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Sludge Treatment and Disposal: Management Approaches and Experiences
Sludge Treatment and Disposal: Management Approaches and Experiences
Sludge Treatment and Disposal: Management Approaches and Experiences
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the European Commission, the European Environment
Agency, the International Solid Waste Association, nor any person or
company acting on their behalf is responsible for the use which may
be made of the information in this publication. The contents of this
publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the
European Community, its institutions, or the international organisa-
tions and individual countries involved in preparing this report. The
designations employed and the presentation of material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of the European Community or the European Environ-
ment Agency concerning the legal status of any coun- try, territory,
city or area or its authorities.
ISBN 87-90402-05-7
European Environment
Agency
Kongens Nytorv 6
DK-1050 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Tel. (+45) 33 36 71 00
Fax (+45) 33 36 71 99
E-mail: eea@eea.eu.int
Home page: http://
www.eea.eu.int
ISWA
Læderstræde 9, 2.
DK-1201 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Tel. (+45) 33 91 44 91
Fax (+45) 33 91 91 88
E-mail: iswa@inet.uni2.dk
Table of contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................. 9
2. Background ............................................................................ 10
6. Composting ............................................................................ 22
6.1. The Influence of Variable Conditions
in Defining the Composting Process ...................................... 22
4 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
7. Drying ..................................................................................... 27
7.1. Introduction ..................................................................... 27
7.2. Conditions for Drying of Sludge
- Amounts and Drying Rates ................................................... 27
7.2.1. Quality .......................................................................... 28
7.3. Drying and Dryers ............................................................ 28
7.3.1. Indirect Dryers .............................................................. 29
7.3.2. Direct Dryers ................................................................. 29
7.4. Advantages/Disadvantages of Drying ............................. 30
7.5. Financial Estimate ............................................................ 30
9. Landfilling ............................................................................... 36
9.1. Conditions for Application .............................................. 36
9.1.1. The Character and Treatment of Sludge
before Final Disposal on Landfill ............................................ 36
9.1.2. Regulations Governing the Construction
of Sludge Disposal Sites ......................................................... 37
9.2. Practical Solutions ............................................................ 37
9.2.1. Mono-deposits .............................................................. 38
9.2.2. Mixed Deposits ............................................................. 38
9.3. Evaluation of Cost Efficiency ........................................... 41
5
Foreword
Wastewater treatment plants are becoming more advanced and more common world wide.
In recent years, significant progress has been made in several countries to curb water pollu-
tion from municipal wastewater. Almost the entire population of Denmark is now served by
wastewater treatment facilities and more than 90% of the population in Sweden, the Nether-
lands and Luxembourg is served by treatment plants. A problem that needs to be considered
carefully is the efficient and environmentally sound management of the sludge generated by
these plants. When processing sludge it is critical not to fall into the trap of simply redirect-
ing the pollution that originally affected water, to other media, such as soil and air. This can
happen through the use of inappropriate technologies or by applying disposal approaches
unsuitable for the local conditions.
This report describes various methods of sludge treatment and disposal: it is intended for
those charged with the task of determining the fate of sludge, providing them with the
information necessary to select among action alternatives. The report has been developed
thanks to co-operation between the European Environment Agency (EEA) and the Interna-
tional Solid Waste Association (the Working Group on Sewage and Waterworks Sludge.) This
collaboration has allowed not only the analysis, condensation and assessment of the quality
of this information in an efficient and comprehensive manner but also the organisation of
this document in the structured presentation found here.
The reader will find a discussion on sludge characterisation by physical, chemical and
biological parameters, described by Ludivico Spinosa, who also developed the work on
transportation and storage. Agricultural use of sludge was prepared by Alice Saabye, which is
followed by a section on composting of sludge by Isabelle Coulomb. Drying techniques are
illustrated in Chapter Seven by Ådne Ø. Utvik. A chapter on incineration including vitrifica-
tion and co-incineration was prepared by Isabelle Coulomb. A section on accumulation and
landfilling of sludge was prepared by Bela Deak. The report ends with a look at new tech-
nologies and environmental impact assessments, also presenting a tree for sludge disposal.
Legislation related to sludge treatment and disposal is given in the Appendix.
We would like to thank all contributors and reviewers of this document who have co-oper-
ated to produce this important report.
1. Introduction
This booklet gives a general perspective of broader perspective when faced with the
the alternative methods for handling and choice between alternative methods of
disposing sewage waste water sludge. It handling and disposal of sludge.
provides an overview of the different meth-
ods for processing and disposing sludge This booklet has been written by members of
generated by waste water treatment plants. the ISWA Working Group on Sewage &
Waterworks Sludge.
The booklet is intended to be a helping
hand to both technical experts as well as
politicians, public officials, decision makers
and others who need to see things in a
10 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
2. Background
The percentage of the population served by or about a 38% increase from the 7.7 million
sewage waste water treatment facilities varies tons produced today. This cumulative per-
considerably among the countries of the EU. centage is distributed among the member
The differences among thirteen member states as shown in figure 2.2.
countries of the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) are Information on the methods and approaches
illustrated in figure 2.1. used by different member states for the final
disposal of sewage sludge is still uncertain. In
For some countries an improvement in the some European countries the main practice
number, size and efficiency of the treatment is landfilling (50 to 75%), while the rest is
plants would have significant positive im- disposed in agricultural fields as soil condi-
pacts on the quality and health of aquatic tioner/fertiliser (25 to 35%) or other recy-
environments. cling outlets (e.g. parks, land restoration and
landscaping).
Dry weight per capita production of sewage
sludge resulting from primary and secondary Agricultural use of raw sludge or other com-
treatment is about 90 grams per day per posting practices is encouraged by national
person, which is more or less the same in all authorities as the best way for recycling,
EU countries where municipal communities while incineration is considered the worst.
are served by two stage physical, mechanical Directive 86/278/EEC on Sewage Sludge in
and biological processing plants. After the Agriculture requires, however, that no-one
implementation of the Urban Waste Water may permit the use of sewage sludge on
Treatment Directive (UWWTD) (91/271/ agricultural land unless specific require-
EEC), the vast majority of the EU 15 popula- ments are fulfilled. The Directive aims at
tion will be served by sewage treatment avoiding the accumulation of toxic sub-
facilities by the year 2005. This is expected to stances, especially heavy metals, that might
result in the generation of about 10.7 million reach excessive levels in the soil after a
tons (dry weight) of sewage sludge every year number of applications.
Figure 2.1.
Germany
Italy
Austria
Finland
(Dem. Rep)
Netherlands
Spain
Denmark
Luxenbourg
Portugal
Sweden
UK
France
(Fed. Rep.)
Background 11
Figure 2.2.
1000000
500000
0
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Austria
Finland
Netherlands
Spain
Greece
UK
Belgium
Denmark
Luxenbourg
Sweden
(Norway)
Portugal
France
Sea dumping is now prohibited, and cause the amount generated will increase
landfilling will also be regulated if the new and also because agriculture can absorb only
Landfill Directive is passed and the removal a limited number of field applications.
of the organic content is made mandatory.
The final disposal of sewage sludge remains The problem could be particularly difficult
therefore an unsolved problem; both be- for the 10 accession countries (Bulgaria,
Figure 2.3.
Aerobic/thermoph Pasteurization
pretreatment
Thermal Thermal
dewatering dewatering
15 days
12 days 12 days
7 days
4 hour
Retention time
12 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Figure 2.4.
Agriculture
Sludge incineration
Gasification
Concentration Dewatering
Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, alternatives for sludge handling and disposal
Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and when planning sewage management strate-
Slovenia) which will have to transpose the gies.
