excessive settlement. Alternatively the bases may be supported on piles.

To learn concrete design it is necessary to start by carrying out the design of separate
elements. However, it is important to recognize the function of the element in the
complete structure and that the complete structure or part of it needs to be analysed to
obtain actions for design. The elements listed above are illustrated in Fig. 1.2 which
shows typical cast-in-situ concrete building construction.
A cast-in-situ framed reinforced concrete building and the rigid frames and
elements into which it is idealized for analysis and design are shown in Fig. 1.3. The
design with regard to this building will cover

1. one-way continuous slabs

2. transverse and longitudinal rigid frames
3. foundations

Various types of floor are considered, two of which are shown in Fig. 1.4. A one-way
floor slab supported on primary reinforced concrete frames and secondary continuous
flanged beams is shown in Fig. 1.4(a). In Fig. 1.4(b) only primary reinforced concrete
frames are constructed and the slab spans two ways. Flat slab construction, where the
slab is supported by the columns without beams, is also described. Structural design
for isolated pad, strip and combined and piled foundations and retaining walls (Fig.
1.5) is covered in this book.

1.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The first function in design is the planning carried out by the architect to determine
the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements. The
structural engineer then determines the best structural system or forms to bring the
architect’s concept into being. Construction in different materials and with different
arrangements and systems may require investigation to determine the most
economical answer. Architect and engineer should work together at this conceptual
design stage.
Once the building form and structural arrangement have been finalized the design
problem consists of the following:

1. idealization of the structure into loadbearing frames and elements for analysis and
design
2. estimation of loads
3. analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts and shears for design
4. design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns and
walls using the results from 3
5. production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules