MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions

L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions

In MATH1013–1024 we have studied the calculus of real-valued functions of one real variable,
𝑓: ℝ → ℝ. In this course we will study the calculus of slightly more general functions in the sense
that we will allow the domain and codomain to be replaced by ℝ𝑛 instead of ℝ.

In this chapter we first consider the case when we replace the codomain of a function by ℝ𝑛 .
Such a function, e.g. 𝐫: ℝ → ℝ𝑛 , is called a vector-valued function (of a real variable).

1. Vector-valued functions

Definition 2.1 A vector-valued function is a function 𝐫 whose codomain is ℝ𝑛 . In other words,

to each object 𝑡 in the domain, it assigns a vector 𝐫(𝑡) which can be written as
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉,
where 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑛 are scalar-valued (i.e. real-valued) functions. These functions 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑛 are
called the component functions of 𝐫. To be specific, the range (or image) of 𝐫 is the collection of
all the points in ℝ𝑛 whose position vector equals to 𝐫(𝑡) for some 𝑡 which belongs the domain.

0 〈0, 1〉
−5 〈25, 6〉 Domain: The set of all
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑡 2 , 1 − 𝑡〉 “allowable inputs”
ξ2 〈2, 1 − ξ2〉
Codomain: What kind of
−𝜋 〈𝜋 2 , 1 + 𝜋〉
objects the outputs are
Range: The set of all
“achievable outputs”
Example 2.2 Find the range of the function 𝐫: [0, 1] → ℝ3 defined by
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 − 𝑡, 𝑡, 𝑡〉.

Solution:
The component functions of 𝐫 are 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 − 𝑡, 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 and ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑡, and so
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) = 2 − 𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡
𝑧 = ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑡
give the parametric equation of a line. Now the domain of 𝐫 is just the bounded closed interval
[0, 1], so the range of 𝐫 is just the line segment in ℝ3 joining the points (2, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1)
(these two points correspond to 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 1 respectively).

Remark 2.3 Like in MATH1013/1023, if we are given just a defining formula of a vector-valued
function without specifying its domain, then we usually take the domain to be the natural domain,
which is the largest part of ℝ on which every component function is well-defined.

Page 1 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 2.4 Find the (natural) domain of the function

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈cos 𝑡 , ln(3 − 𝑡) , ξ𝑡〉.

Solution:
 The component function 𝑓(𝑡) = cos 𝑡 is well-defined for every 𝑡 ∈ ℝ.
 The component function 𝑔(𝑡) = ln(3 − 𝑡) is well-defined if 3 − 𝑡 > 0, i.e. if 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, 3).
 The component function ℎ(𝑡) = ξ𝑡 is well-defined if 𝑡 ≥ 0, i.e. if 𝑡 ∈ [0, +∞).
The natural domain of 𝐫 consists of all those 𝑡 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡) and ℎ(𝑡) are all
well-defined, so it is the interval [0, 3).

2. Calculus of vector-valued functions

We first define limits of a vector-valued function.

Definition 2.5 Let 𝑎 be a real number and 𝐫 be a vector-valued function with codomain ℝ𝑛
which is well-defined on an open interval that contains 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑎. If there exists a
vector 𝐯 ∈ ℝ𝑛 such that
‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖ is a scalar-valued
lim‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖ = 0, function of 𝑡, so its limit has
𝑡→𝑎
already been defined and
then we say that 𝐯 is the limit of 𝐫 as 𝑡 tends to 𝑎. In symbols we write discussed in MATH1013/1023.

lim 𝐫(𝑡) ≔ 𝐯.
𝑡→𝑎

We can define one-sided limits lim− 𝐫(𝑡), lim+ 𝐫(𝑡) and limits at infinity lim 𝐫(𝑡) similarly.
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→±∞

Instead of using the definition which involves computation of lengths of vectors, we often use the
following more convenient result to evaluate limits of a vector-valued function.

Theorem 2.6 Let 𝑎 be a real number and 𝐫 be a vector-valued function given by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉.

Then lim 𝐫(𝑡) exists if and only if the limits

𝑡→𝑎

lim 𝑟1 (𝑡) , lim 𝑟2 (𝑡) , …, lim 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

all exist as real numbers, and in this case

lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 〈lim 𝑟1 (𝑡) , lim 𝑟2 (𝑡) , … , lim 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉.

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

Similar statements hold for one-sided limits and limits at infinity.

Page 2 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Proof. (⇒) Suppose that lim 𝐫(𝑡) exists and is 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉. Then
𝑡→𝑎

‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖ = √[𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 ]2 + [𝑟2 (𝑡) − 𝑣2 ]2 + ⋯ + [𝑟𝑛 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑛 ]2

≥ √[𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 ]2 + 0 + ⋯ + 0
= |𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 |.

Now we have 0 ≤ |𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 | ≤ ‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖ and lim‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖ = 0, so we have 𝑣1 = lim 𝑟1 (𝑡)
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

by Squeeze theorem. Similarly we also have 𝑣2 = lim 𝑟2 (𝑡), …, 𝑣𝑛 = lim 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡).

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

(⇐) Conversely, we suppose that the limits lim 𝑟1 (𝑡) = 𝑣1 , …, lim 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑛 all exist as real
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

numbers and let 𝐯 ≔ 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉. Then

lim‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖2 = lim([𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 ]2 + [𝑟2 (𝑡) − 𝑣2 ]2 + ⋯ + [𝑟𝑛 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑛 ]2 )

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

= lim[𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑣1 ]2 + lim[𝑟2 (𝑡) − 𝑣2 ]2 + ⋯ + lim[𝑟𝑛 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑛 ]2

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

= 02 + 02 + ⋯ + 02 = 0,

so lim‖𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐯‖ = 0, i.e. lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐯. ∎

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

Example 2.7 Let 𝐫 be the function defined by

𝑡 1
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈ξ𝑡, 2𝑡 2 , − 〉.
𝑡 − 1 ln 𝑡

Evaluate lim 𝐫(𝑡) if it exists.

𝑡→1

Solution:

It is easy to see that lim ξ𝑡 = ξ1 = 1 and lim 2𝑡 2 = 2(1)2 = 2. Finally

𝑡→1 𝑡→1

1
𝑡 1 𝑡 ln 𝑡 − (𝑡 − 1) ln 𝑡 + 𝑡 ( 𝑡 ) − 1
lim ( − ) = lim = lim (ľHôpital’s Rule)
𝑡→1 𝑡 − 1 ln 𝑡 𝑡→1 (𝑡 − 1) ln 𝑡 𝑡→1 1
ln 𝑡 + (𝑡 − 1) ( 𝑡 )
1
ln 𝑡
= lim = lim 𝑡 (ľHôpital’s Rule)
𝑡→1 1 𝑡→1 1 1
ln 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑡 + 𝑡2
1
= ,
2
𝑡 1 1
so lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 〈lim ξ𝑡 , lim 2𝑡 2 , lim (𝑡−1 − ln 𝑡)〉 = 〈1, 2, 2〉.
𝑡→1 𝑡→1 𝑡→1 𝑡→1

Page 3 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Definition 2.8 Let 𝐫 be a vector-valued function.

 For a real number 𝑎 in the domain of 𝐫, we say that 𝐫 is continuous at 𝒂 if

lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐫(𝑎).

𝑡→𝑎

 We say that 𝐫 is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in that interval.

(If 𝐫 is defined only on one side of an end-point of the interval, then we only require that the
one-sided limit equals the value of 𝐫 at the end-point.)
 We simply say that 𝐫 is continuous if it is continuous on its whole domain.

Theorem 2.9 Let 𝑎 be a real number. A vector-valued function 𝐫 is continuous at 𝑎 if and

only if its component functions are all continuous at 𝑎.

Proof. This follows directly from Theorem 2.6. ∎

Definition 2.10 Let 𝐼 be an interval in ℝ and let 𝑛 ≥ 2. Then in geometry, a continuous

𝑛 𝑛
function 𝐫: 𝐼 → ℝ is called a (parametrized) curve in ℝ .
𝑧
The figure on the right illustrates the image of
a curve 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ3 . 𝐫(𝑎) and 𝐫(𝑏) are [ ]
𝐫(𝑏)
𝑎 𝑡 𝑏
position vectors of the end-points of the curve,
and as the value of 𝑡 increases from 𝑎 to 𝑏, 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ3
the tip of the moving vector 𝐫(𝑡) traces the 𝐫(𝑎)
𝐫(𝑡) 𝑦
image of 𝐫.
𝑥
Example 2.11 The function 𝐫: [0, 1] → ℝ3 defined by
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 − 𝑡, 𝑡, 𝑡〉
is a curve in ℝ3 . We have seen in Example 2.2 that the image of this curve is the line segment in
ℝ3 joining the points (2, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1).

Remark 2.12 Lines that we have studied in chapter 1 are the images of a special kind of curves
𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯. In general, we can also express the image of a curve in various ways:
 Use the vector equation 𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉.
 Use parametric equations
𝑥1 = 𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 = 𝑟2 (𝑡), …, 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡).
 Eliminate the parameter 𝑡 to get a system of 𝑛 − 1 equation(s) involving 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 only.
In the ℝ2 case this means just one equation connecting 𝑥 and 𝑦. In the ℝ3 case this
means the curve of intersection of two surfaces, each of these surfaces being defined by an
equation in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧.

Page 4 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 2.13 The function 𝐫: ℝ → ℝ2 defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑒 2𝑡 𝐣
is a curve in ℝ2 . The parametric equations of this curve are
𝑥 = 𝑒𝑡
{
𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑡
where 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞). Eliminating the parameter 𝑡, we see that the image of this curve is the
branch of the parabola in ℝ2 defined by the equation
𝑦 = 𝑥2
where 𝑥 > 0. (Note that the origin (0, 0) does not belong to the image.)
𝑦

Example 2.14 Describe and sketch the image of the curve in ℝ3 defined by
𝐫(𝑡) = (cos 𝑡)𝐢 + (sin 𝑡)𝐣 + 𝑡𝐤
for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4𝜋.

Solution:
The parametric equations of this curve are
𝑥 = cos 𝑡
{𝑦 = sin 𝑡 .
𝑧=𝑡
Since 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = cos 2 𝑡 + sin2 𝑡 = 1 for every value of 𝑡, the curve must lie on the circular
cylinder defined by the equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.
Since 𝑧 = 𝑡, the curve spirals upward as 𝑡 increases from 0 𝑧
to 4𝜋. The image of such a curve is called a circular helix.

Eliminating 𝑡 from the parametric equations, we get

2 2
{𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 (1, 0, 4𝜋)
𝑥 = cos 𝑧
where 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 4𝜋. Therefore the circular helix can also be
𝜋
(0, 1, )
understood as the part of the curve of intersection of the 2
𝑦
circular cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 and the sinusoidal cylinder
(1, 0, 0)
𝑥 = cos 𝑧, lying between the planes 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 4𝜋.
𝑥

Page 5 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 2.15 The image of the curve 𝐫: [0, 2𝜋] → ℝ3 defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡 , 5〉
is a circle in ℝ3 with radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 5) and contained in the plane 𝑧 = 5. The
image of the curve 𝐑: [0, 𝜋] → ℝ3 defined by
𝐑(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 2𝑡 , 2 sin 2𝑡 , 5〉
is also the same circle.
𝑧 𝑧
𝜋
𝐫(𝜋) = 〈−2, 0, 5〉 𝐑 ( ) = 〈−2, 0, 5〉
2

5 𝜋 5 𝜋
𝐫 ( ) = 〈0, 2, 5〉 𝐑 ( ) = 〈0, 2, 5〉
2 4

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡 , 5〉 𝑥 𝐑(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 2𝑡 , 2 sin 2𝑡 , 5〉

Example 2.16 Find the curve of intersection of the elliptic paraboloid 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 𝑧 and the
plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 in ℝ3 by expressing it as a vector-valued function 𝐫.