UWWTD and phase in plant treatment and
disposal of about 4 million tons of sewage An overview of the pre-treatment methods
sludge generated every year. adopted for transforming and concentrating
raw and wet sludge is presented in figure 2.3.
Plant treatment of sludge generated by
anaerobic or aerobic digestion, mechanical In some countries, thin sludge is still utilised
de-watering and incineration, usually ac- directly as fertiliser in agriculture. However,
counts for up to 50% of the total investment an increasing part of thin sludge is now
in the complete facility. Plant treatment can processed. The methods used most fre-
dramatically reduce the size of the final and quently for treatment and disposal are shown
more complex disposal problem. Therefore in Figure 2.4.
it is important to consider the full range of
13
3. Sludge Characterisation
By Ludovico Spinosa1
Table 3.1.
Transportation
Composting
Incineration
Dewatering
Agriculture
Thickening
Landfilling
anaerobic
chemical
thermal
aerobic
Drying
Parameter
Temperature x x x x x x
Density x x x
Rheological prop. x x x x x x
Settleability x x x
Solids concentr. x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Volatile solids x x x x x x x x x
Digestability x
pH x x x x x x
Volatile acids x
Fats and oils x x x
Heavy metals x x x x x
Nutrients x x x x
Particle size x x x
CST x x
Spec. resistance x x
Compressibility x
Centrifugability x
Calorific value x
1 C.N.R. Water Research
Leachability x
Institute, Via F. De Blasio
Microbiol. prop. x x x x
5, 70123 Bari, Italy
14 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
tant to know, strictly depend on the handling and, therefore, the above parameters are all
and disposal methods adopted. Below, the important to ensure an autogeneous com-
most important parameters in relation to the bustion.
disposal/use operations listed in table 3.1
are briefly discussed. Rheological Properties
Rheological properties are important as far
3.2.1. Agricultural Use as the feeding system is concerned.
Dry Matter
Dry matter plays a role in the transport, Heavy Metals, Organic Micropollutants
application and spreading operations. The toxicity of emissions (gaseous, liquid,
Methods and systems of application to land solid) depend on the presence of heavy
also depend to a great extent on rheological metals and organic micropollutants at origin
properties. and/or when improper operating conditions
occur.
Volatile Solids (Organic Matter)
The reduction of volatile solids through 3.2.4. Landfilling
stabilisation is very important, mainly to Dry Matter
avoid odour problems. Organic matter also It is important to know whether the sludge is
exerts beneficial effects on land, but changes consistent enough to be landfilled. Addition-
in the content of organic matter do not ally, rheological properties are essential in
significantly modify sludge applicability. relation to the sludge bearing capacity.
Volatile Solids
Table 3.1 Disposal and use operations The amount of volatile solids has an impact
parameters on the development of malodours and
process evolution, including biogas produc-
Nutrients, Heavy Metals, Organic Micro- tion.
pollutants, Pathogens, pH
Application rates are affected by the content Heavy Metals
of nutrients, heavy metals and organic Heavy metals can negatively affect the
micropollutants in sludge and soil, while evolution of the biological process and the
hygienic risks are associated with the patho- quality of the leachate.
gens presence. All of the above factors are
influenced by pH. From the above it follows that dry matter and
volatile solids are the most important param-
3.2.2. Composting eters in sludge characterisation involved in
Temperature, Dry Matter, Volatile Solids all the application/disposal methods. They
The process performance strictly depends on can be modified through stabilisation and
temperature, dry matter and volatile solids in solid-liquid separation processes, which are
terms of both biological evolution and operations almost always present in a waste
hygienization (pathogens reduction). In water treatment system.
particular, a concentration of solids of 40-
60% and a temperature around 60°C are
generally required. 3.3. Stabilisation
ous gases until the odour is no longer de- Compressibility coefficient is obtained,
tected. These tests are cumbersome, expen- which provides information on the most
sive and cannot be conducted in the field. suitable operating pressure level.
The volatile/total solids ratio and/or the The CST (Capillary Suction Time) is a
percentage of volatile solids destroyed can simple, useful and rapid way to evaluate
be used as stability index. Ratios below 0.60 filterability, but only for comparative evalua-
and percentages above 40% are, generally, tions; the multi-probe CST apparatus enables
an indication of achieved stabilisation. a direct, but less precise, estimate of the
Oxygen uptake rates less than 2 mg/g- specific resistance.
volatile-solids/h at 18 °C are indicative of a
stable sludge. Specific tests to evaluate vacuum-filter and
beltpress performance are also available.
The measurement of stability can also The filter-leaf test reproduces the vacuum-
involve the evaluation of the organic filter cycle [9], while tests including draining
substrate concentration, such as volatile and filtration under vacuum or pressure
suspended solids, COD, BOD5 and organic allow a prediction of beltpress performance
carbon, ATP and enzymatic activity [3]. [4], [6].
• hygienization, as a consequence of
4.2. Storage pathogens reduction.
Figure 4.1.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
(m)
perform additional stabilisation and homog- ties, as they must transport great amounts of
enisation. Closed tanks should also be fitted sludge over a great distance to reach a
with special equipment to counteract the risk suitable disposal site. However, higher costs
of dangerous gases escaping from the tanks. as a consequence of great distances could be
A lagoon normally occupies an area at least counterbalanced by savings due to large
double that of a classic vessel. Pumps are transported volumes. The cost problem is
normally used for filling/emptying opera- generally less important for small communi-
tions. ties, and they can reduce investments in
dewatering equipment and plan centralised
The most widely used systems of storage for solutions.
dewatered sludge are dumps, basins and
containers, depending on the obtainable Sludges can be transported by pipeline,
sludge volume ratio in terms of m3-storage/ barge, rail or truck.
m2-occupied-area (Figure 4.1): it ranges from
1.50 to 0.80 for sludges behaving similarly to Transport by pipeline is a practice suitable
solids, 0.80 to 0.40 for those showing a certain for moving large quantities of sludge having
degree of plasticity and below 0.40 for more a quite low solids concentration, generally
liquid sludges. The storage of dewatered below 10%. The main disadvantages lie in
sludge generally requires a drainage control high installation costs, relatively long con-
for water and gases and, in areas with heavy struction time and, above all, in the fact that
rainfall, covering and sealing systems. Filling/ the pipeline has to be shut down during
emptying operations can be performed by a maintenance and repair works. The design
wide range of equipment, including belt-, of the pipeline can be carried out simply by
screw-, pneumatic- and positive displacement multiplying figures for clean water by empiri-
type-conveyors, chutes and inclined planes, cal coefficients, but the application of such
bucket elevators, grapple buckets, etc. The simple criteria could be misleading, so more
equipment sometimes has to be fitted with a reliable procedures are suggested [6], [3].
special apparatus to prevent it from blocking
during operation. Transport by rail and barge is more conven-
ient for moving large quantities of sludge
over long distances. In this case the availabil-
4.3. Transportation ity of suitable waterways and railway connec-
tions is a further essential condition.
4.3.1. Operation Description
Sludge must almost invariably be transported For the above reasons, transport by truck is
from the point of production to the dis- the most widespread method used. The most
posal/use site, possibly via a centralised significant advantages are relatively low
processing platform. investment costs and a high degree of flexi-
bility. Rerouting and alteration of collection
Generally, the transport step is a large share points are also easily arranged. Drawbacks are
of costs for works serving large municipali- possible leakage and odour/dust emission.
