Are weeds a serious problem?

Chapter 1

ARE WEEDS A SERIOUS PROBLEM?

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WHEN IS A PLANT A WEED?

A plant is termed a weed when it grows at a time or place in which it is not wanted.
This will depend on the person making the judgement, their location and how they use
the land. A plant may be useful in some situations but a weed in others. For example,
a crop plant that carries over in the next crop in a rotation is a weed.

Be aware of why you are labelling a plant a weed. Is it because of the plant’s appearance?
Is there a lot of it? Is it affecting productivity? Or is it damaging the environment?

WHY SHOULD WEEDS BE CONTROLLED?

Weeds generally interfere with human activities in some way or have a negative impact
on our environment. In particular, weeds can produce one or more of the following
problems:
• invade and damage natural bushland, wetlands, grassland and forests
• block waterways and reduce water quality
• reduce visibility along roadsides and access for people through trails and tracks
• create unwanted fuel; making a fire hazard
• degrade the appeal of landscapes, wetlands and waterways
• compete with crops and pastures; reducing production and profit
• contaminate harvested grain, fodder and wool
• cause tainting of milk and meat
• injure livestock
• poison livestock
• cause allergic reactions in people
• harbour pests and diseases
• interfere with cultivating and harvesting activities
• restrict the movement of livestock and their access to watering points.
Copyright 2016. Tocal College, NSW DPI.

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 4 Managing weeds

Faba bean crop suffering moisture stress from the effects of patches of wild melon infesting the paddock the previous year and robbing subsoil moisture

It is difficult to estimate the total cost to the community of weeds between 1802 and 1804, his botanist, Robert Brown identified
and their management, but recent CSIRO assessments puts the a list of 20 or so weeds—most from England, but some from
cost at over $4 billion each year in control and lost production. South Africa and even South America. Who brought them in?

The number of identified weeds in Australia is expanding. In

most cases this is due to the unintended ‘escape’ of deliberately
introduced plants for garden or horticultural purposes. Other Contaminant 2%
common weeds have either deliberately been imported for
agricultural purposes or accidentally introduced and spread Agriculture 7%
as a contaminant of crop seed or fodder. Of most concern is
the rate at which introduced plants have invaded and become Other 6%
established in the wild (naturalised). Again, CSIRO figures
indicate that more than 28,000 exotic plants have been brought
into Australia, most deliberately. And now, more than 2,700
species of these introductions are established in the wild. Unknown
20%
Many weeds have been introduced from other countries Escaped from
without their natural competitors, predators or diseases, parks and gardens
allowing them to be highly competitive. The naturalisation of 65%
non-Australian plants often reduces the diversity and quality of
our environment.

Figure 1 shows the various ways in which weeds have been

introduced into Australia. Note how many have come here by
unknown means. In fact, when Matthew Flinders visited Sydney Figure 1: How weeds are introduced (from Weeds CRC Killing us softly)

