ZYGOMYCOTA: THE CONJUGATED FUNGI Zygomycota, a small group in the fungi kingdom, that can reproduce asexually or sexually, in a process called conjugation e.g. bread mold, Rhizopus, Mucor, Eryma, Pilobolus. ZYGOMYCETES LIFE CYCLE ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Zygomycetes have a thallus of coenocytic hyphae in which the nuclei are haploid when the organism is in the vegetative stage. The fungi usually reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores. Spores land on a suitable substrate, they germinate and produce a new mycelium, SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Starts when conditions become unfavorable. Two opposing mating strains (type + & type -) must be in close proximity for gametangia (singular: gametangium) from the hyphae to be produced and fuse, leading to karyogamy . The developing diploid zygospores have thick coats that protect them from desiccation and other hazards. They may remain dormant until environmental conditions become favorable. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis and produces haploid spores, which will, in turn, grow into a new organism. This form of sexual reproduction in fungi is called conjugation (it differs from conjugation in bacteria and protists), giving rise to the name "conjugated fungi". Se EEIIEEEnIEEEEREEeE LACTRER Dah Gnas FCOANAaO enccwor Page 33Zygomycete Life Cycle i} Mycelia Asexual Germination reproduction Mitosis Germination: Mycelia form. If the two mating g types (+ and —) are in close 906? proximity, extensions called ea gametangia form Spores Germination between them. + Mating type Gametangia Sporangium (in) Mycelia (in) Plasmogamy: ~ Mating type Sexual Fusion between reproduction + and - mating types results in a Meiosis and zygosporangium germination: with multiple haploid Asporangium grows nuclei. The Zygosporangium ‘ona short stalk. zygosporangium Haploid spores are forms a thick, formed inside. protective coat. Karyogam The nuclei fuse to Zyqcts form a zygote with {2n) multiple diploid nuclei. ‘Zygomycete life cycle: Zygomycetes have asexual and sexual life cycles. In the sexual life cycle, plus and minus mating types conjugate to form a zygosporangium. —_—————_ act hn Comiamsannvesrrarvno rseanctcor Page 34KEY TAKEAWAYS ZYGOMYCOTA, Key Points © Most zygomycota are saprobes, while a few species are parasites. © Zygomycota usually reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores. © Zygomycota reproduce sexually when environmental conditions become unfavorable. ¢ To reproduce sexually, two opposing mating strains must fuse or conjugate, thereby, sharing genetic content and creating zygospores. © The resulting diploid zygospores remain dormant and protected by thick coats until environmental conditions have improved. © When conditions become favorable, zygospores undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores, which will eventually grow into a new organism. Key Terms © zygomycete: an organism of the phylum Zygomycota © karyogamy: the fusion of two nuclei within a cell. © zygospore: a spore formed by the union of several zoospores © conjugation: the temporary fusion of organisms, especially as part of sexual reproduction Zygomycota: The Conjugated Fungi The zygomycetes are a relatively small group in the fungi kingdom and belong to the Phylum Zygomycota. They include the familiar bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, which rapidly propagates on the surfaces of breads, fruits, and vegetables. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living in soil or on plants and animals. Most species are saprobes meaning they live off decaying organic material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals, while others form symbiotic relationships with plants. Zygomycetes play a considerable commercial role. The metabolic products of other species of Rhizopus are intermediates in the synthesis of semi- synthetic steroid hormones. Zygomycetes have a thallus of coenocytic hyphae in which the nuclei are haploid when the organism is in the vegetative stage. The fungi usually reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores. The black tips of bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, are the swollen sporangia packed with black spores. When spores land on a suitable substrate, they germinate and produce anew mycelium. faerie ce reervor oatansacinenee Page SS@ o) Sporangia of bread mold: Sporangia grow at the end of stalks, which appear as (a) white fuzz. seen on this bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer. The (b) tips of bread mold are the spore-containing sporangia, 4.Progametangia on ) Somatic hyphae | 2ygephores i \ rs \ SS 9 S Characteristic features of Zygomycota. General life cycle of Mucor LECT peat Ot AST OF OTANAO nancy Page 36Sporangium (b) fa) Sporangium Vesicle Sperangiophore Sporangiophore Spares in merosporangium (a) Sporangia of insect-pathogenic members of the Entomophthorales (e.g. Entomophthora, Eryna Pandora spp.) are released as single cells and function as dispersal spores. | (b) Pilobolus, a common fungus on herbivore dung, in which the sporangium contains many spores. It is mounted on a swollen vesicle, which rupture at maturity to shoot the sporangium free for dispersal onto \° surrounding vegetation. | (©) Piptocephalis