
recovery of the elastic deformation, and K has no influence on this pro- the springback. Figs. 14(c) and (d) indicate that the springback angles
cess. Therefore, the variation of Kwp has no effect on the total axial force decrease uniformly with increases in matching of E and 𝜐, respectively.
during springback (Fig. 13(b)). According to Eq. (38), the variations of With the increase of Ewp and 𝜐wp , the axial forces in the weld before
the above axial forces lead to a decrease of the springback curvature and during springback increase, leading to a decrease in the total axial
(Fig. 13(c)) and thus a decrease of the springback angle. Figs. 12(b)– forces before and during springback, as shown in Figs. 15(a) and (b),
(d) show that the springback angles increase linearly with the increase respectively. Furthermore, the trend of the decrease before springback
of the matching of n, E and 𝜐, respectively, and the increase trends be- is greater than that during springback. Therefore, the springback cur-
come more obvious as the bending angle increases. For nwp , it is be- vatures decrease gradually (Fig. 15(c)), resulting in a decrease of the
cause the equivalent strain in bending process is lower than 1, thus, springback angle.
with the increase of nwp , the axial force in the weld before springback
decreases, resulting in an increase of the total axial force before spring-
4.4. Influence of geometric parameters of welded tube on springback
back (Fig. 13(a)). Additionally, n has no effect on the total axial force
during springback, as shown in Fig. 13(b). Therefore, the springback
As Eq. (33) showing, the springback angle has a relationship with
curvature increases gradually (Fig. 13(c)), resulting in an increase in
the geometric parameters that determine the deformation degree of the
the springback angle. In terms of Ewp and 𝜐wp , their increases lead to an
tube, including the bending angle, relative bending radius 𝜌/D, and rel-
increase of the axial force in the weld during springback and hence a
ative tube diameter D/t. The influence of the bending angle on spring-
decrease of the total axial force during springback (Fig. 13(c)), and the
back has been analyzed in Section 4.1. This section mainly studies the
total axial forces before springback do not vary (Fig. 13(a)). Therefore,
influence of the other two parameters (𝜌/D and D/t) on the springback.
the springback curvatures eventually increase (Fig. 13(c)). It can also be
In the analyses, the relative tube diameter floats 10% and 20% upward
observed in Fig. 12 that the matchings of E and K have a greater impact
and downward based on its initial value, and the relative bending ra-
on springback of welded tube, followed by 𝜐. n has the smallest effect,
dius varies within the range of the normal bending radius, from 2–4.
when the weld locates on the outside of bending. This is because the
From Eqs. (33)–(37), the effects of 𝜌/D and D/t on the springback do not
values of E and K are larger, and the numerical variations caused by
depend on the position of weld in bending. Therefore, this study only
the fluctuation of 10%- 20% are larger than those for the others, and
analyzes the results when the weld locates on the outside of bending.
therefore they have a greater effect.
Fig. 16 shows the effects of 𝜌/D and D/t on the springback of the
Fig. 14 shows the effect of mechanical properties matching on the
welded tube. From the figure, it can be observed that the springback
springback angle, when the weld locates on the geometric neutral layer.
angle increases with the increase of these two parameters. This is be-
It can be seen from Figs. 14(a) and (b), the matchings of K and n have
cause the increases of 𝜌/D and D/t lead to the axial strain in bending
no effect on the springback angle. This is attributed to the less plastic
decrease, which in turn results in an increase in the elastic deformation

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Fig. 13. Effect of mechanical properties matching on total axial force (a) before springback, (b) during springback; (c) 1/(𝜌e + De ) for welded tube (weld locates on
the outside of bending).

Fig. 14. Effect of mechanical properties matching on springback angle (weld locates on the geometric neutral layer): (a) Kwp ; (b) nwp ; (c) Ewp ; (d) 𝜐wp .

