COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MINES AND MINERAL SCIENCES

COURSE TITLE:
TEM 191 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

APPLIED HYDRAULICS
Mwiya SONGOLO
MINING ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MOBILE: 0978 291428

EMAIL: msongolo@gmail.com
songolo@cbu.ac.zm
 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ Principles of Continuity
❖ Liquids are incompressible. So for flow in a pipe the liquid
that goes in must also come out. Therefore, the flow rate is
the same across any sectional area of the pipe.
❖ Flowrate (Q) is equal to area of flow times the velocity
of flow, thus
𝑸=𝑨×𝒗 SI Unit is 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

❖ Where 𝐀 is the cross-sectional area of the pipe.

𝐯 is the speed or velocity of the liquid in m/s.

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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ Flow Rate (Discharge)
❖ Is referred to as volume flow rate and it’s also more
commonly known as discharge.
❖ By remembering your dimensions, prove that the SI Units
for 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗 in 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔?
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑚2
𝐿
And also, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇
Hence, 𝑸 = 𝑨𝒗
𝐿 𝐿3
𝑸= 𝐿×𝐿 × = 𝑖𝑛 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
𝑇 𝑇

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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❖ Volume Flow Rate or Discharge is thus,

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝟑
𝑸= =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒔

❖ The discharge is the volume of fluid flowing per unit

time.
❖ Multiplying Q by the density of the fluid gives us the mass
flow rate.

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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ Volume Flow Rate (Discharge, Q)
❖Consequently, if the density of the fluid in the above example is
850 kg/m3 then:

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑸=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝑸= =
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟕
𝑸= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟖𝒎𝟑 /𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝒔
𝟖𝟓𝟎

= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝒍/𝒔

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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ TEST YOURSELF
1. Define the follow terms: Uniform flow, non-uniform flow,
Steady flow, Unsteady flow,
2. Steady uniform flow, Unsteady uniform flow, and
Unsteady non-uniform flow.
3. Define the following terms in connection with the flow of
a liquid:
a) Mean velocity,
b) Mass flowrate,
c) Volume flow rate,
d) Discharge.
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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ TEST YOURSELF
4. A pipe with a diameter of 0.5 m carries water with an
average velocity of 2.3 m/s, compute the flow rate of
the water in the pipe.
5. A rectangular channel whose width is 2.05 m and height
is 1.08 m has water flowing full from point 1 to point 2
over a length of 1.99 m and it takes 4.05 s for water to
travel from point 1 to point 2. determine the velocity and
capacity of flow.
❑ ANSWERS: Q4. 𝑄 = 0.452 𝑚3 /𝑠
Q5. 𝑣 = 0.491 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑄 = 1.088𝑚3 /𝑠
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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES
❖ A pipe is a closed conduit (generally of circular section)
which is used for carrying fluids under pressure.
❖ The flow in a pipe is termed pipe flow only when the fluid
completely fills the cross-section and there is no free
surface of fluid.
❖ The pipe running partially full (in such a case atmospheric
pressure exists inside the pipe) behaves like an open
channel.

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow
❖ Steady Flow – the motion of the fluid is uniformly or
ordered.
❖ Unsteady Flow – the motion of the fluid is non-uniformly or
unordered.
❖ Steady Flow can be broken into two categories.
1. Steady – uniform flow, and
2. Steady – non-uniform flow.

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow
❖ Steady – uniform flow occurs in parallel.

❖ Steady – non-uniform flow occurs in tapered pipes.

❖ Taking a point e.g. at 1 and 2 or at Q1 and Q2 consider

pressure, p and velocity, v.
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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES
❖ Streamlines – continuous lines drawn through the fluid so
that they have the direction of the velocity vector at every
point.

❖ The Continuity Law – states that the volume flow rate 𝑄1

at point 𝐴1 is equal to the volume flow rate 𝑄2 at point 𝐴2 .

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES
❖ The fluid is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through
a flow section.
❖ Therefore, we pay particular attention to friction, which is
directly related to the pressure drop and head loss during
flow through pipes and ducts.
❖ The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping
power requirement.
❖ A typical piping system involves pipes of different diameters
connected to each other by various fittings or elbows to
route the fluid, valves to control the flow rate, and pumps to
pressurize the fluid.