Solution:
The curve of intersection is represented by the system of equations
𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 𝑧
{ .
𝑥+𝑦 =4
We parametrize this curve using the parameter 𝑡 = 𝑦. Then we have
𝑥 =4−𝑦 = 4−𝑡 and 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = (4 − 𝑡)2 + 4𝑡 2 = 5𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 + 16,
so the system is transformed into the parametric equations
𝑥 =4−𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑡 .
2
𝑧 = 5𝑡 − 8𝑡 + 16
Therefore the curve of intersection can be represented 𝑧
𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 𝑧
3
by the vector-valued function 𝐫: ℝ → ℝ , defined by
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈4 − 𝑡, 𝑡, 5𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 + 16〉.

𝑥+𝑦=4

Page 6 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Next we move on to differentiation of vector-valued functions.

Definition 2.17 Let 𝐫 be a vector-valued function. The derivative of 𝐫 is the vector-valued

function 𝐫 ′ defined by
1
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) ≔ lim [𝐫(𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝐫(𝑡)]
ℎ→0 ℎ

for every 𝑡 in the domain of 𝐫 such that this limit exists. The domain of this function 𝐫 ′ is thus
a subset of the domain of 𝐫. We say that 𝐫 is differentiable at 𝒕 if 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) exists.

We again have a more convenient way to compute the derivative of a vector-valued function.

Theorem 2.18 Let 𝐫 be a vector-valued function given by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉.
If the components 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑛 are all differentiable at 𝑡, then 𝐫 is differentiable at 𝑡 and
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈𝑟1 ′ (𝑡), 𝑟2 ′ (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 ′ (𝑡)〉.

Proof. Theorem 2.6 says that the limit can be evaluated component-wise, so
1
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = lim [𝐫(𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝐫(𝑡)]
ℎ→0 ℎ

1
= lim [〈𝑟1 (𝑡 + ℎ), 𝑟2 (𝑡 + ℎ), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡 + ℎ)〉 − 〈𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉]
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑟1 (𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑟1 (𝑡) 𝑟2 (𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑟2 (𝑡) 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)

= lim 〈 , ,…, 〉
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑟1 (𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑟1 (𝑡) 𝑟2 (𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑟2 (𝑡) 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)
= 〈lim , lim , … , lim 〉
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= 〈𝑟1 ′ (𝑡), 𝑟2 ′ (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 ′ (𝑡)〉.
∎

Example 2.19 Let 𝐫0 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉 and 𝐯 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 be constant vectors. Find the derivative of
the function 𝐫: ℝ → ℝ3 defined by 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯.

Solution:
Since
𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉 + 𝑡〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 = 〈𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡〉
for every 𝑡 ∈ ℝ, by Theorem 2.17 we have
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈 (𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡), (𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡), (𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡)〉 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 = 𝐯
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
for every 𝑡 ∈ ℝ. 𝐫 ′ is a constant vector-valued function.

Page 7 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Remark 2.20 In geometry, a continuous vector-valued function 𝐫: 𝐼 → ℝ𝑛 is a curve. We say

that 𝐫 is a smooth curve if 𝐫 ′ is continuous and never 𝟎. In this case, for each 𝑡 ∈ 𝐼,
 the derivative 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) is a tangent vector to the curve at 𝑡;
 the tangent line to the curve at 𝑡 is the line which passes through the point with position
vector 𝐫(𝑡) and is parallel to 𝐫 ′ (𝑡).

Example 2.21 Let 𝐫: [0, 4𝜋] → ℝ3 be the curve

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈cos 𝑡 , sin 𝑡 , 𝑡〉
𝜋
which is a circular helix. Find the parametric equation of the tangent line to the curve at (0, 1, 2 ).

Solution:
The derivative 𝐫 ′ : (0, 4𝜋) → ℝ3 is given by
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈− sin 𝑡 , cos 𝑡 , 1〉.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The point (0, 1, 2 ) corresponds to 𝑡 = 2 , so a tangent vector to the curve at (0, 1, 2 ) is

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐫 ′ ( ) = 〈− sin , cos , 1〉 = 〈−1, 0, 1〉.
2 2 2
The parametric equation of the tangent line is therefore

𝑥 = 0 + (−1)𝑢 𝑥 = −𝑢
1 + (0)𝑢 , 𝑦=1
{𝑦 = 𝜋 i.e. { 𝜋 We use different symbols 𝑡 , 𝑢
𝑧 = + (1)𝑢 𝑧 = +𝑢 for parameters corresponding to
2 2 different lines, to avoid confusion.

where 𝑢 ∈ (−∞, +∞).

Example 2.22 Let 𝐫: ℝ → ℝ3 be the curve

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡 , 5〉
which is a circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 5) lying in the plane 𝑧 = 5. Show that the
position vector of each point on this circle is orthogonal to each tangent vector to the curve at the
same point.