Transportation and Storage 19
5. Agricultural Use
By Alice Saabye3
• Restriction on the amount of heavy After spreading, the sludge is ploughed into
metals contained in sludge the soil. Legislation often requires that this
must be done very shortly after the spreading
• Restriction on the amount of dry solids to reduce odour nuisances.
and heavy metals spread per unit of land
and time Liquid sludge can be injected directly into
the soil.
• Restriction on the content of heavy
metals in the soil on which sludge is
3 I. Krüger A/S
spread, and requirements for the pH of
Gladsaxevej 363
2860 Søborg
the soil
Denmark
Agricultural Use 21
• Lack of knowledge as to the content of The price for agricultural use of sludge is in
organic micro-pollutants and pathogenic the order of DEM 150-400/tonne of sludge
organisms in sludge and their impact on with 20% dry solids. It should be noted,
the food chains however, that the price depends on local
conditions and may differ considerably from
• Thorough legislative compliance control the above.
22 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
6. Composting
By Isabelle Coulomb4
Sludge composting aims at biologically when mixed with bark or other structuring
stabilising sludges while controlling pollu- materials making the compostable mixture
tion risks in order to develop agriculture or porous.
other end use outlets exploiting the nutrient
or organic value of sludges. It can be applied As a general reference, the water content of
either to non-digested sludge (e.g. Italy, a compostable mixture of organic wastes
France) or to digested sludge (e.g. the should be around 55% while the organic
Netherlands). Composting involves aerobic matter content should be greater than 70%,
degradation of organic matter, as well as a facilitating effective bio-degradation. A high
potential decrease of the sludge water moisture content above 60%, reduces the
content, the efficiency of which depends on temperature, porosity and thus the oxygen
the composting process. concentration while a low moisture content,
below 50%, could limit the rate of compost-
Since organic substances and nutrients, such ing. At values of 10-15% the bacterial me-
as phosphorus and nitrogen, are in demand tabolism generally ceases to function. Bacte-
by farmers, compost, rich in organic nutri- rial activity is also influenced by pH, with the
ents, is considered a valuable soil improver. optimal values being between 5.5 and 8.
Sludges composted for agricultural end use
are therefore of value to secondary markets. A balance of the nitrogen and carbon
In the case of sludges treated by incinera- content is necessary for the proper growth of
tion, waste sludges can be composted as a micro-organisms. The carbon to nitrogen
pre-treatment to decrease the water content, ratio (C/N) of the mixture is therefore
thus increasing the efficiency of the incinera- commonly used to define the optimum
tion process. functional conditions. Although values
ranging between 25 and 30 are recom-
Nevertheless, it may be too expensive to first mended, the types of molecules concerned
compost and then incinerate the sludge. must be evaluated when establishing the
Besides, some of the organic matter will ideal ratio.
decompose, thus limiting the increase of the
calorific value linked to sludge drying. Structuring composting conditions and
mixture ratios naturally depend on the types
of wastes to be treated as well as the quality
6.1. The Influence of Variable Conditions specifications set for the resulting compost.
in Defining the Composting Process
For example, the processing of organic
Sludges can be composted if they have materials would be different if the goal was to
sufficient organic matter as well as a relevant incinerate the end product, thus demanding
water content. In order to effectively com- that the water content of sludges should be
post materials, certain nutrients are re- reduced, than if the goal of the composting
quired, including nitrogen and phosphorus, process was to produce a soil improver, as
as well as proper moisture and aeration defined by a particular agricultural outlet,
levels that facilitate and enable, after mixing which would therefore require that specific
with a co-product, the sustainability of micro- nutritional and structural properties should
organisms. be present in the end product.
Since liquid sludges have a high water Different ratios of wastes and different
content, they alone are not sustainable processing policies would have to be imple-
mediums for micro-organism growth. How- mented under the constraints of each
ever, they can be composted when used in programme. Therefore the types of sludges
relevant quantities in a mixture with other to be treated, the quantitative/qualitative
highly fermentable organic wastes possessing constraints for incorporating them into a
a lower or a deficient water content. composting process, and the efficiency of the
3 SITA, 94 rue de
composting biodegradation process itself,
Provence BP 693, 75425
Sludges with a water content greater than depend on the end product specifications as
Paris Cedex 09, France 15% are easily co-compostable, particularly defined in any given project.
Composting 23
If, for instance, a compost end product plant growth and ensure that no germina-
targeted for an agricultural outlet is consid- tion of foreign seeds occurs as a result of the
ered, many market and regulatory con- compost.
straints will have an impact on the definition
of the composting process itself. For exam- The example of composting sludges as a pre-
ple, although organic pollutants such as the treatment method for incineration is techni-
pesticides, PCB, HAP, PCDD, PCDF do not cally appealing because composting results
have regulatory limits at European level in both mass reduction and decreased water
because the concentration of these contami- content, thus providing a more efficient
nants has proven to be low, the contrary is waste stream for incinerators. A financial and
true for the heavy metal content in com- market analysis must, however, be completed
posts. to validate the viability of this option: is
composting in itself viable, and is the level of
The heavy metal content of the final com- bio-degradation necessary to justify the
post product is critical. The end product incineration of pre-treated, composted
standards must meet the specifications sludges over the incineration of raw un-
defined by local and national legislation. treated sludges?
Obviously, since the materials are composted
at a temperature level sufficient to kill
pathogens, the risk of pathogenic problems 6.2. General Description of the Process of
is minimised, an advantage supporting the Composting and Plant Conception
processing of organic materials by com- Factors
posting over other treatment methods. In
addition, microbial competition during The process of composting is based on
composting also favours pathogen reduction. aerobic degradation of organic matter,
under variable conditions as described
Market conditions also have an impact on above. In essence, the activity of micro-
the process design of a compost system. In organisms causes both an increase in tem-
addition to their inclusion in some national perature, hence the pathogen destruction,
regulations, aesthetic contaminants such as and a release of energy, CO2, H2O, NH3 and
plastic, glass, metals or stones are undesir- other gases, while consuming oxygen.
able because they may limit the marketing
potential of the final product. The rate of the bio-degradation process can
thus be controlled by regulating aeration,
In the case of agriculture end use composts, moisture content and mechanical processing
it must not only support local vegetation of the material. For instance, the composting
growth, it must also meet both the qualitative process could be controlled and accelerated
and quantitative demands of the local by:
market; the compost end product must be
nutritionally balanced to the local soil • Forced aeration, which provides suffi-
demand and produced in quantities which cient oxygen to meet demand, while
do not exceed the outlet application poten- providing an odour control mechanism;
tial.
• Mechanical turning of compost, which
For example, to utilise the final compost for contributes to the mixing and the
a soil substrate application, the nutrient and increased aeration of the material.
salt content must be low while the water
retention capacity must be sufficiently high, A particular market demand may also be
thus meeting the necessary water/aeration accommodated by mechanical screening to a
requirements of specific types of vegetation. defined particle size.
Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.2.
7. Drying
By Ådne Ø. Utvik5 with contributions by Albrecht R. Bresters6 and Martin Würdemann7
Figure 7.1.
Air
& vapour
Dewatered sludge
Water to WWPT
Water to Thermal drying
WWTP direct/indirect
Granulation Cooling
Dried sludge when adequate
whwn adequate
PRODUCT
28 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
2) Content of plant available fertilising The actual flow sheet depends upon a
components, mainly phosphorous, number of factors, of which type of dryer
potassium and nitrogen used (indirect/direct) and dry solids in end
product (approx. 70% or 90%) are the most
3) Ability to absorb and retain water decisive ones. Heat recovery may be more
efficient with indirect dryers, whereas some
4) Content of heavy metals direct dryers may not require separate
granulation.