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES
❖ The mass flow rate at entry is the same mass flow rate at
exit (assuming the liquid or fluid to be an iseal one, i.e. an
incompressible fluid or frictionless one.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

ቅ 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑁𝑇𝑅𝑌 = ቅ 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑋𝐼𝑇
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐

𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑 = 𝑸𝟒

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Potential and Kinetic Energy
❖ There are two types of energy, potential and kinetic
energies. Kinetic energy per unit mass of fluid is
𝑉2
𝐷
❖ Whereas Potential Energy per unit mass is 𝑔ℎ where ℎ is
the height above a chosen horizontal reference surface.

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Potential and Kinetic Energy
❖ Let P be the pressure of the liquid,
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
❖ And z be the height above the datum.
❖ Above the datum, the total energy per unit mass is

𝑃 𝑣2
𝑧 + +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Potential Head Pressure Head Velocity Head

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Potential and Kinetic Energy
❖ There are no losses of energy between two sections of a
pipe, the total energy remains constant e.g. an inclined
tapered pipe.

𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐 ❑ This is

𝒛𝟏 + + = 𝒛𝟐 + +
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 Bernoulis’
Equation
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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Potential and Kinetic Energy
❖ The velocity of a fluid varies from one point to another even
in the direction of flow.
❖ The change of velocity must be associated with the force,
and it is to be expected that the pressure of the fluid also
changes from point to point.
❖ The relation between these changes must be studied by
applying newton’s 2nd Law of motion to a particle of a fluid.
❖ A small element of a fluid is considered over which changes
of velocity and pressure are investigated.
❖ The small element consists of a large number of molecules.

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Potential and Kinetic Energy
❖ The forces under investigation are those due to the
pressure of the fluid all round, the element and to gravity.
❖ Other forces like viscosity, surface tension, electricity,
magnetism, friction, chemical or nuclear reaction are
assumed negligible small.
❖ With these assumption the flow is steady.

𝑃1 𝑢12 𝑃2 𝑢22
+ +𝑧1 𝑔 = + + 𝑧2 𝑔 (Constant)
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

𝑷𝟏 𝒖𝟐
𝒛𝟏 + + = Constant
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES: Potential and Kinetic Energy
❖ The result is known as Bernouli’s equation in honour of
Daniel Bernouli.
❖ NB: z represents the elevation above some horizontal plane
arbitrary chosen as a basis of measurement.
𝒖𝟐
❖ represents the Kinetic Energy of unit mass of (liquid)
𝟐
fluid.
❖ 𝒛𝒈 represents the Work done in raising a unit mass of from
datum level to height z.

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES AND LOSS OF ENERGY
❖ When water flows in a pipe, it experiences some resistance
to its motion, due to which its velocity and ultimately the
head of water available is reduced.
❖ This loss of energy (or head) is classified as follows:
▪ Major Energy Losses - this is due to friction.
▪ Minor Energy Losses - These losses are due to:
➢Sudden enlargement of pipe
➢Sudden contraction of pipe
➢Bend of pipe
➢An obstruction in pipe
➢Pipe fittings
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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES AND LOSS OF ENERGY
❖ The losses which are due to friction are calculated by
Darcy’s formula given as:
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷×2𝑔

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 FLOW THROUGH PIPES AND LOSS OF ENERGY
❑ Example: Determination of the loss of head
Find the loss of head due to friction in a pipe of 500mm diameter and
1.5km long. The velocity of water in the pipe is 1.0 m/s. Take
coefficient of friction as 0.005.
Given d = 500 mm, l =1.5 km, v = 1m/s and f = 0.005.