Proof:
We have
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈−2 sin 𝑡 , 2 cos 𝑡 , 0〉.
Now for every 𝑡 ∈ ℝ we have
𝐫(𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈2 cos 𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡 , 5〉 ⋅ 〈−2 sin 𝑡 , 2 cos 𝑡 , 0〉
= (2 cos 𝑡)(−2 sin 𝑡) + (2 sin 𝑡)(2 cos 𝑡) + (5)(0) = 0,
so the position vector 𝐫(𝑡) and the tangent vector 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) are always orthogonal. ∎

Page 8 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Remark 2.23 In kinematics, a continuous vector-valued function 𝐫: 𝐼 → ℝ𝑛 is considered as the

description of the motion of a particle. In this case, for each “time” 𝑡 ∈ 𝐼, the derivative 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) is
called the velocity of the particle at time 𝑡, and the second derivative 𝐫 ′′ (𝑡) is called the
acceleration of the particle at time 𝑡. The speed of the particle at time 𝑡 is the length ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖
of its velocity vector.

Example 2.24 Suppose that the position of a particle moving in ℝ3 at time 𝑡 is given by
𝐫(𝑡) = ln(1 + 𝑡 2 ) 𝐢 + (arctan 𝑡)𝐣 + √1 + 𝑡 2 𝐤.
Find the angle between its initial velocity and initial acceleration vectors.

Solution:
The velocity and acceleration vectors of the moving particle at time 𝑡 are respectively given by
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = [ ln(1 + 𝑡 2 )] 𝐢 + ( arctan 𝑡) 𝐣 + ( √1 + 𝑡 2 ) 𝐤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝑡 1 𝑡
= 2
𝐢+ 2
𝐣+ 𝐤,
1+𝑡 1+𝑡 ξ1 + 𝑡 2
𝑑 2𝑡 𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑡
𝐫 ′′ (𝑡) = ( 2
)𝐢 + ( 2
)𝐣 + ( )𝐤
𝑑𝑡 1 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ξ1 + 𝑡 2

2 − 2𝑡 2 −2𝑡 1
= 𝐢 + 𝐣+ 3 𝐤,
(1 + 𝑡 2 )2 (1 + 𝑡 2 )2
(1 + 𝑡 2 )2
so its initial velocity and initial acceleration vectors are
𝐫 ′ (0) = 𝐣 and 𝐫 ′′ (0) = 2𝐢 + 𝐤.
The angle 𝜃 between these two vectors is given by
𝐫 ′ (0) ⋅ 𝐫 ′′ (0) 𝐣 ⋅ (2𝐢 + 𝐤) 𝜋
𝜃 = arccos ′ ′′
= arccos = arccos 0 = .
‖𝐫 (0)‖‖𝐫 (0)‖ ‖𝐣‖‖2𝐢 + 𝐤‖ 2

𝑦
Example 2.25 A particle moves along the top branch of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥
in ℝ2 from left to right at a constant speed of 5 units per second. Find the
velocity vector of this particle as it moves through the point (2, 2).
𝑥

Solution:
Let 𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡)〉 be the position of the moving particle at time 𝑡. Then the velocity vector
of the particle at time 𝑡 is 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈𝑓 ′ (𝑡), 𝑔′ (𝑡)〉, and the speed of the particle at time 𝑡 is
‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ = √[𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑔′ (𝑡)]2 .
Now for every 𝑡 we have
[𝑔(𝑡)]2 = 2𝑓(𝑡)
{ .
√[𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑔′ (𝑡)]2 = 5

Page 9 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Differentiating the first equation with respect to 𝑡 and squaring both sides of the second equation,
we get
2𝑔(𝑡)𝑔′ (𝑡) = 2𝑓 ′ (𝑡)
{ .
[𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑔′ (𝑡)]2 = 25
Let 𝑡0 be that particular time when the particle is at the point (2, 2), i.e. 𝐫(𝑡0 ) = 〈2, 2〉. Then
𝑓(𝑡0 ) = 2 and 𝑔(𝑡0 ) = 2, so at this time 𝑡0 the above system becomes
2(2)𝑔′ (𝑡0 ) = 2𝑓 ′ (𝑡0 )
{ .
[𝑓 ′ (𝑡0 )]2 + [𝑔′ (𝑡0 )]2 = 25
The first equation gives 𝑓 ′ (𝑡0 ) = 2𝑔′ (𝑡0 ), and substituting this into the second equation we get
[2𝑔′ (𝑡0 )]2 + [𝑔′ (𝑡0 )]2 = 25,
so [𝑔′ (𝑡0 )]2 = 5. Since the particle moves from left to right (and thus moves upward), we must
have 𝑔′ (𝑡) > 0 for every 𝑡 and so 𝑔′ (𝑡0 ) > 0 in particular. Therefore 𝑔′ (𝑡0 ) = ξ5 and
𝑓 ′ (𝑡0 ) = 2ξ5, and the velocity vector of the particle at this particular time 𝑡0 is given by
𝐫 ′ (𝑡0 ) = 〈𝑓 ′ (𝑡0 ), 𝑔′ (𝑡0 )〉 = 〈2ξ5, ξ5〉.

Theorem 2.26 Let 𝐫 and 𝐬 be differentiable vector-valued functions with codomain ℝ𝑛 , 𝐜 ∈ ℝ𝑛

be a constant vector and 𝑓 be a differentiable scalar-valued function. Then
(i) 𝐜′ = 𝟎
(ii) (𝐫 + 𝐬)′ = 𝐫 ′ + 𝐬′
(iii) (𝐫 − 𝐬)′ = 𝐫 ′ − 𝐬′
(iv) (𝑓𝐫)′ = 𝑓 ′ 𝐫 + 𝑓𝐫 ′
(v) (𝐫 ⋅ 𝐬)′ = 𝐫 ′ ⋅ 𝐬 + 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐬′
(vi) (𝐫 × 𝐬)′ = 𝐫 ′ × 𝐬 + 𝐫 × 𝐬′ if 𝑛 = 3

Proof. The proofs are just direct applications of Theorem 2.18 and the corresponding properties of
differentiation of scalar-valued functions we learnt in MATH1013/1023. ∎

Example 2.27 Let 𝐫 be a vector-valued function such that ‖𝐫‖ is constant, i.e. ‖𝐫(𝑡)‖ = 𝑐 for
every 𝑡. Show that 𝐫(𝑡) and 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) are orthogonal for every 𝑡.