5) Content of pathogenic bacteria and
fungi viruses, helminth ova and toxins
7.3. Drying and Dryers
6) Repopulation rate of pathogenic micro-
organisms. There are approx. 20 suppliers of drying
equipment (please refer to ISWA literature
Whereas 2) and 4) depend upon the content and documentation, for instance the ISWA
in the effluent water and the treatment, 1) Yearbook). The two distinctly different
and 3) are influenced by digestion, which drying methods are indirect and direct
degrades organic material. drying. In direct dryers there is a direct
contact between the material to be dried -
The possible presence of pathogens is a the sludge - and the heated gas supplying the
major concern and must be taken seriously. required heat for evaporation and simultane-
Proper drying, where the most relevant ously carrying the water vapour formed out
factors are retention time/retention time of the system.
Figure 7.2.
all of the used gases and vapours, but this 7.5. Financial Estimate
leads to more complicated drying systems,
through which the advantages of direct As mentioned above, the disadvantage is the
systems decrease substantially. The selection high investment cost relative to other meth-
of a direct or indirect drying system there- ods. No reliable and generally valid estimates
fore depends on sludge characteristics and are known since local factors influence
other specific and local conditions. Both heavily.
systems are subject to much practical experi-
ence. A few questions may clarify this point:
A drying plant, which in most cases includes • The heat supplied to the dryer, for
granulation, is more expensive to install than instance through steam, is still present,
most other methods. On the other hand, but at a lower temperature. Is there a
drying results in a great volume reduction need for this low temperature heat, and
and a storable free flowing and hygienic how should it be priced?
product. Due to the great volume reduction,
dried sludge implies reduced costs for • Does the sludge owner have only one
transportation, handling and storage. ‘customer’, except for deposit? How will
this one and only customer pay him in
The greatest advantage in having sludge in a the future, and what changes in the
dry form as compared with various other deposit cost are expected?
methods is the possibility of ‘marketing’ the
product for a number of applications and at An example
the most suitable time: A plant - without digestion - handling 2,400
tonnes of DS/year in the form of 12,000
• Fertiliser/soil conditioner in agriculture tonnes of dewatered sludge (20% DS) a year,
and forestry may have a cost of approx. NOK 1,300/t of
DS (approx. DEM 295, FFR 1,000, GBP 130)
• Fuel in cement kilns, power plants and including capital (investment NOK 5-6 mill.)
incinerators and operating cost (lime, polymer, transport,
etc.).
• Top soil, landscaping, landfilling and
disposal If the cost of the building, storage, required
heat and disposal of the dry material is
For most applications it is of great impor- included as well, the cost may typically be in
tance - and cost saving - that thermally dried the order of DEM 600 to 700 per tonne of
sludge has been subject to safe hygienisation DS.
and considerable volume reduction.
31
Today considered the last method used in high calorific value. Pollutants are stabilised
the treatment of waste sludges, either alone in the clinker which is an interesting way of
or in combination with other wastes, treat- treating polluted sludges.
ment by incineration represents 15% of the
total mass of sludges treated in Europe. From an economic point of view these
methods of treatment are mainly justified for
The agricultural use of sludges, by direct sludges not allowed to be used in agriculture
application, as well as landfilling of sludges or incinerated in municipal solid waste
are subject to more and more regulatory incinerators.
control. For this reason, incineration of
sludges is expected to increase, even though Another method of stabilisation is vitrifica-
it can be a capital intensive investment and it tion of the product. Japan has some experi-
is also subject to strict regulation pertaining ence in this method, but the process remains
to combustion criteria, management of the too expensive. Therefore, these methods of
off-gas treatment residues and treatment of treatment will not be further detailed in the
fly and bottom ashes. following paragraphs.
Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.2.
Process scheme of the fluidised bed systems, which tend to be recovery boiler, and the last one pre-drying
sludge incineration plant
of Dordrecht (the
easier to operate (see Figure 8.1). the sludge in separate rotary disk dryers
Netherlands) prior to incineration, the heat required for
Courtesy: Lurgi The fluidized bed system consists of a vertical this drying process being recovered by steam
combustion chamber lined with a refractory boilers behind the furnaces.
material at the base of which a bed of sand is
brought to high temperature and held in The second process is thermally more
suspension due to a grate equipped with productive than the first one as it enables an
injectors forcing a flow of hot air. The achievement of autocombustibility of sludges
sludges are introduced inside or above the with a dry matter content of 20-25% and with
bed of sand. a rate of volatile material/dry material of 60-
70% before pre-drying. Extra recovery of the
The gas must be heated to 850°C to ensure evaporation steam from the dryer, and on
complete burn-out of the flue gas. There- the condensates before they go back to the
fore, except in the case of fresh primary boiler tank, can also improve this result.
sludges, the incineration of sludges coming
from mechanical dehydration machines is It should be noted, however, that this type of
not able to be completed unless combustible heavy equipment and investment can usually
energy is provided. only be justified in the case of large installa-
tions (capacity higher than 2.5 tonnes of
In order to limit the consumption of extra evaporated water per hour). The third
combustibles, a heat recovery system is process is applied in some modern plants in
installed for the hot gas leaving the combus- Germany, the Netherlands and the UK,
tion chamber. Three techniques are used to which are autotherm with sludges at a dry
recover and reuse this heat: one heating the solid content of approximately 23% (see
combustion air in a smoke/air exchanger, Figure 8.2).
another one pre-drying the sludge above the
furnace as a result of steam produced by a
Incineration 33
Mixing municipal solid waste with wet sludge The sludge is injected at the entry of the
must be carefully designed because a poten- furnace by means of a pipe system crossing
tial decrease of the energy content of the the refractory bricks, between the water
production is not unlikely. However, a way pipes. The sludges fall by gravity and the
must be found to introduce the pre-dried or incineration time and mixing of material are
untreated sludges into the incinerator. the same as with ordinary municipal solid
waste (see Figure 8.4).
One method of doing this consists of drying
the sludges to a dry material content of 65%, One of the most important points of those
which results in a calorific value similar to processes is the calibration of the systems. If
municipal solid waste (2000 th/t= 2000 kcal/ the sludge was injected in too large amounts,
kg). The sludges can then be injected into it would risk being incompletely incinerated;
the oven (hopper) taking into account that the elements are burnt on the surface and
the quantity of municipal solid waste treated not incinerated at the centre. The dry
must be decreased proportionally to com- material content of the sludge required
pensate for the weight of sludge. when pumping is 18 to 30 % DS. Different
systems can treat a total sludge mass of
This can be a drawback if the incinerator approximately 20% in comparison with
capacity is already close to saturation, but municipal solid waste. If the sludges are very
more so an advantage for periods of the year wet, vaporisation occurs after injection so
when many medium size units have a lack of that the total solid waste tonnage treated
waste. The granulated material obtained does not change very much.
Figure 8.3.
Another method is also used, consisting of the sludge production depends on the
mixing sludge with municipal solid waste in waste water treatment plant). In the
the hauler. This may result in some problems Netherlands higher capacities are
of volume and odours. required: 10 000 to 40 000 TDS or more,
whether the plant is combined with a
waste water treatment plant (or inte-
8.3. Advantages and Disadvantages grated with another waste treatment
plant) or not due to the complex flue gas
Advantages cleaning and operating efficiency.