is a parasite of other Zygomycota. Showing a branched sporangiophore at the tips of | which are many merosporangia, each containing a few linearly arranged spores at the branch tips. Pilobolus, also called hat-thrower fungus, a cosmopolitan genus of at least five species offungi in the family Pilobolaceae (order Mucorales) that are known for their explosive sporedispersal. Pilobolus species feed saprobically on the feces of grazing animals. ‘These fungi are diminutive, usually less than 10 mm (0.4 inch) in height, and are characterized by a sparse mycelium (fungal body) that produces unbranched sporangiophores (fruiting bodies) capped with black sporangia (spore clusters). Pilobolus must pass through the digestive tracts of grazing animals as part of their life cycle. Because the animals avoid foraging near their excrement, the fungi use a phototropic (light- following) squirt-gun mechanism to disperse their sporangia up to 3 metres (10 feet) away from the parent fungus and onto uncontaminated vegetation. The ballistic discharge, thought to reach speeds of up to 90 km (56 miles) per hour, is accomplished by the release of highly pressurized fluids from the sporangiophore stalk following the rupture of the conspicuoussubsporangial vesicle. The sporangia are equipped with a sticky mucilaginous ring that adheres to vegetation Se nn IRI PIER InIRERIRERRRENREnrrmeeeeeese enna Ernst oma containers or avaseno sanctions Page 37when wetted by the propelling fluids, Once eaten, the spores pass through the digestive tract unharmed and are deposited into a fresh substrate of dung, thus perpetuating the asexual life cyele. Though Pilobolus fungi are themselves harmless, they play an important role in the transmission of infective lungworm larvae (Dictyocaulus viviparus, a species of nematode), which are responsible for parasitic bronchitis in cattle and some other ruminants. Similar to Pilobolus, the Tungworm larvae are voided by infected cattle and must move away from the excrement if they are to be eaten by a new host. The larvae accomplish this by attaching themselves to the Pilobolus sporangia, where they too are ejected from the fungi onto fresh vegetation. Upon their consumption by a suitable host, the larvae move from the digestive system to infect the respiratory tract of the animal, where they mature, reproduce, and perpetuate their parasitic life cycle. While this commensal relationship is advantageous for the lungworms, it neither harms nor benefits the fungi. Pic showing Dung cannon fungus: High magnification image of the fruiting bodies of dung cannon fungi (Pilobolus erystallinas). ASCOMYCOTA: THE CUP OR SAC FUNGI Most fungi belong to the Phylum Ascomycota, which uniquely forms of an ascus, a sac-like structure that contains haploid ascospores eg. Neurospora, Eurotium, Ascobolus, Saccharoymces. ASCOMYCETE LIFE CYCLE ASEXUAL this is done by means of conidina where spores are produced externally outside of a sporangium either singly or in chains at the tips of the hyphae called conidiophores. In the case —— {cr ah Ciena oNVERSTY OF Oras Ancor Page 3Bof yeast, asexual reproduction is by budding. When a yeast cell buds, a small protuberance appears and balloons out slowly form one cell and become pinched off as it grows to full size. SEXUAL this involves the fusion of a male hypha or a spore called a Spermatium or a male antheridium with the female receptive hypha called Trichogyne (female ascogonia). This leads to the production of one or more saes called Asei, Male nuclei migrate into the female part and pair but do not fuse with the female nuclei present. The new hyphae, whose cells each contain one male and female nucleus, grow. The cell has one of each kind of nucleus. ‘At maturity, the pairs of nuclei in the cells at the tips of each hyphae unite, a tubular asci develops in a layer called the hymenium at the surface of a structure called an ascocarp. The diploid zygote nucleus undergoes meiosis and the resulting four haploid nuclei usually divide once more by mitosis so that there is a row of eight nuclei in each ascus. These nuclei become ascospores as they are walled off from one another with a little cytoplasm. Thousands are often packed together in as ascocarp which may be cup shaped, completely enclosed or flask-shaped With a little opening at the top. When ascospores are mature, they are often released with force from the asci. When they land in a suitable area, they germinate producing a new mycelium and the process is repeated. ‘Ascomycetes (Ascomycota) Pink dikaryotic cells are undergoing nuclear fusion. The diploid nucleus then undergoes meiosis and each haploid cell divides resulting in 8 spores. This transforms the dikaryotic cell into an ascus. SS LECT mn Cem or orate reanceocr Page 39Ascomycete Life Cycle oo$e | QYrea Spores Mitosis | Germination Asexual || Reproduction | Plasmogamy and mitosis: The ascogonium and Conidiophore antheridium fuse. Mitosis and cell division result in the formation of many dikaryotic hyphae, which Dispersal and | form a fruiting body germination | called the ascocarp. Asci form at the tips of these hyphae. Ascospores (in) Mitosis and cell division: Sexual Eight hapioid ascospores are formed. 