Proof:
For every 𝑡 we have ‖𝐫(𝑡)‖ = 𝑐, i.e.
𝐫(𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑐 2 .
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to 𝑡, we get
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫(𝑡) + 𝐫(𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 0.
This implies that 2𝐫(𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 0 and so
𝐫(𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 0.
Therefore 𝐫(𝑡) and 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) are orthogonal for every 𝑡. ∎

Page 10 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Definition 2.28 Let 𝐫 be a vector-valued function. If 𝐑 is a differentiable vector-valued

function such that 𝐑′ = 𝐫 on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝐑 is called an antiderivative of 𝐫 on
(𝑎, 𝑏). Given a vector-valued function 𝐫, the collection of all antiderivatives of 𝐫 is denoted as

∫ 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.

Remark 2.29 If 𝐑 is an antiderivative of 𝐫, then (by Mean Value Theorem, as in MATH1013/1023)

every antiderivative of 𝐫 is of the form 𝐑 + 𝐜 where 𝐜 is a constant vector, so we may write

∫ 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐑(𝑡) + 𝐜,

where 𝐜 is an arbitrary constant vector.

Example 2.30 The antiderivatives of the function 𝐫(𝑡) = 〈cos 2𝑡 , sin 2𝑡 , 𝑡〉 are given by
1 1 1
∫ 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 〈 sin 2𝑡 , − cos 2𝑡 , 𝑡 2 〉 + 𝐜,
2 2 2
where 𝐜 is an arbitrary constant vector.

Definition 2.31 Let 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 be a vector-valued function defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)〉,
where the component functions 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑛 are integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Then the definite integral
of 𝐫 over [𝑎, 𝑏] is defined by the vector
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ≔ 〈∫ 𝑟1 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , ∫ 𝑟2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , … , ∫ 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡〉.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Theorem 2.32 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) Let 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 be a continuous

vector-valued function which is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏). If all component functions of 𝐫 ′ are
integrable on [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏
∫ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐫(𝑏) − 𝐫(𝑎).
𝑎

Proof. It follows directly from Definition 2.31 and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for
scalar-valued functions. ∎

Remark 2.33 In kinematics, if 𝐫(𝑡) is the position vector of a moving particle at time 𝑡, then
𝐫 ′ (𝑡) is its velocity at time 𝑡. Theorem 2.32 says that the displacement 𝐫(𝑏) − 𝐫(𝑎) of the
particle during the time interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is given by
𝑏
𝐫(𝑏) − 𝐫(𝑎) = ∫ 𝐫 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
𝑎

Page 11 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 2.34 Suppose that your hand is at the origin in ℝ3 , and a wild Jigglypuff appears at
(5, 5, 0) measured in meters. You decide to throw a Poké Ball with initial speed 10 m/s, and the
only forces subsequently acting on the Poké Ball are a weight of 1 N pointing towards −𝐤 and a
constant force of 1 N by the wind which blows towards 𝐣. Assuming that the gravitational
acceleration has magnitude 𝑔 = 10 m/s 2 , find the unit vector(s) which indicates the (possible)
direction(s) along which you should throw the Poké Ball in order to catch the Jigglypuff.
Hint: According to Newton’s second law of motion, at any time 𝑡, the acceleration 𝐫 ′′ (𝑡) given
to an object of mass 𝑚 due to a force 𝐅(𝑡) is
1
𝐫 ′′ (𝑡) = 𝐅(𝑡).
𝑚

5
Wind

Gravity
5
𝑥

Solution:
Since the magnitude of the weight of the Poké Ball is 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 1, the mass of the Poké Ball is
1 1
𝑚= = .
𝑔 10
The total resultant force experienced by the Poké Ball is a constant vector 𝐅(𝑡) = 𝐣 − 𝐤, so the
acceleration vector given to the Poké Ball is the constant vector
1 1
𝐫 ′′ (𝑡) = 𝐅(𝑡) = (𝐣 − 𝐤) = 10𝐣 − 10𝐤.
𝑚 1/10
Now let 𝐯̂ be the unit vector which indicates the required throwing direction. Then the initial
velocity of the Poké Ball is 𝐫 ′ (0) = 10𝐯̂, so the velocity of the Poké Ball at time 𝑡 is
𝑡 𝑡
′ (𝑡) ′ (0) ′′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝐫 =𝐫 +∫ 𝐫 = 10𝐯̂ + ∫ (10𝐣 − 10𝐤)𝑑𝑢 = 10𝐯̂ + 10𝑡𝐣 − 10𝑡𝐤.
0 0
The initial position of the Poké Ball is 𝐫(0) = 𝟎, so the position of the Poké Ball at time 𝑡 is
𝑡 𝑡
𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐫(0) + ∫ 𝐫 ′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝟎 + ∫ (10𝐯̂ + 10𝑢𝐣 − 10𝑢𝐤)𝑑𝑢 = 10𝑡𝐯̂ + 5𝑡 2 𝐣 − 5𝑡 2 𝐤.
0 0
We want the Poké Ball to arrive at the point (5, 5, 0) at a certain time 𝑡0 > 0, i.e. we require
𝐫(𝑡0 ) = 5𝐢 + 5𝐣. Therefore we obtain the system of equations
10𝑡0 𝐯̂ + 5𝑡0 2 𝐣 − 5𝑡0 2 𝐤 = 5𝐢 + 5𝐣
{ .
‖𝐯̂‖ = 1