• A significant reduction of the sludge
volume, after incineration • In case of co-incineration, the treatment
capacity and treatment efficiency depend
• Energetic valorisation of sludges on the saturation of the incinerator by
other solid waste streams and/or the
• Recycling of sludge treatment sub- ratio of sludge mass to solid waste mass.
products such as ashes and inert mate-
rial, which can be used in filler material
for asphalt and concrete production and 8.4. Financial Estimate
in the fabrication of bricks
The following costs have to be considered in
• Low sensitivity to sludge composition the decision making process for treatment of
sludges by incineration:
• Reliable systems
• Cost of storage systems necessary
• Minimisation of odours, due to closed
systems and high temperature • Cost of furnace
Figure 8.4.
• Fixed, proportional operating costs: should be equally allocated to the sludge and
personnel, consumables (i.e. fuel, the other waste material. Prices will then be
electricity and chemicals for flue gas higher than previously mentioned (530 - 750
cleaning), maintenance, taxes, etc. DEM/tonne of dry solid).
• Cost of quality control (raw sludge and Even though investment costs appear to be
sub-products) more intensive than the cost of the other
sludge treatment options, thermal treatment
• Marketing costs generated by the recy- of sludges by incineration is expected to
cling of some sub-products develop considerably in the years to come.
Units of significant size can balance invest-
On a first estimate basis, designated incinera- ment costs, making it a technically and
tion of sludge costs between 1,500 and 2,550 economically viable treatment process.
FFR (440-750 DEM) per tonne of dry mate-
rial, excluding taxes. This price includes the The combination of different waste streams,
investment costs, the up-grading of existing municipal solid waste and waste sludges, also
systems, the operating cost, and the final enables optimisation of the incinerator
disposal of residues in a class I landfill. This operations. One of the best examples is
is relevant to units capable of treating from incineration of sludge granulate resulting
2,000 to 5,000 tonnes of dry material per from thermal drying. This material is easy to
year, which represents water treatment store and can act as incinerator feed when
stations from 200,000 to 800,000 equivalent no other local treatment method is available.
inhabitants. The investment will be higher
for incinerators with pre-drying, but a Incineration units with either excess capacity
benefit for operating costs can be accounted or irregular flows (seaside or mountain
for. In the Netherlands where incinerators, locations) are particularly interested in the
designated with larger capacities (i.e. 5 possibilities offered by sludge drying and
tonnes of evaporated water per hour per incineration since they can store hygienic
incineration line in the Dordrecht plant), waste products with a high calorific value.
have pre-drying of the sludge and complex
flue gas cleaning, costs are in the upper Incineration results in a large volume reduc-
range (550-750 DEM). The lower range tion of the waste. Depending on the possi-
applies to countries where regulations bilities of re-using ashes, the decrease of the
concerning flue gas cleaning are less strin- amount of material to be landfilled will be
gent. more or less important.
9. Landfilling
By Béla Déak10
9.1. Conditions for Application 9.1.1. The Character and Treatment of Sludge
before Final Disposal on Landfill
A (wet) sludge production of 230 million The waste water sludge at the waste water
tonnes was estimated in the European Union treatment plants has different origins: it is
in 1993 (Korrespondenz Abwasser, 1993, 40, produced at the preliminary settling tanks
Jahrgang, Linder: Anforderungen an die (raw sludge), as excess sludge at the biologi-
Klarschlammentsorgung in Europe). In cal plant (activated sludge process), and it
Germany, 25% of the production was used in can be the mixture of both of the above
agriculture, 65% was landfilled, and 10% was sludge types. Waste water sludge can contain
incinerated. The corresponding figures in all the pollutants contained in the raw
Switzerland were 50, 30 and 20, respectively, (inflow) waste water, and the content of
whereas the figures in France were 55, 25 organic material varies depending on the
and 20, thus demonstrating large variations proportion of the industrial waste water, but
from country to country. However, in the usually it falls to the range of 60-70%.
future the use of landfills will have the lowest
priority in the waste hierarchy and will only Organic material is readily biodegradable
be chosen when no other ways to dispose of (fat, proteins and carbohydrates),
the sludge exist. The directions today are putrescible and causes odour problems
towards agricultural use and incineration. during the storage period. The sludge is also
considered to be an infectious material.
In the process of siting landfills it has always
been taken into account that even in case of Sludges are classified as stabilized when they
the most careful setting and proper opera- have undergone either aerobic or anaerobic
tion, some degree of subsurface pollution stabilization processes or been chemically
might occur. This is the reason why geologi- treated, which usually includes a liming step.
cally vulnerable sites are avoided when The addition of the lime to the sludge for
locating landfill sites. stabilization theoretically results in a better
disinfection efficiency (pathogen removal
Vulnerable geological media, such as open rate) than for example anaerobic digestion.
karstic areas and gravel terraces forming The disinfection effect of the aerobic
subsurface aquifer layers, are strictly pro- stabilization (total oxidation process) is most
tected for this reason. uncertain in that respect. Nowadays, thermal
aerobic stabilization processes are also used
Apart from the protection of the presently for pathogen removal, and this system is
used and future aquifers another factor in considered to be much more efficient in that
the selection of the site for landfills is that respect than the previously used systems.
the landfill itself has to be on a ‘dry’ loca-
tion, i.e. it should be located above the In smaller plants, sludge drying beds are still
ground water level. Minimization of envi- in use, but mechanical dewatering is becom-
ronmental pollution can be achieved by ing more and more widespread. As a result
proper selection of the site, organized of the mechanical dewatering, the original
disposal of the solid wastes, professional dry material content (2-3%) of the liquid
surface protection and continuous sludge is increased to 20-30%, which means
recultivation of the disposal area, as the that the sludge can be shoveled already at
leaching of the pollutants by the ground this point. Dewatering machines require
water and surface precipitation towards the chemical preconditioning/treatment of the
aquifer layers is minimized. sludge. Stabilized, dewatered sludge always
contains pathogenic microorganisms, which
It is also an important factor in the selection have to be taken into account. Lime treat-
of the location of the landfill site that the ment can increase the pH of the sludge up
distance between the bottom of the landfill to pH 12, but the inactivation effect on the
10 Municipal Sewage and the unsaturated zone should be as great pathogens is only temporary.
Works, Fovárosi as possible.
Csatornázási Müvek Rt.,
Marcius 15-e tér 3, 1056
Budapest, Hungary
Landfilling 37
9.1.2. Regulations Governing the Construction of starts with the formation of a protective fine
Sludge Disposal Sites (sand) layer below the plastic foil layer. Foils
In recent decades landfilling of sludge was a are welded together on site. Above these
favoured method, however, as explained layers the drainage layer is established
below, the relatively low cost of sludge consisting of a system of drainage pipes, with
disposal is becoming more and more ques- appropriate slope (for gravitational water
tionable under the present conditions. drainage). Then a protective layer of sand
follows, protecting the underlying drainage-
There are two alternatives for disposal of foil system from mechanical damage and
sludge: mono-deposits where only sludge is consequent leakage.
disposed of, and mixed deposits where the
sludge from the municipal waste water Actual setting of the deposit site can be
treatment plant is disposed of together with realized in different ways. Depending on the
the municipal solid waste. In the latter case, characteristics of the area, fill-up deposits are
it is customary to utilize the gases from the designed in valleys or in other natural
deposit (methane and CO2). depressions in artificial pits or in plane areas
by hill building methods. A combination of
Conditions for sludge disposal (sanitary the above-mentioned methods is also possi-
landfill) are regulated by the ‘Technical ble, i.e., upon filling up the depression a hill
Directives’ in each country. Considering the is established on top.
present strict regulations and the limited
number of the potentially suitable disposal The remaining water content of the
sites only regional sludge deposits can be dewatered sludge usually does not reach the
considered. It is also desired/required that bottom of the deposit as a result of the
below the deposit a water tight (e.g. clay) microbiological activity. Leachate water is
layer should be established to prevent generated from rain water and it is removed
infiltration into the ground water. by the help of the built-in drainage system.