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Scotch thistle (above) and Paterson’s curse (above right). Many weeds in Australia are garden escapes
WEED CATEGORIES
Weeds can be labelled according to the level and type of
interference they cause:
• weeds of national significance (WONS). These are regarded
as the worst weeds in Australia, and concerted efforts are
made to control them
• declared noxious weeds - identified as a threat to a district or
region. State government legislation requires their control
• agricultural weeds - plant species that reduce the quantity
and quality of agricultural production or increase
production costs
• environmental weeds - plant species that invade natural
environment areas, and are not a native to that area.
A weed may be included in all three categories because of its
ability to invade and persist in a region under different land
uses. For example, St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) is a
declared noxious weed in regions of south-eastern Australia, a
weed of pastures and a plant capable of invading native plant
communities.
Many weeds that cause problems on a large scale have an urban
origin. Over 600 garden plants in Australia have been identified
as invasive weeds (eg. Scotch thistle and Paterson’s curse).
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Are weeds a serious problem? 5
WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR CONTROLLING WEEDS?
Weeds on private property are the responsibility of the
landholder. If declared noxious weeds are present you have a
legal responsibility to control them. You may wish to notify
Weeds Officers at your local council who will be able to advise
you.
Weeds on public land such as roadsides, recreation areas
and stock routes are the responsibility of local governments,
catchment authorities and state agencies. Weeds on state land
such as national parks and railways are the responsibility of the
relevant government agency.
State and Territory Governments and the Commonwealth
Government each have weed management strategies to guide
weed management programs.
We all have an interest in the long-term management of weeds
because of their cost to industry, the community and the threat
they pose to our land and water resources.
 6 Managing weeds
NASTY WEEDS THAT YOU SHOULD BE AWARE OF
There are many weeds out there, but here are some of the worst.
Coolatai grass (Hyparrhenia hirta)
Coolatai grass is a tall, bulky, perennial grass that invades
pastures, grasslands and grassy woodlands. It is also noticeable
along roadsides in rural areas and is rapidly becoming more
widespread.
It was introduced into Australia in the 1890s as a possible
pasture plant and became naturalised in northern NSW. It can
now be found in all states and territories other than Tasmania
and the Northern Territory.
It mainly grows and flowers in late spring to autumn, depending
on adequate rainfall.
Why is Coolatai grass difficult to control?
• it is deep-rooted (up to 3m) and drought-resistant
• grows in a range of soil types
• rapidly re-grows after it is burnt, grazed or slashed,
especially in warm to hot conditions
• responds quickly to summer rain with rapid growth
• spreads by tiny seeds with hairy awned husks that attach to
clothing, animals, vehicles and tools, especially when wet
Coolatai grass infestation may look like kangaroo grass or barbed wire grass at first glance. Inset: Coolatai grass can seed in as little as two weeks after slashing
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• can also spread by water run-off from storms
• generally not grazed by animals when mature
• old, dry growth of mature tussocks can shield growing
leaves from contact with herbicide, meaning a single
application may not be enough to kill the plant.
Coolatai grass can be classed as a weed because it:
• replaces and dominates native and desirable plants due to
its growth habit, reducing plant diversity
• reduces habitat quality for native animals that rely on
grassy woodlands and native grasslands
• increases fire risk due to the abundance and flammability
of its dry leaves and stalks
• reduces the productivity of pastures and the livestock
enterprises that rely on them
• devalues the land.
Management of this weed should focus on preventing its
spread. Once established, it is very difficult to control and
requires ongoing management that integrates a range of control
methods. This type of management program can help to contain
it, reduce its harmful effects and encourage favoured vegetation
to recover.

Serrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma)
Serrated tussock is a perennial grass that invades grasslands,
pastures, roadsides and scrub and is rapidly becoming more
widespread. It is regarded as one of the worst weeds in Australia
and is listed as a Weed of National Significance. Why do you ask?
Here are a few facts:
• Unpalatable to stock, lives 20 years
• Infested pastures show production losses up to 95%
• Costs NSW graziers $40 million each year
• Area increased four-fold in Vic over the last 20 years,
potential to spread over 30m ha of SE Australia.
It can be found in NSW (and the ACT), Victoria, and Tasmania
and has the potential to spread into South Australia and
southern Queensland.
Serrated tussock mainly grows during spring and early summer.
It reproduces from seed, with germination occurring mainly in
autumn and winter. Seed is produced in the summer and then
shed in late summer through autumn.
Why is Serrated tussock difficult to control?
• grows in a range of soil types and climatic conditions
• has a deep fibrous root system
• mature plants produce a massive amount of seeds per year
(140 000)
Serrated tussock is quite distinctive in a paddock when it goes to seed. Inset: Serrated tussock has no feed value for stock
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Are weeds a serious problem? 7
• the light seed head can be carried by wind over long
distances (up to 20 km)
• seed is also easily spread by people, animals and vehicles
and equipment
• seed can remain dormant in the soil for several years and
then germinate
• tolerant to drought, fire and grazing
• generally avoided by grazing animals
• introduced plant. Few natural enemies in Australia.
Serrated tussock is classed a weed because it:
• replaces and dominates native and desirable plants due to
its growth habit, reducing plant diversity
• reduces habitat quality for native animals that rely on
grasslands and scrub
• severely reduces the productivity of pastures and the
livestock enterprises that rely on them
• creates a fire hazard in urban areas
• devalues the land.
Preventing the invasion of Serrated tussock is the best option.
Vigilance and regular monitoring will allow you to remove
isolated or small patches of plants. If it becomes established
control is expensive and difficult. Long-term management relies
on the establishment and maintenance of adequate groundcover
year round and competitive desirable plants and vegetation.
 8 Managing weeds

Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia)

Madeira vine, also known as ‘lamb’s tail vine’ or ‘mignonette
vine’ is a semi-succulent climbing vine. It is one of Australia’s
worst environmental weeds and in 2012 it was listed as a Weed
of National Significance. It is most concentrated around the
highly biodiverse coastal and hinterland regions between central
Queensland and central New South Wales; however it has the
potential to spread significantly and naturalised populations
have been identified in all states and territories other than the
Northern Territory.
Madeira vine was introduced from South America as an
ornamental species and has been naturalised since at least
the 1950s. Although no longer part of the nursery trade, it
is widespread in urban and peri-urban areas and continues
to invade nearby bushland as a result of poor green waste
management practices.
Madeira vine has green, waxy and semi-succulent heart-shaped
leaves that are usually 4-5 cm in length and 0.8-11 cm in width.
It has slender, twining and hairless stems up to 30 m long which
are green-pinkish-red in colour, but become brown and woody
with age and reach 2-3 cm in diameter. The flowering head is
fragrant, greenish-white to cream-white and resembles a ‘lamb’s
tail’, with many small flowers along a drooping, central stem.
Madeira vine produces a large number of aerial tubers that are
light brown or green and ‘warty’ in appearance. The vine also
produces ‘potato-like’ subterranean tubers which can grow up
to 20 cm in diameter and at depths of up to 1m.
The large vines are usually more easily identified by a mass of
sprouting tubers at the base of the tree; or during flowering
season, the cream panicles of flowers visible amongst the canopy.

Madeira vine reproduces prolifically through asexual tubers that

remain viable for up to 15 years. It smothers and collapses native
vegetation, particularly in riparian and rainforest environments
and poses a significant threat to a number of endangered coastal
and forest ecosystems.

The distinctive flowerhead of Madeira vine. Inset: The aerial tubers on Madeira vine are distinctive

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Green Cestrum (Cestrum parqui)
Green Cestrum is a perennial shrub that is normally found
along watercourses and in grazing areas. The plant is also known
as Green poison berry or Chilean cestrum.
It was originally introduced as a garden plant from South
America and has since become naturalised in south-east
Queensland, eastern NSW and parts of Victoria and South
Australia.
It grows up to three metres in height.
Why is green cestrum difficult to control?
• seed is readily spread by birds
• seed is easily spread along watercourses during floods
• seed can remain dormant in the soil for many years
• it is able to regrow from parts of its fleshy root system if
not removed.
Green cestrum is classed as a weed because it:
• replaces and dominates native and desirable plants due to
its growth habit, reducing plant diversity
• is toxic to livestock and people.
Green cestrum is toxic to livestock and people. Control is not easy
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Are weeds a serious problem? 9
Mimosa (Mimosa pigra)
Mimosa is a Weed of National Significance. It is regarded as
one of the worst weeds in Australia because of its invasiveness,
potential for spread, and economic and environmental impacts.
Introduced from South America (probably to the Darwin
Botanic Gardens), mimosa has the potential to colonise all the
wetlands of tropical Australia.
Once established, mimosa forms dense stands that replace
all native vegetation. Pastoralists are affected because the
inedible and thorny mimosa smothers and replaces grasslands,
blocks access to stock watering points and hinders mustering.
Additionally, the harvesting of bush foods by indigenous people
is hampered by mimosa.
In environmental terms, nationally and internationally
significant wetlands are threatened by mimosa, which reduces
the biodiversity of plant and animal life on the floodplains by
outcompeting native plants and reducing available habitat for
animals.
 10 Managing weeds