Page 12 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

From the first equation we get

5 5 − 5𝑡0 2 5𝑡0 2 1 1 1
𝐯̂ = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤 = [ 𝐢 + ( − 𝑡0 ) 𝐣 + 𝑡0 𝐤] ,
10𝑡0 10𝑡0 10𝑡0 2 𝑡0 𝑡0
1 2 1 2
so substituting this into the second equation we get (𝑡 ) + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) + 𝑡0 2 = 4, or simply
0 0

1
𝑡0 2 + = 3.
𝑡0 2
There are two positive solutions to this equation, namely
ξ5 + 1 ξ5 − 1
𝑡0 = or 𝑡0 = .
2 2
In the first case we obtain
1 1 1 ξ5 − 1 1 ξ5 + 1
𝐯̂ = [ 𝐢 + ( − 𝑡0 ) 𝐣 + 𝑡0 𝐤] = 𝐢− 𝐣+ 𝐤,
2 𝑡0 𝑡0 4 2 4
while in the second case we obtain
1 1 1 ξ5 + 1 1 ξ5 − 1
𝐯̂ = [ 𝐢 + ( − 𝑡0 ) 𝐣 + 𝑡0 𝐤] = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤.
2 𝑡0 𝑡0 4 2 4

3. Arc-length of a curve

Definition 2.35 The arc-length of a smooth curve 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 is defined by

𝑏
𝑙 ≔ ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡.
𝑎

Remark 2.36 In kinematics, if 𝐫 is considered as the description of the motion of a particle, then
𝑏
the arc-length ∫𝑎 ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡 is the total distance traveled by the particle from time 𝑎 to time 𝑏.

Example 2.37 Let 𝐫 be the curve in ℝ3 defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈cos 𝑡 , sin 𝑡 , 𝑡〉
for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4𝜋, which is a circular helix. Find the arc-length of 𝐫.

Solution:
We have 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 〈− sin 𝑡 , cos 𝑡 , 1〉 and so
‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ = √(− sin 𝑡)2 + (cos 𝑡)2 + 12 = ξ2
for every 𝑡 ∈ (0, 4𝜋). Therefore the arc-length of 𝐫 is
4𝜋 4𝜋
4𝜋
𝑙 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ξ2 𝑑𝑡 = [ξ2𝑡]0 = 4ξ2𝜋.
0 0

Page 13 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 2.38 Let 𝐫: ℝ → ℝ3 be the curve defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑡 3 , 0, 𝑡 2 〉
for −∞ < 𝑡 < +∞. Find the arc-length of the portion of the curve which lies inside the (single)
solid cone defined by the inequality 𝑧 ≥ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

Solution:
The parametric equations of the curve are
𝑥 = 𝑡3
{𝑦 = 0
𝑧 = 𝑡2
for −∞ < 𝑡 < +∞. The portion of the curve which lies inside the solid cone 𝑧 ≥ √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
corresponds to those values of 𝑡 such that
𝑡 2 ≥ √(𝑡 3 )2 + 02 .
This inequality can be rearranged to become 𝑡 2 ≥ |𝑡|3 , i.e.
𝑡 2 (|𝑡| − 1) ≤ 0.
Since 𝑡 2 is always non-negative, the inequality is simply |𝑡| − 1 ≤ 0, so −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.
𝑧

𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Therefore the required portion of the curve has arc-length

1 1
𝑙 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √(3𝑡 2 )2 + 02 + (2𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡
−1 −1
1 1
= ∫ √9𝑡 4 + 4𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ |𝑡|√9𝑡 2 + 4 𝑑𝑡.
−1 −1
Since the integrand |𝑡|ξ9𝑡 2 + 4 in the last integral is an even function of 𝑡, we have
1 1 1
∫ |𝑡|√9𝑡 2 + 4 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫ |𝑡|√9𝑡 2 + 4 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 2𝑡√9𝑡 2 + 4 𝑑𝑡.
−1 0 0
So with the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑡 2 , we have 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 and
1 12 3 1
1 2 2
𝑙 = ∫ 2𝑡√9𝑡 2 + 4 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ξ9𝑢 + 4 𝑑𝑢 = [ ⋅ (9𝑢 + 4)2 ] = (13ξ13 − 8).
0 02 9 3 0 27

Page 14 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

We have learnt how to compute the arc-length of the graph of a function 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ in
MATH1014/1024. Regarding such a graph as the image of a vector-valued function 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ2 ,
the formula we have learnt before can be recovered easily.

Corollary 2.39 Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ be a continuous function which is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏).
Then the arc-length of the graph of 𝑓 is
𝑏
𝑙 = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡.
𝑎

Proof. The graph of 𝑓 consists of the points

{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)},
which is the same as the image of the vector-valued function 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ2 given by
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈𝑡, 𝑓(𝑡)〉
′ (𝑡) ′
for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏. Now 𝐫 = 〈1, 𝑓 (𝑡)〉 for every 𝑎 < 𝑡 < 𝑏, so the arc-length of the graph is
𝑏 𝑏
𝑙 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑎 𝑎
∎

Corollary 2.40 Let 0 ≤ 𝑎 < 𝑏 ≤ 2𝜋 and let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [0, +∞) be a continuous function which
is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏). The arc-length of the polar curve defined by the equation 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) is
𝑏
𝑙 = ∫ √[𝑓(𝜃)]2 + [𝑓 ′ (𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃.
𝑎