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M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al.
Fig. 15. Effect of mechanical properties matching on total axial force (a) before springback, (b) during springback; (c) 1/(𝜌e + De ) for welded tube (weld locates on
the geometric neutral layer).
Fig. 16. Effect of (a) 𝜌/D, (b) D/t on springback of welded tube.
zone. Therefore, with the increase of 𝜌/D and D/t, the springback angles
increase.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, considering the uneven material properties and geo-
metric characteristics of welded tube, an analytical springback model
was established for prediction of the springback in welded tube bend-
ing.
(1) In the model, De, the variations of thickness, E and CSR with de-
formation were considered for strain and stress calculation, respec-
tively. The uneven mechanical property of the weld was described
through a constitutive model considering the continuous variation of
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609
the welded material properties. As well as the effect of weld position
was modeled.
(2) Using the model, the springback angles of a QSTE340 welded tube
in NC bending were predicted. Comparisons with experimental re-
sults and other models showed that this springback model can pre-
dict the springback angle and present higher prediction accuracy.
Meanwhile, with the improvement of the description exactitude of
the weld material property, the predicted accuracy of the analytical
model is gradually improved, and the improvement degree varies
with the position of the weld in bending.
(3) During the welded tube bending, the mechanical properties match-
ing between the weld and parent metal has an influence on spring-
back: when the weld locates on the outside of bending, the spring-
back angle increases with the increase in matching of n, E and 𝜐 and
M. Zhan, L. Xing and P.F. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 150 (2019) 594–609

with the decrease in that of K between weld and parent metal, re- CSR satisfies Eq. (A15), therefore, Eq. (A14) can be transformed into
spectively; when the weld locates on the geometric neutral layer, Eq. (A16).
springback angle only increases with the decrease in matching of E
2𝜎st 2
and 𝜐. 𝐶𝑆𝑅 = −1 (A15)
(4) The springback angle of welded tube increased with the increase of 𝜎s 2
the relative bending radius 𝜌/D and relative tube diameter D/t.
2𝐶𝑆𝑅
𝜎𝑥2 − 𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎𝑦2 = 𝜎𝑠2 (A16)
1 + 𝐶𝑆𝑅 𝑥 𝑦
Acknowledgements

Appendix B. Derivation of elastoplastic boundaries position angles (𝛼 and 𝛽)

The authors acknowledge support from the National Science Fund
for Distinguished Young Scholars of China (51625505) and the Key Pro-
The axial strain at the elastoplastic boundary satisfies Eq. (B1).
gram Project of the Joint Fund of Astronomy and National Science Foun-
dation of China (Project U1537203). 𝜌 + 𝑦𝑒1
𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀̄ 𝛽 = 𝐻 ln (B1)
𝜌 − 𝐷𝑒
Appendix A. Hill’48 anisotropic yield criterion in tube bending
From Fig. 1, ye 1 can be expressed as Eq. (B2).
process
𝑦𝑒1 = (𝑟 + 𝑡𝛽 ) cos 𝛽 (B2)
The Hill’48 anisotropic yield criterion is shown in Eq. (A1) [27].
where t𝛽 is as follows (Eq. (B3)):
𝐹 (𝜎y −𝜎z )2 + 𝐺(𝜎z −𝜎x )2 + 𝐻 (𝜎x −𝜎y )2 + 2L𝜏yz 2 + 2M𝜏zx 2 + 2N𝜏xy 2 −1 = 0 √
( ) ( )2 ( )
(A1) − 𝜌0 + 𝑟 cos 𝛽 + 𝜌0 + 𝑟 cos 𝛽 + 4 cos 𝛽𝑡0 𝜌0 − 𝐷𝑒
𝑡𝛽 = (B3)
2 cos 𝛽
where F, G, H, L, M, N are the instantaneous anisotropic characteristic
parameters, and they can be expressed by Eqs. (A2)–(A7). Therefore, 𝛽 can be deduced as Eq. (B4).
[ 1 ] 1
1 1 1
2𝐹 = + − (A2) ( 𝜌0 − 𝐷 𝑒 ) 𝑒 𝐻 𝜀 𝑠 − 𝜌0 𝑒 𝐻 𝜀 𝑠
𝑌y 2 𝑌z 2 𝑌x 2 𝛽 = arccos (B4)
1
1 1 1 𝑟𝑒 𝐻 𝜀𝑠 + 𝑡0
2𝐺 = + − (A3)
𝑌z 2 𝑌x 2 𝑌y 2 Using the same procedures, ye2 and 𝛼 can be determined as
Eqs. (B5) and (B6), respectively.
1 1 1
2𝐻 = + − (A4) ( ) 1
𝑌x 2 𝑌y 2 𝑌z 2 𝑦𝑒2 = 𝜌0 − 𝜌0 − 𝐷𝑒 𝑒− 𝐻 𝜀𝑠 (B5)
1
2𝐿 = (A5)
𝑍yz 2 [( ) 1 ] 1
𝜌0 −𝐷e e− H 𝜀s −𝜌0 e− H 𝜀s
1 𝛼 = arccos (B6)
2𝑀 = (A6) 1
𝑍zx 2 𝑟e− H 𝜀s + 𝑡0

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𝑍xy 2
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