Mimosa is a branched prickly shrub, growing up to 6 m. The Key points

fernlike green leaves, which fold together at night or when
touched (mimosa is also known as the giant sensitive plant), are
made up of many fine leaflets and occur in pairs along branches.
Larger thorns (5–10 mm long) are found on the stem. Mimosa
can germinate year round if the soil is moist but not flooded.
However, most germination takes place at the start and end
of the wet season. Growth in seedlings is rapid, and flowering
occurs between four and 12 months after germination.
The main flowering season is January–March but flowering can
be extended into the dry season under moist conditions.
• Once established, mimosa is very difficult to control.
But it can be managed using systematic integrated weed
management programs.
• Prevent mimosa spread by using effective quarantine,
hygiene and monitoring, and by controlling feral animals.
• Control mimosa in small patches before it seeds by hand
pulling, bulldozing or spraying herbicides.
• Larger infestations should be sprayed from the air. Follow-
up will be required.
• Biological control agents (eg moths and weevils) also help
to control mimosa in the long term.

Mimosa grows extremely quickly, and in ideal conditions (information from Weed Management Guide, Weeds of National Significance)
infestations double in size every 18 months.

How it spreads
Mimosa mainly reproduces from seeds. Large plants can produce
vast amounts of seeds, up to 220,000 per year. Mimosa seeds
are dispersed in two main ways: carried downstream during
flooding or transported by animals or machinery. Animals can
spread seeds in their droppings (eg cattle, horses) or in mud
attached to their bodies (eg kangaroos, pigs, buffalo). Humans
transport seed attached to their clothing or equipment (eg
boats, cars, tractors).

Mimosa, a Weed of National Significance, is extremely invasive in tropical areas

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 Are weeds a serious problem? 11

Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides)

Alligator weed is a fast-growing, summer active weed of
waterways. It propagates easily by root, rhizome or stem
fragments. It thrives in both terrestrial and aquatic conditions
and is a listed Weed of National Significance (WONS).
Because it spreads by rhizomes, it is drought tolerant, so if the
waterway dries up, it can survive. The rhizomes of alligator weed
also make it difficult to eradicate. It can out-compete other
riparian plants. Any management plan must gain control of
these rhizomes.
Interestingly, although it produces flowers, it doesn’t set seed.
It successfully spreads by earthworks, and any other form of
cutting and moving the rhizomes about. So humans are the
main cause of spread.
There are few herbicides registered and suitable for its control,
due to environmental concerns, so management plans are mainly
ineffective. The two chemicals in common use are metsulfuron
(which is selective and slower acting) and glyphosate (non-
selective).
Aquatic forms of alligator weed are easier to control than
terrestrial forms, but it can quickly re-establish from plants
growing on the banks of waterways.
So management plans for alligator weed rely on multiple
herbicide attacks on the rhizomes over two or three years,
reducing pasture height to improve herbicide contact and
competitive pasture growth to suppress regrowth of the weed.

Spraying alligator weed. Chemical control is easier for plants in water than for those on land. Inset:Alligator weed needs a longterm management plan

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 12 Managing weeds

SOME COMMON WEEDS OF PASTURES

Fireweed Senecio madagascariensis (WONS) Parthenium Parthenium hysterophorus (WONS)

Horehound Marrubium vulgare Giant Parramatta grass Sporobolus fertilis

Barley grass Hordeum leporinum Sorrel Acetosella vulgaris

Chilean needle grass Nassella neesiana (WONS) Paterson’s curse Echium plantagineum

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