Proof. The polar curve in ℝ2 consists of the points {(𝑟, 𝜃): 𝜃 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃)} in polar
coordinates, and in rectangular coordinates these points are
{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝜃) sin 𝜃 and 𝜃 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]}.
This is the same as the image of the vector-valued function 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ2 given by
𝐫(𝜃) = 〈𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃 , 𝑓(𝜃) sin 𝜃〉
for 𝑎 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝑏. Now
𝐫 ′ (𝜃) = 〈𝑓 ′ (𝜃) cos 𝜃 − 𝑓(𝜃) sin 𝜃 , 𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃 + 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃〉
for every 𝑎 < 𝜃 < 𝑏, so the arc-length of the polar curve is
𝑏
𝑙 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝜃)‖𝑑𝜃
𝑎
𝑏
= ∫ √[𝑓 ′ (𝜃) cos 𝜃 − 𝑓(𝜃) sin 𝜃]2 + [𝑓 ′ (𝜃) sin 𝜃 + 𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃]2 𝑑𝜃 .
𝑎
𝑏
= ∫ √[𝑓(𝜃)]2 + [𝑓 ′ (𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃 .
𝑎
∎

Page 15 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

We have seen in Example 2.15 that the curve 𝐫: [0, 2𝜋] → ℝ3 defined by
𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡 , 5〉
and the curve 𝐑: [0, 𝜋] → ℝ3 defined by
𝐑(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 2𝑡 , 2 sin 2𝑡 , 5〉
have the same image, which is a certain circle in ℝ3 . A natural question one may ask is whether
these two parametrizations of the same circle give the same arc-length.

Definition 2.41 Let 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 be a curve and 𝑓 be a scalar-valued function which is

differentiable and strictly increasing. Then the function 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓 is called a reparametrization of the
curve 𝐫.

Example 2.42 Let 𝐫: [0, 2𝜋] → ℝ3 be defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈2 cos 𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡 , 5〉
and let 𝑓: [0, 𝜋] → [0, 2𝜋] be the scalar-valued function
𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑡,
which is differentiable and strictly increasing. Then the composition 𝐑 = 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓: [0, 𝜋] → ℝ3 is
given by
𝐑(𝑡) = 𝐫(𝑓(𝑡)) = 〈2 cos 2𝑡 , 2 sin 2𝑡 , 5〉
for every 𝑡 ∈ [0, 𝜋], and is a reparametrization of the curve 𝐫.

Theorem 2.43 (Chain rule for reparametrizations) Let 𝑓 be a scalar-valued function which is
differentiable at 𝑡 and 𝐫 be a vector-valued function which is differentiable at 𝑓(𝑡). Then 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓
is also differentiable at 𝑡 and
(𝐫 ∘ 𝑓)′ (𝑡) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑡)).

Proof. It again follows directly from Theorem 2.18 and the chain rule for scalar-valued functions
we learnt in MATH1013/1023. ∎

Theorem 2.44 The arc-length of a smooth curve is independent of reparametrizations. In other

words, if 𝐫 is a smooth curve and 𝑓 is a scalar-valued function which is differentiable and strictly
increasing, then the arc-length of 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is the same as the arc-length of 𝐫 from
𝑓(𝑎) to 𝑓(𝑏).

Proof. Since 𝑓 is strictly increasing, we have 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) > 0 for every 𝑡 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). So
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑓(𝑏)
∫ ‖(𝐫 ∘ 𝑓)′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ‖𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑡))‖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑡))‖𝑓 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑢)‖𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑓(𝑎)
with a substitution 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡). ∎

Page 16 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Remark 2.45 In geometry, if 𝐫 is a curve and 𝐑 = 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓 is a reparametrization of 𝐫, then the

images of 𝐫 and 𝐑 are the same, i.e. they give the same geometric figure. In kinematics, if 𝐫(𝑡)
is the location of a particle at time 𝑡 and 𝐑 is a reparametrization of 𝐫, then the function 𝐑
describes the motion of a particle which travels along the same path as described by 𝐫. However,
the speed at various times is modified, i.e. ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ and ‖𝐑′ (𝑡)‖ are different in general.

We will pay particular attention to a special reparametrization in which the “speed” is always 1.

Definition 2.46 A curve 𝐫 is said to be parametrized by arc-length if ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ = 1 for every 𝑡.

In this case 𝐫 is sometimes called the arc-length parametrization of the curve.

Example 2.47 The circle 𝐫: [0, 2𝜋] → ℝ2 defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈cos 𝑡 , sin 𝑡〉
is parametrized by arc-length because
‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ = √(− sin 𝑡)2 + (cos 𝑡)2 = 1
for every 𝑡 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]. The same circle 𝐑: [0, 𝜋] → ℝ2 defined by
𝐑(𝑡) = 〈cos 2𝑡 , sin 2𝑡〉
is not parametrized by arc-length.

Remark 2.48 If a curve 𝐫 is parametrized by arc-length, then the arc-length of 𝐫 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is

simply 𝑏 − 𝑎, because
𝑏 𝑏
𝑙 = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑏 − 𝑎.
𝑎 𝑎

Our next aim is to find the arc-length parametrization of a given curve.

Remark 2.49 Given a smooth curve 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 , its arc-length 𝑙 over the whole interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
is always a fixed number. However, when we replace the fixed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] by a varying
interval [𝑎, 𝑡], we will get an arc-length function
𝑡
𝑔(𝑡) ≔ ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑢)‖𝑑𝑢. Compare with the area function
𝑎
𝑥
Here we emphasize that it is a function of 𝒕, while 𝒖 is just a 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑎
dummy variable of the integral.
we learnt in MATH1013/1023.