Leachate water is highly polluted, therefore
Selection of the feasible site has to fulfill its treatment is indispensable. This treatment
other criteria as well. Among these the most can be carried out by traditional waste water
important ones are the safety distance from treatment methods, but occasionally the
various establishments such as residential leachate is used for irrigation in forestry.
areas, public roads, river dikes, etc. It is of Deposit sites has not only to be fenced, but a
paramount importance that the selected site protective forest range has to be established
should not be covered even temporarily by around it as well.
inland waters, or be located on the area of
water bases (aquifers). Another point is that Operation of the deposit will be discussed
the land should not be of high value from an later, but already here it is stressed that a
agricultural point of view and the future monitoring well system has to be established
development plan is not to be intercepted by around the area for the detection of poten-
the establishment of the sludge deposit. tial pollutant migration. Sampled ground
water has to be analyzed in laboratories.
Finally, economic points have to be consid-
ered as well. Among these the distance of Finally, recultivation of the deposit has to be
transportation should be minimized, but taken into account when designing such an
occasionally the presence of natural depres- establishment. Usually, upon finishing
sions, or pits of former mines are taken into disposal operations shrubs and forest are
account. Traffic should be planned so as to planted on the top of the area. As it appears
avoid large trucks in residential areas. from the conditions described above, the
establishment of a sludge deposit site is
Upon selection of the location of the sludge extremely costly, requiring a useful life
deposit site the technical design follows. The (filling up capacity) of at least 10 years to
most important elements of the design are achieve cost effectiveness.
the artificial water insulation and drainage.
Percolation into the ground and surface
water must be prevented at all costs. There- 9.2. Practical Solutions
fore the landfill should have water tight
layers or lines on the sides (horizontal or There are two alternatives for disposal of
sloping). sludge: mono-deposits where only sludge is
disposed of, and mixed deposits where the
Establishment of the water insulation layer sludge from the municipal waste water
38 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
treatment plant is disposed of together with be discussed later, some gas formation is
the municipal solid waste. expected to occur in mono-deposits as well.
The gas contains 50-60% methane, 40-50%
9.2.1. Mono-deposits carbon dioxide (in traces other gases also).
The largest constraint on the establishment The methane is considered a dangerous gas,
of a mono-deposit system in the temperate therefore surface gas evaporation on the
climate is the provision of the appropriate surface of the deposit has to be controlled
water content of the sludge. Usually, this and checked. The most important task is to
cannot be above the 65% percent value as a avoid gas accumulation in closed (covered)
higher water content impedes the mechani- spaces (i.e. in rain water collection shafts).
cal means of transportation and handling.
Suitable consistency of the sludge is checked 9.2.2. Mixed Deposits
by the special shearing-force measuring In forming the mixed deposit the predomi-
apparatus. Dried sludge has - at least so far- nant ingredient is the municipal solid waste,
not been disposed of on waste deposits whereas the sludge is considered as a second-
where the largest problem is the efficiency of ary additive as its proportion is usually only
the dewatering process. Among the 20-25% (see figure 9.1 and 9.2). As the
dewatering processes described in detail in companies responsible for the collection and
chapter 7, the chamber press machine and a treatment of municipal solid waste are not
new generation of centrifuges can theoreti- identical to the ones responsible for the
cally fulfill or exceed the criteria, after lime- sewerage and waste water treatment, the first
iron salt conditioning. constraint to be dealt with is the protest of
the solid waste management company
As an example, the dry material content of against receiving and operating with sludge.
the lime and iron salt conditioned sludge on The reason for this is that the sludge disposal
chamber press is about 40-50% in the North- makes the waste disposal more complicated,
ern-Budapest WWTP. The sludge cake especially when the water content of the
produced here is disposed of on an appro- sludge is high. In spite of this, the establish-
priately designed deposit near the capital (20 ment of mixed deposits is economically
kms away) in the vicinity of the municipality desirable, and the requirement for the
of Fótcsomád. This deposit is acknowledged reduction of the water content of the depos-
as the most advanced sludge deposit in ited sludge is not as high as in the case of
Central Europe. mono-deposits. The water holding capacity
(hygroscopy) of the solid waste is relatively
There are strict rules for the operation of high. For the achievement of the proper
mono-deposits. In theory, these rules already microbiological activity within the landfill, a
apply when loading the trucks with sludge at water content in the range of 60-65% is
the waste water treatment plant. The most required. The waste itself matures (biologi-
important task is the organization of the cally available organic material content is
disposal on the deposit, transport vehicles degraded by the microorganisms, and
movement, and the material movement on stabilization takes place) and the already
the deposit. All of these processes have to be mentioned gas formation is enhanced. In
in harmony with each other. Strict regula- this deposit type the collection and utiliza-
tions apply to the width of the deposited tion of the formed gas is a desirable (some-
sludge layer (this depends on the consistency times compulsory) task (see below).
of the sludge), the storage and distribution
of the cover layer (soil) for the control of Regulatory principles for mixed deposits
odour and infection as well as the availability were compiled on the basis of the German
to animals (rodents). Collection of leachate regulations (LAGA-Deponie Merkblatt 4690,
and surface precipitation, their collection ATV-VKS, Regelwerk, Abwasser-Abfall,
method, treatment and disposal have to be Arbeitsblatt A 301):
regularly checked. Should the water sample
in the monitoring wells indicate ground 1. The most important rule of the mixed
water contamination, the technology has to deposits is that during processing the
be modified. Apart from these rules a wide suitable consistency has to be ensured,
range of occupational health, hygienic and for the appropriate work of the mechani-
labour safety rules have to be followed. cal machinery, to compress the solid
waste and the sludge in an optimal way.
Although the physical conditions in a com-
pactly sludge deposit are not really favorable 2. Sludge can only be deposited after
for gas formation, as in the mixed deposits to dumping an at least 3 meters thick solid
Landfilling 39
Figure 9.1.
Disposal of sewage
sludge and solid waste at
mixed deposit
40 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Figure 9.2.
3. There are three built-in methods applied Number of Council Directive Title of rule
depending on the way in which the
75/442/EEC Waste Framework
sludge is mixed into the solid waste,
• Pile deposit. In case of point (pile) 94/62/EC Packaging and packaging waste
disposal the maximum amount of sludge
91/689/EEC Hazardous waste
can be 20-25 percent (w)
• Mixed deposit. 94/67EC Incineration of hazardous waste
• Deposit in levels. In two or three levels
COM (97) 105 final, 97/0085 (SYN) Landfill waste
(see Fig. 9.1). In case of this alternative
the mixing ratio is only 10% for the
EU-Directives on waste
sludge. In the latter case the building in
method at the deposit can be freely
chosen.