Solution:
Since length of the pipe (1500 m) is more than 1000 d (1000*0.5 =
500m), therefore it is a long pipe. Now let us neglect all the minor
losses except friction. We know that the loss of head due to friction,
4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 4×0.005×1,500×12
ℎ𝑓 = = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏 𝒎
𝐷×2𝑔 0.5×2×9.81

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 PIPE LINE SYSTEMS: Pipes in Series
❖ Pipes in series are associated with the following:
❖First, continuity requires that the discharge is the
same in all pipes, and
❖Second, the total head loss for the system equals the
sum of the individual head losses of the respective
pipes.
❖ These principles can be generalized for any number of
pipes that are connected in series.

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 PIPE LINE SYSTEMS: Pipes in Series
❖ It should be noted that if minor losses are included, they
must be referenced to the appropriate pipe size and velocity
head.
❖ Similarly, the head loss due to friction must be evaluated
separately for each pipe size.
❖ When the Darcy’s equation is used in the analysis of any
type of pipe system, the resistance coefficients are
frequently treated as constants.

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 PIPE LINE SYSTEMS: Pipes in Series
❖ Therefore, according to above definition in the pipes
connected in series; The total head loss is the sum of head
losses in each pipe:

❖ 𝒉𝑳 total = 𝒉𝑳𝒂 + 𝒉𝑳𝒃 + 𝒉𝑳𝒄

❖ The flow rate, in each of the pipes connected is the

same, thus:
❖ 𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑸𝒂 = 𝑸𝒃 = 𝑸𝒄

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 PIPE LINE SYSTEMS: Pipes in Parallel
❖ A second pipe system is composed of a number of pipes
connected in parallel as shown in the figure below.

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 PIPE LINE SYSTEMS: Pipes in Parallel
❖ Although any number of pipes could be so connected, the
development of the concepts will be based on just three
pipes.
❖ In passing, note that the pipe sections upstream and
downstream of the parallel pipes could be considered to be
in series with the parallel pipe system of our immediate
interest, and once the parallel pipe system is analysed,
the remaining system could be treated as a number of
pipes in series.

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 PIPE LINE SYSTEMS: Pipes in Parallel
❖ Returning to the three parallel pipes, continuity can be
applied with the result:
❖ 𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑸𝒂 + 𝑸𝒃 + 𝑸𝒄
❖ Since each of the pipes must share common values of
piezometric head at the junctions, it follows that the head
loss must be identical in each of the parallel pipes.
❖ This gives a second relationship that may be expressed as:

❖ 𝒉𝑳 total = 𝒉𝑳𝒂 = 𝒉𝑳𝒃 = 𝒉𝑳𝒄

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❑ EXAMPLE
❖ A pipe carrying water experiences a sudden reduction in
area as shown. The area at point (1) is 0.002 m2 and at
point (2) it is 0.001 m2. The pressure at point (2) is 500 kPa
and the velocity is 8 m/s. The loss coefficient K is 0.4. The
density of water is 1000 kg/ m3. The length of pipe (1) is 20
m and 25 m for pipe (2).

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❑ EXAMPLE
❑ Calculate the following:
a) The mass flow rate.
b) The flow rate.
c) The velocity at point (1).
d) The total head loss due to friction.
e) The force acting on the section.
f) The pressure at point (1).

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❑ SOLUTION

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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ TEST YOURSELF
1. A pipe with a diameter of 0.5 m carries water with an
average velocity of 2.3 m/s.
a) Compute the flow rate of the water in the pipe;
b) If the same pipe branches off into two smaller
parts of diameters of 0.3 m and 0.2 m
respectively, compute the velocity in the 0.2 m
pipe if we are told that the velocity of the pipe in
1
the 0.3 m is of the velocity in the 0.5 m pipe.
3

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 APPLIED HYDRAULICS – FLUID IN MOTION (KINEMATICS)
❑ TEST YOURSELF
2. A pipe carrying water tapers from a cross section of 0.3
𝑚2 at A to 0.15 𝑚2 at B. at A the velocity assumed
uniform is 1.8 m/s and the pressure is 117 KN/ 𝑚2 . If
frictional effects are negligible, determine the pressure
at B which is 6 m above the level of A.

2. A 10 cm diameter pipe contains sea water that flows

with a mean velocity of 5 m/s. Find the volume flow rate
(discharge) and the mass flow rate.

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