Page 17 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Lemma 2.50 Let 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 be a smooth curve and consider its arc-length function
𝑡
𝑔(𝑡) ≔ ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑢)‖𝑑𝑢 .
𝑎
If 𝑓 is the inverse of 𝑔, or in other words 𝑓(𝑔(𝑡)) = 𝑡 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑠)) = 𝑠, then 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓 is a
reparametrization of 𝐫 by arc-length.

Proof. First of all, since 𝐫 ′ is continuous and never 𝟎, it follows that the arc-length function 𝑔 is
differentiable and strictly increasing. So 𝑔 must have an inverse 𝑓, which is also differentiable
and strictly increasing. Next we see that for every 𝑠,
‖(𝐫 ∘ 𝑓)′ (𝑠)‖ = ‖𝑓 ′ (𝑠)𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑠))‖ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑠)‖𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑠))‖
1 1
= ′ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑠))‖ = ′ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑓(𝑠))‖
𝑔 (𝑓(𝑠)) ‖𝐫 (𝑓(𝑠))‖
= 1,
so 𝐫 ∘ 𝑓 is a reparametrization of 𝐫 by arc-length. ∎

Example 2.51 Let 𝐫 be the curve in ℝ3 defined by

𝐫(𝑡) = 〈cos 𝑡 , sin 𝑡 , 𝑡〉
for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4𝜋, which is a circular helix. Find the arc-length parametrization of 𝐫.

Solution:
In Example 2.37 we have already found that ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ = ξ2 for every 𝑡 ∈ (0, 4𝜋). So
𝑡 𝑡
𝑔(𝑡) = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑢)‖𝑑𝑢 = ∫ ξ2 𝑑𝑢 = ξ2𝑡,
0 0
𝑠
whose inverse is 𝑓(𝑠) = . Consequently, the arc-length parametrization of 𝐫 is given by
ξ2

𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝐑(𝑠) = 𝐫(𝑓(𝑠)) = 〈cos , sin ,〉
ξ2 ξ2 ξ2
for 0 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ 4𝜋ξ2.

Remark 2.52 Instead of 𝑡, we often use the symbol 𝑠 to denote the arc-length parameter of a
curve 𝐫: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ𝑛 . With the notation 𝑠 = 𝑔(𝑡), where 𝑔 is the arc-length function of 𝐫 as in
Remark 2.49, we easily get
𝑑𝑠
= 𝑔′ (𝑡) = ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖.
𝑑𝑡
Therefore for every smooth curve 𝐫 , the arc-length parameter 𝑠 satisfies the equality of
differentials
𝑑𝑠 = ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖𝑑𝑡.

Page 18 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 2.53 Let 𝐫: [0, +∞) → ℝ3 be the curve defined by

1 2ξ2 3
𝐫(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝐢 + 𝑡 2 𝐣 + 𝑡𝐤.
2 3
Find the arc-length parametrization of 𝐫.

Solution:
Since 𝐫 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑡𝐢 + ξ2𝑡𝐣 + 𝐤, we have
2
‖𝐫 ′ (𝑡)‖ = √𝑡 2 + (ξ2𝑡) + 12 = 𝑡 + 1

for 𝑡 ∈ (0, +∞). So

𝑡 𝑡
1 2
𝑔(𝑡) = ∫ ‖𝐫 ′ (𝑢)‖𝑑𝑢 = ∫ (𝑢 + 1)𝑑𝑢 = 𝑡 + 𝑡,
0 0 2
whose inverse is 1
Solve for 𝑡 in 𝑠 = 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡
2
𝑓(𝑠) = −1 + ξ1 + 2𝑠.
using the quadratic formula.
Consequently, the arc-length parametrization of 𝐫 is given by
3
1 2 2ξ2
𝐑(𝑠) = 𝐫(𝑓(𝑠)) = (−1 + ξ1 + 2𝑠) 𝐢 + (−1 + ξ1 + 2𝑠)2 𝐣 + (−1 + ξ1 + 2𝑠)𝐤
2 3
for 𝑠 ≥ 0.

Remark 2.54 Although Lemma 2.50 provides a way to find the arc-length parametrization of a
given curve, it is not always easy to find such a parametrization. It is because of the following two
possible difficulties:
 The arc-length function 𝑔, being an antiderivative of ‖𝐫 ′ ‖, is sometimes difficult to compute.
 Even if 𝑔 is explicitly found, it may sometimes be difficult to find its inverse 𝑓.

Page 19 of 20
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 2 Vector-valued functions
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Summary of Chapter 2

The following are what you need to know in this chapter in order to get a pass (a distinction) in this
course:

 Vector-valued functions of one real variable

 Domain, codomain and range of a vector-valued function

 Definition of limits of vector-valued functions

 Evaluating limits of vector-valued functions
 Continuity of vector-valued functions

 Definition of the derivative of a vector-valued function

 Evaluating derivatives of vector-valued functions
 Properties of derivatives of vector-valued functions
 Sum, difference, constant multiple, dot product rule and cross product rules
 Antiderivatives and integrals of vector-valued functions
 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for vector-valued functions

 To consider a continuous vector-valued function as a parametrized curve

 To consider its derivative as the tangent vector to the curve
 Parametric equations of a curve in ℝ2 vs equation of its image
 Parametric equations of a curve in ℝ3 vs equations of two surfaces intersecting at the
curve
 To consider a continuous vector-valued function as the position of a moving particle
 To consider its derivative as the velocity of the moving particle
 To consider its second derivative as the acceleration of the moving particle

 To compute the arc-length of a curve

 Reparametrizations of a curve
 The chain rule for reparametrizations
 The arc-length parametrization of a smooth curve

Page 20 of 20