Chemistry of the Atmosphere

 Greenhouse Gas
-gases that trap heat in the atmosphere
-carbon dioxide – enter the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels, solid
wastes, trees, biological materials,
- methane – emitted through production and transport coal, natural gas, and oil.
- nitrous oxide – emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion
of fossil fuels, solid wastes,
-fluorinated gases – emitted I smaller quantities but referred to as Global
warming potential gases
 Global Warming
- Globe is becoming hotter this temperature increase can have paradoxical
effects, such as more serious snowstorms.
- There are several big ways climate change can and will affect the globe: By
melting ice, by drying out already-arid areas, by causing weather extremes
and by disrupting the delicate balance of the oceans.
 Ozone Depletion
- gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere caused by
the release of chemical compounds containing
gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities.
- The thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially
over Antarctica. Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because
it increases the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s
surface, which increases the rate of skin cancer, eye cataracts, and genetic
and immune system damage. 
 Acid Rain
- Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to
the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms.  This can include rain,
snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.  
- Major sources of SO2 and NOx are Burning of fossil fuels to generate
electricity.  Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.Vehicles and heavy equipment.Manufacturing,
oil refineries and other industries.
 Photochemical Smog
- type of smog produced when ultraviolet light from the sun reacts
with nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere.
- visible as a brown haze, and is most prominent during the morning and
afternoon, especially in densely populated, warm cities
 -The largest contributor is automobiles, while coal-fired power plants and
some other power plants also produce the necessary pollutants to
facilitate its production. Due to its abundance in areas of
warmer temperatures, photochemical smog is most common in the
summer.
- the chemicals contained within it form molecules that cause eye irritation.
 Nitrogen Cycle
- Nitrogen is one of the primary nutrients critical for the survival of all living
organisms. Although nitrogen is very abundant in the atmosphere, it is
largely inaccessible in this form to most organisms. 
- Nitrogen Fixation - process of converting N2 into biologically available
nitrogen is called nitrogen fixation
- Nitrification - process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate
and is another important step in the global nitrogen cycle.
- Annamox - Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by using nitrite as the
electron acceptor to produce gaseous nitrogen
- Denitrification - process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus
removing bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere.
- Ammonification - When an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen
in its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen

 Water Cycle
- Evaporation - process of turning from liquid into vapor.
- Condensation - the conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid
- Precipitation is a vital component of how water moves through
Earth’s water cycle, connecting the ocean, land, and atmosphere. 
 Phosphorus Cycle
- Over time, rain and weathering cause rocks to release
phosphate ions and other minerals.
This inorganic phosphate is then distributed in soils and
water.
- Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil. The
plants may then be consumed by animals. Once in the
plant or animal, the phosphate is incorporated
into organic molecules such as DNA. When the plant or
animal dies, it decays, and the organic phosphate is
returned to the soil.
- Within the soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made
available to plants by bacteria that break down organic
matter to inorganic forms of phosphorus. This process is
known as mineralisation.
 - Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways and eventually
oceans. Once there, it can be incorporated into sediments
over time.
 Air Pollution
- “Most air pollution comes from energy use and
production,” says John Walke, director of the Clean Air
Project, part of the Climate and Clean Air program at
NRDC. “Burning fossil fuels releases gases and chemicals
into the air.”
 Chemistry of Water
General Properties of Aqueous Solutions - A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or
more substances. The solute is the substance present in a smaller amount, and the solvent is
the substance present in a larger amount.

Electrolytic Properties - All solutes that dissolve in water fit into one of two categories:
electrolytes and nonelectrolytes.

- electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a solution that can conduct
electricity

- nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water.

Precipitation Reactions

A precipitate is an insoluble solid that separates from the solution. Precipitation reactions
usually involve ionic compounds. For example, when an aqueous solution of lead(II) nitrate
[Pb(NO3)2] is added to an aqueous solution of potassium iodide (KI), a yellow precipitate of
lead(II) iodide (PbI2) is formed

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Potassium nitrate remains in solution. Figure 4.3 shows this reaction in progress. The preceding
reaction is an example of a metathesis reaction (also called a double-displacement reaction), a
reaction that involves the exchange of parts between the two compounds.

Solubility- maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a
specific temperature.
Chemists refer to substances as soluble, slightly soluble, or insoluble in a qualitative sense. A
substance is said to be soluble if a fair amount of it visibly dissolves when added to water. If
not, the substance is described as slightly soluble or insoluble. All ionic compounds are strong
electrolytes, but they are not equally soluble.

Acid-Base Reactions

Acids - Acids have a sour taste; for example, vinegar owes its sourness to acetic acid, and
lemons and other citrus fruits contain citric acid. Acids cause color changes in plant dyes; for
example, they change the color of litmus from blue to red.

Bases - Bases have a bitter taste. Bases feel slippery; for example, soaps, which contain bases,
exhibit this property. Bases cause color changes in plant dyes; for example, they change the
color of litmus from red to blue. Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.

Acid Base Neutralization

neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base. Generally, aqueous acid-base
reactions produce water and a salt

sulfuric acid(aq) + potassium hydroxide(aq)

H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

H+ (aq) + HSO- 4 (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) 2K+ (aq) + SO- 4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
H+ (aq) + HSO -4 (aq) + 2OH- (aq) SO 2-4 (aq) 1 2H2O(l)

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

oxidation-reduction, or redox, reactions are considered electrontransfer reactions

oxidation reaction refers to the half-reaction that involves loss of electrons.

reduction reaction is a half-reaction that involves gain of electrons.

Oxidation Number

oxidation number, also called oxidation state, signifies the number of charges the atom
would have in a molecule (or an ionic compound) if electrons were transferred
completely.