2 ® a & < 3 3 3 Meiosis: An ascus with four inaploid nuclei is formed. Ascocarp Karyog: fo The nuclei in the a asci fuse to form a diploid zygote. Lifecycle of an ascomycete: The lifecycle of an ascomycete is characterized by the production of asci during the sexual phase. The haploid phase is the predominant phase of the life cycle. eran: a Canoes orcevasno menecnoey Page 40© aN erithecium containing a Apical pore ) _ Fig. 4.8 Characteristic features of Ascomycota. (a) Life cycle of Neurospora crassa. The somatic hyphae produce conidiophores with branched chains of conidia. After dispersal these germinate to form new somatic hyphae. ‘Sexual reproduction occurs by fusion of a ‘male’ spore \spermatium) with a female receptive hypha, the drichogyne. Then a perithecium develops around the fertilized hyphae, which produce asc. Nuclear fusion in leach ascus is followed by meiosis, then mitosis to produce eight haploid ascospores. At maturity the asci elongate Up the perithecium neck and release the ascospores, which germinate to form somatic hyphae. (b) Detail of _ascus structure, showing the row of eight ascospores and Somatic hyphae Conidiophore ) ‘Ascus with B ascospores “— 99 the apical pore through which the ascospores are shot ‘when mature. ()Ascobolus, an example of a fungus with a cup-shaped ascocarp, termed an apothecium, in which ‘the asc are packed together with sterile hairs (paraphyses). (d) Eurotium, the sexual stage of some Aspergillus spp., which contains asi within a closed ascocarp, the cleistothecium. The ascospores are released ‘when the ascus and cleistothecium walls break down.KEY TAKEAWAYS - ASCOMYCOTA Key Points © Ascomycota fungi are the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus delicacies such as truffles and morels. «Ascomycetes are filamentous and produce hyphae divided by perforated septa. © Ascomycetes frequently reproduce asexually which leads to the production of conidiophores that release haploid conidiospores. © Two types of mating strains, a “male” strain which produces an antheridium and a “female” strain which develops an ascogonium, are required for sexual reproduction. © The antheridium and the ascogonium combine in plasmogamy at the time of fertilization, followed by nuclei fusion in the asci. © Inthe ascocarp, a fruiting body, thousands of asci undergo meiosis to generate haploid ascospores ready to be released to the world. Key Terms _plasmogamy: stage of sexual reproduction joining the cytoplasm of two parent mycelia without the fusion of nuclei. ¢ Ascomycota: a taxonomic division within the kingdom Fungi; those fungi that produce spores in a microscopic sporangium called an ascus. © ascus: a sac-shaped cell present in ascomycete fungi; it is a reproductive cell in which meiosis and an additional cell division produce eight spores. ascospore: a sexually-produced spore from the ascus of an Ascomycetes fungus. © conidia: asexual, non-motile spores of a fungus, named after the Greek word for dust, conia; also known as conidiospores and mitospores. antheridia: a haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes (called antherozoids or sperm) present in lower plants like mosses and ferns, primitive vascular psilotophytes, and fungi. ¢ ascogonium: a haploid structure or organ producing and containing female gametes in certain Ascomycota fungi. © _ascocarp: the sporocarp of an ascomycete, typically bowl-shaped. ————— uc ser or ann cmannnanvensryor eras econo Page 41.© ascomycete: any fungus of the phylum Ascomycota, characterized by the production of a sac, or ascus, which contains non-motile spores. Ascomycota: The Sac Fungi The majority of known fungi belong to the Phylum Ascomycota, which is characterized by the formation of an ascus (plural, asci), a sac-like structure that contains haploid ascospores. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus truffles and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies. Aspergillus oryzae is used in the fermentation of rice to produce sake. Other ascomycetes parasitize plants and animals, including humans. For example, fungal pneumonia poses a significant threat to AIDS patients who have a compromised immune system. Ascomycetes not only infest and destroy crops directly, they also produce poisonous secondary metabolites that make crops unfit for consumption. Filamentous ascomycetes produce hyphae divided by perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to the other. Conidia and asci, which are used respectively for asexual and sexual reproductions, are usually separated from the vegetative hyphae by blocked (non-perforated) septa. ‘Asexual reproduction is frequent and involves the production of conidiophores that release haploid conidiospores. Sexual reproduction starts with the development of special hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium (plural: antheridia) and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium (plural: ascogonia). At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine in plasmogamy without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei in karyogamy. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei by meiosis. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia. Release of ascospores: The bright field light micrograph shows ascospores being released from asci in the fungus Talaromyces flavus var. flavus. ‘acre Canaan or oovnes se meaecocr Page 42