5. During disposal the formation of the off- 9.3. Evaluation of Cost Efficiency
gases is not a real hazard, as deposit gases
though formed in deeper layers are The specific price of establishing a sludge
readily ventilated through a large surface deposit (including the cost of geological and
area. Upon completing the disposal hydrogeological investigations, area, liner
process by covering the surface layer with (plastic or clay), leachate and gas collection
soil, significant gas formation is expected and treatment systems (drainage systems),
to occur. These gases are to be collected fences, planting, soil for covering the sludge,
and utilized. If utilization of the gases monitoring wells, control and analysis of
cannot be managed, collection and safe leachate, weigh bridge, buildings, machines,
ventilation of these gases have to be pumps etc., but excluding the price of the
ensured in another way (i.e. by ventila- land) is approx. HUF 10,000 or USD 67, or
tion chimneys followed by burning). DEM 100 per square meter (1996 price
level). There are huge differences between
6. Leachate water percolating through the the Austrian and German specific prices with
deposited waste and sludge layers (it may regard to the disposal cost of 1 tonne of
fluctuate between 0.01-0.1 l/sec quanti- waste. The disposal cost in Styria (Austria)
ties) is considered to be highly polluted varies between 800-3,500 ATS (USD 80-350).
and its chemical oxygen demand can In Germany the price was in 1991 DEM 300 -
reach values as high as 50-60,000 mg/l, 600, showing a constant increase over the
and the ammonia content might reach past few years.
several thousand milligrams per liter.
Table 9.1 shows the most important Direc-
There are two possible ways of reducing such tives applying to waste management.
a high pollution level. The first is the well-
known waste water treatment, the second is
the recirculation of the leachate water to the
deposit (not allowed in some countries). The
latter method provides twofold benefits: on
the one hand it provides the optimal water
content necessary for the gas formation and
on the other hand via the inner natural
biodegradation processes (microbiological
degradation) the organic material content is
greatly reduced.
Figure 10.1.
Sludge gasification
- flow sheet.
Courtesy of Schelde
Milieutechnologie B.V.
2,000_C to 4,000_C into a gas mixture (80% The technology, widely applied in the
CO2 and H2) which may be used in the metallurgic industry for decades, has been
manufacture of methanol or as fuel. The adapted to waste management conditions
molten slag-metal mixture solidifies into a and requirements since the eighties. Upscale
gas-like non-leachable solid. plants treating municipal waste are under
construction in the USA. In Europe, several
The ratio between the energy output and the plants are operated mainly to achieve vitrifi-
input of electric energy is around 4. cation of slag and ashes as outputs of conven-
tional waste incineration plants.
44 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Figure 12.1.
Sludge Treatment
Decision Tree
Table 12.2.
Comments on keywords
in figure 12.1 Term in figure 12.1 Comment
Additional information is
provided in the other Polluted A sludge is polluted if it does not fulfil the legal requirements for agricultural use.
chapters of this booklet. Pollution normally consists of an excessive heavy metal content.
Disinfection Disinfection is necessary for agricultural application of thin or dewatered sludge as
anaerobic digestion alone does not guarantee sufficient elimination of germs. Usually
pasteurisation is chosen to produce a hygienic sludge.
Dewatering Thickening of thin sludge by mechanical methods (presses). The dry substance content
of dewatered sludge is approximately 15 to 35%
Conditioning Conditioning is mixing the dewatered sludge with an additive reducing the thyxotropic
properties and increasing the mechanical resistance in order to make the sludge easier
to store, transport and deposit. Most additives are made on the basis of crushed
limestone.
Drying The dry substance content after thermal drying is usually 80 to 90%. The resulting
granular sludge is then biologically stable, easily storable and transportable and may
be used as fuel or as fertiliser. In the case of end disposal in a landfill or a waste
incineration plant, drying may be reasonable only up to a dry substance content of 40
to 60%, which can also be reached by mixing of dried sludge with dewatered sludge.
Incineration The purpose of incineration is not only sludge elimination but also recovery of energy.
This may be done at a special sludge incineration plant or with dried sludge as a fuel,
at an external power plant or cement kiln. When incineration occurs at a nearby waste
incineration plant, pre-drying may be less important than for other uses.
Agricultural use Sludge may be used in agriculture as thin, not dewatered sludge or as dewatered
sludge, in the latter usually after conditioning. A third way is spreading of dry sludge as
a commercial fertiliser, for instance if the sludge is dried and stored during the winter
season. Similar to the use in agriculture is the application in forestry, horticulture or
viticulture.
Table 12.3.
Explanation of numbers
contained in the decision Number Examples of conditions influencing the decision
tree in figure 12.1
1 Utilisation of thin and/or dewatered sludge in agriculture is possible
13. Appendices
• Waste water from flue gas cleaning which may be attributed to different treat-
(scrubber water) ment methods. It is therefore important that
analyses of the current sludge should be
• Leachate from ash deposit available for inclusion in the fertiliser plans
for the fields onto which the sludge is
Sludge incineration plants must be environ- spread.
mentally approved by the authorities.
13.2.1. Nitrogen
13.1.2. USA Plants cannot make immediate use of the
For many years, preparations have been nitrogen contained in the sludge as the main
made in the USA to work out sludge regula- part is organic and needs to be converted
tions covering all fields of application and into inorganic nitrogen by mineralisation
disposal. On 25 November 1992, the final before it can be absorbed by the plants.
edition of part 503 ‘Standards for the Use or
Disposal of Waste water sludge’ was ready. Plants generally need addition of nitrogen
early in the season of growth, whereas
In addition to requirements for agricultural mineralisation of nitrogen is not performed
use of sludge, the regulations include incin- until after the spreading when the soil
eration and landfilling as well as detailed bacteria have been activated. Consequently,
requirements for pre-treatment. plants with a short season of growth, e.g.
grain crops, cannot utilise the nitrogen very
The American regulations contain very well, whereas plants with a longer season of
specific directions for sludge treatment growth, e.g. beets, corn and rye grass, are
before disposal including requirements for able to utilise the nitrogen to a greater
pathogens and vector attraction reduction. extent.
They also divide the sludge into two classes.
If a number of further specified require- The type of nitrogen and its effect on plants
ments are complied with, sludge classified as depend on sludge type and treatment, cf.
Class A can be used without restrictions. Less table 14.1.
strict requirements on sludge pre-treatment
apply to sludge classified as Class B, which As can be seen from table 14.1, the effect of
must only be used under certain specific site nitrogen from dewatered sludge on plants is
restrictions. less significant owing to removal of dissolved
inorganic nitrogen with the reject water.
The directions applying to sludge in Class A
are split into six alternative methods and 13.2.2. Phosphorus
those applying to sludge in Class B are split Sludge is generally a good phosphorus
into three alternative methods including site fertiliser, even if the phosphorus contained
restrictions. in sludge is much less readily soluble than
the phosphorus contained in artificial
The pathogen reduction processes are fertiliser. On well-fertilised soils, the phos-
divided into two stages: phorus state is merely to be maintained. The
phosphorus accessibility in sludge depends
• Processes to significantly reduce patho on the treatment of the sludge. Table 14.2
gens (PSRP) shows the phosphorus accessibility to the
plants. The amount of citrate soluble phos-
• Processes to further reduce pathogens phorus shows how much of the phosphorus
(PFRP) is accessible to the plants.
Table 14.1.
Utilisation of nitrogen
Sludge type 1st year uptake in plants Nitrogen type Possible effect for several years from different types of
sludge
Liquid
Primary sludge 30-35% of total nitrogen Mainly organic Yes
if spring spreading
15-20% of total nitrogen
if autumn spreading
Dewatered:
Primary sludge 15-20% of total nitrogen Organic Yes
Table 14.2.
Utilisation of phosphorus
Nutrient 1st year uptake in plants Possible effect for several years and potassium from
waste water sludge
Phosphorus:
Total phosphorus 50-80% Yes
basic information are particle size distribu- by layers where larger ones prevail. Finally,
tion, water retention and rheological proper- counting methods involve the use of differ-
ties. ent instruments, which measure signals
proportional to particle size: such instru-
13.3.1. Particle Size Distribution ments generally require mixing possibly
The main problem in particle size evaluation resulting in a change in the particle size
relates to the measurement difficulty. Three distribution.
principal methods are known, i.e. direct
examination, fractionation and counting, 13.3.2. Water Retention
but each of them requires modifications of Although the names given to the various
the sludge before and during measurements, water fractions can be different, the follow-
which may result in an alteration by the ing classification appears appropriate: free
measurement techniques of the original water, capillary water, vicinal water and
distribution. A reproducibility problem is chemically bound water.
also present due to the irregular shapes of
sludge flocs, so each step in a sizing proce- Classical analysis is carried out by
dure must be conducted carefully to pre- thermogravimetry, which consists of submit-
serve the original floc shape, size and struc- ting a small sample of material to drying at
ture [2]. low temperature under standard conditions:
the results are presented as drying rate
The main problem of direct examination is curves consisting of a constant rate period, a
to fix sludge in an inert medium to allow first falling rate period and a third one. An
non-disruptive examination. The alternative method is based on the theory
fractionation with a series of filters or screen that bound water does not freeze at tempera-
could cause the retention of smaller particles tures below the freezing point temperature
52 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
of free water, so the free water can be deter- A wide variety of viscometers is available.
mined by noting the expansion caused by They fall into the two general categories of
freezing. A differential thermal analysis tube type and rotating type, whose applica-
procedure has also been used [4]. bility depends on the sludge physical state
(liquid, plastic, solid).
13.3.3. Rheological Properties
A powerful technique in characterising The tube viscometers involve a faraginous
sludges is to classify them according to their procedure and are not commercially avail-
flow properties. able; moreover, the tube diameter must be
large enough to prevent clogging.
The fluidodynamic characterisation of
sludges has been widely applied in the past Rotational viscometers are generally consid-
to the study the flow of slurries, but due to ered to be more reliable. They may have
the existence of some correlation between coaxial cylinders, rotating blades and cone-
the rheological properties and the suitability plate geometry. Drawbacks of coaxial cylin-
of sludges to treatments, such as der types are that cylinders must have a small
flocculation, thickening and dewatering, and gap, so there is a risk of obstructions by solid
disposal, mainly landfilling has been evi- materials, and slipping may occur at the
denced [1], [3]. cylinder/liquid interface. In the case of
viscometers with blades (or vane apparatus),
The rheological behaviour of sewage sludges the velocity gradient is less well defined, so
is generally described as non-Newtonian only a mean value based on the mechanical
(Ostwald-pseudo-plastic and Bingham-plastic energy dissipated in the medium can be
models have been found to be the most obtained. The cone-plate geometry
recurrent for waste water sludge); activated rheometers can be excluded on the basis of
sludge has also been found to be thixotropic, both the large size of sludge particles relative
which means that sludge rheology is also to the gap and the generally poor sludge
dependent on the shear rate history. consistency.
53
14. References
[1] APHA-AWWA-WPCF (1980). Standard [1] Castorani A., Spinosa L. and Trosi S.
Methods for the Examination of Water and (1985). Preliminary criteria for the design of
Wastewater, 15th Edn., Washington D.C., USA sewage and sludge pumping systems. Phoe-
nix International, 3/4, 22-29.
[2] Bruce A.M. and Fisher W.J. (1984).
Sludge stabilization - methods and measure- [2] Frost R.C. (1981). How to design
ment. In: sewage Sludge Stabilization and sewage sludge pumping systems, W.R.C.
Disinfection. Bruce A.M. Ed., Ellis Process Engineering, 85-S.
Horwood, Chichester, U.K.
[3] Frost R.C. (1982a). Prediction of
[3] Colin F. (1979). Methodes d’evaluation friction losses for the flow of sewage
de la stabilité biologique des boues residu- sludges along straight pipes. Water Research
aries, E.E.C.-COST 68 bis, Working Party 1 Centre Technical report TR175, Water
Meeting, Institut de Recherches Hydro- Research Centre, Stevenage (UK).
logiques, Nancy, France, 25 Sept. 1979.
[4] Frost R.C. (1982b). A method of
[4] Heide B.A., Kampf R. and Visser M.A. estimating viscosity and designing pumping
(1982). Manual for the selection and use of systems for thickened heterogeneous
polyelectrolytes in dewatering sludge with sludges. 8th Int. Conf. Hydr. Trans. Solids in
beltpresses, TNO Report 124E, Delft, The pipes, Johannesburg, SA, August 25-27.
Netherlands.
[5] Spinosa L. and Sportelli S. (1986).
[5] Lockyear C.F. and White M.J.D. Storage and transport of sewage sludge.
(1979). The WRC thickenability test using Phoenix international, 3, 34-37.
a low speed centrifuge, WRC Technical
Report TR 118, Stevenage, U.K. [6] U.S.EPA (1979). Process design
manual for sludge treatment and disposal.
[6] Spinosa L., Mininni G., Barile G. and EPA 625/1-79-011, Cincinnati (OH-USA).
Lorè F. (1984). Study of belt-press operation
for sludge dewatering. In: Proc. of the E.E.C. [7] U.S.EPA (1984). Use and disposal of
Workshop Methods of Characterization of municipal wastewater sludge. EPA 625/10-84-
Sewage Sludge, Dublin, Eire, 6 July 1983, 16- 003, Washington DC (USA).
29, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
[8] Wiart J. (1993). Les differents
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(1990). Evaluation of sewage sludge cen- avant valorisation en agriculture. Etude de
trifugability. Proc. of V World Filtration l’Agence de l’Environment et de la Maitrise
Congress, Vol. 2, 327-330, Nice, 5-8 June, de l’Energie et al., Angers (F).
1990.
[9] Willis D.J. (1978). A literature survey
[8] Vesilind P.A. (1971). Estimation of on sewage sludge pumping. B.H.R.A.
sludge centrifuge performance, Journal TN 1500
of the Sanitary Eng. Division, ASCE, 97, SA2,
234-238.
14.3. Agricultural Use
[9] Vesilind P.A. (1974). Treatment and
Disposal of Wastewater Sludge. Ann Arbor [1] Handling, Treatment and Disposal of
Science, Ann Arbor, U.S.A. Sludge in Europe. Situation Report 1. An
Overview. ISWA Working Group on Sewage
[10] Vesilind P.A. and Zhang G. (1983). and Waterworks
Technique for estimating sludgecompatibil-
ity in centifugal dewatering. Personal com-
munication.
54 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
[1] D.E. Gough, I.F. Hammerton, T.R. [2] Da-Hong L. and Ganczarczyk J.J.
Griale and C.K. Herdle: ‘Demonstration of (1986). Physical characteristics of activated
the Oil-from-Sludge (OFS) Technology at sludge flocs. Dept. of Civil Eng., Univ. of
the Malabar Sewage Treatment Plant.’ 14th Toronto. Personal communication to Sludge
Federal Convention, Australian Water & Network.
Wastewater Ass., Perch, March 1991
[3] Frost R.C. (1983). Inter-relation
[2] Anton Rottier / G.H. Huisman, between sludge characteristics. In: Methods
Schelde Milieutechnologie B.V., personal of characterization of sewage sludge, T.J.
communication Casey P. L’Hermite P.J. Newman Eds., D.
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[3] Mr. Mayer, Noell-KRC, personal
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tion in wastewater sludges. Dissertation
at the Dept. Civil & Env. Eng. (P.A. Vesilind,
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