Mediterranean Sea

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The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the
Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern
Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa and on the east by the Levant. Although
the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually referred to as a
separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the
Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a
period of some 600,000 years (the Messinian salinity crisis) before being refilled by the
Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.

Mediterranean Sea

Map of the Mediterranean Sea

Coordinates 35°N 18°E

Type Sea

Primary inflows Atlantic Ocean, Sea of Marmara, Nile, Ebro,

Rhône, Chelif, Po

Basin countries about 61

Abkhazia (independence disputed, claimed by
Georgia)

Albania Algeria Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic

Egypt France Georgia Gibraltar (UK)

Greece Israel Italy

 Kosovo (independence disputed, claimed by Serbia)

Lebanon Libya Malta Moldova Monaco

Montenegro Morocco

State of Palestine (a de jure sovereign state)

Romania Russia San Marino Slovenia

South Ossetia (independence disputed, claimed by

Georgia)

Spain Syria

Transnistria (independence disputed, claimed by

Moldova)

Tunisia Turkey Ukraine Vatican City

Surface area 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi)

Average depth 1,500 m (4,900 ft)

Max. depth 5,267 m (17,280 ft)

Water volume 3,750,000 km3 (900,000 cu mi)

Residence time 80–100 years[1]

Islands 3300+

Settlements Alexandria, Algiers, Athens, Barcelona, Beirut,

Carthage, Dubrovnik,Rome, Split, Tangier, Tel
Aviv, Tripoli, Tunis (full list)

It covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi),[2] representing 0.7% of the global
ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar—the narrow strait
that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain in Europe
from Morocco in Africa—is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. In oceanography, it is sometimes called
the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from
mediterranean seas elsewhere.[3][4]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest
recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It lies between
latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west–east length, from the Strait
of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about 4,000
kilometres (2,500 mi).

The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating
trade and cultural exchange between peoples of the region. The history of the
Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many
modern societies. The sea was owned by the Roman Empire for many centuries, as the
Romans controlled entry.

The countries surrounding the Mediterranean in clockwise order are Spain, France, Monaco,
Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey,
Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco; Malta and Cyprus are
island countries in the sea. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of
Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea.

Names and etymology

Wadj-Ur, or Wadj-Wer,
ancient Egyptian name
of the Mediterranean
Sea

With its highly indented coastline

and large number of islands, Greece
has the longest Mediterranean
coastline.

The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur.

The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα (hē thálassa; "the Sea") or
sometimes ἡ µεγάλη θάλασσα (hē megálē thálassa; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡµέτερα θάλασσα
(hē hēmétera thálassa; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ'ἡµᾶς (hē thálassa hē kathʼhēmâs;
"the sea around us").

The Romans called it Mare Magnum ("Great Sea") or Mare Internum ("Internal Sea") and,
starting with the Roman Empire, Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). The term Mare Mediterrāneum
appears later: Solinus apparently used it in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness
to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville.[5][6] It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in
Latin, a compound of medius ("middle"), terra ("land, earth"), and -āneus ("having the
nature of").

The Latin word is a calque of Greek µεσόγειος (mesógeios; "inland"), from µέσος (mésos,
"in the middle") and γήινος (gḗinos, "of the earth"), from γῆ (gê, "land, earth"). The original
meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed
by land'.[7][8]

Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", in Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Rōm
(‫ )درٮ﮵ﺎی روم‬which may be from Middle Persian form, Zrēh ī Hrōm (𐭬𐭥𐭫𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭩𐭫𐭦).[9]

The Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in
the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", HaYam HaGadol, (Numbers;
Book of Joshua; Ezekiel) or simply as "The Sea" (1 Kings). However, it has also been called
the "Hinder Sea" because of its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land
(and therefore behind a person facing the east), which is sometimes translated as "Western
Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines", (Book of Exodus), from the people
inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. In Modern Hebrew, it is called
HaYam HaTikhon 'the Middle Sea'.[10] In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Šām
(‫" )درٮ﮵ﺎی ﺷﺎم‬The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea".[11]

In Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ (‫)اﻟٮ﮳ﺤﺮ ]اﻷٮ﮳ٮ﮵ﺾ[ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬

'the [White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm(ī) (‫ٮ﮳ﺤﺮ‬
‫ اﻟﺮوم‬or ‫اﻟﺮوﻣﻰ‬
‫﮵‬ ‫' )}ٮ﮳ﺤﺮ‬the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea'. At first, that name referred
to only the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was later extended to the whole Mediterranean.
Other Arabic names were Baḥr al-šām(ī) (‫"( )ٮ﮳ﺤﺮ اﻟﺸﺎم‬the Sea of Syria") and Baḥr al-Maghrib
(‫ﺤﺮاﻟﻤﻌﺮب‬
‫﮲‬ ‫"( )ٮ ﮳‬the Sea of the West").[12][6]

In Turkish, it is the Akdeniz 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ‫ﺁق دﻛٮ﮵ﺰ‬, which sometimes means
only the Aegean Sea.[13] The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier
Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with the Black Sea.[12][10][14] In
Persian, the name was translated as Baḥr-i Safīd, which was also used in later Ottoman
Turkish. It is probably the origin of the colloquial Greek phrase Άσπρη Θάλασσα (Άspri
Thálassa, lit. "White Sea").[12]

Johann Knobloch claims that in classical antiquity, cultures in the Levant used colours to
refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea),
yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g., the Red Sea), and white to west. This would
explain the Greek Άspri Thálassa, the Bulgarian Byalo More, the Turkish Akdeniz, and the
Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea".[15]

History

Ancient civilizations
…

Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow) colonies in

antiquity c. the 6th century BC

The Roman Empire at its farthest extent in AD 117

Several ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean shores and were greatly
influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonization, and war,
as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities
throughout the ages.[16]

Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the
Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history.

Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek
city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the
Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to
the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire
completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from
Gibraltar to the Levant.

Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to
the Red Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars
extended, and required four days to traverse.[17]

In 2019, the archaeological team of experts from Underwater Research Center of the
Akdeniz University (UA) revealed a shipwreck dating back 3,600 years in the Mediterranean
Sea in Turkey. 1.5 tons of copper ingots found in the ship was used to estimate its age. The
Governor of Antalya Munir Karaloğlu described this valuable discovery as the "Göbeklitepe
of the underwater world”. It has been confirmed that the shipwreck, dating back to 1600 BC,
is older than the "Uluburun Shipwreck" dating back to 1400 BC.[18][19][20][21]

Middle Ages and empires

…
The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. Temporarily the east was again
dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from
the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it
the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab
Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern
and southern shores.

The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while
cutting the trade route with Oriental lands. This, however, had the indirect effect of
promoting the trade across the Caspian Sea. The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed
towards the Eastern world. Oriental goods, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt to
ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids
further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the
Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury
goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook
control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from
the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating
trade of oriental goods at Venice.[22]

The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended

in victory for the European Holy
League against the Ottoman Turks.

The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa
before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996
mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo. Another letter states that the Genoese had
traded with Alexandria. The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in
Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice.[23]

The Crusades led to flourishing of trade between Europe and the outremer region.[24]
Genoa, Venica and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came
to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the
Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade
relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it
however continued.[25]

Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form
in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.

The bombardment of Algiers by the

Anglo-Dutch fleet in support of an
ultimatum to release European
slaves, August 1816

Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the
Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of
the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544),
Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination
with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the
apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the
European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the
Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval
battle to be fought primarily between galleys.

The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the
Western Mediterranean Sea.[26] According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries,
pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.[27]

The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most
trade between Western Europe and the East had passed through the region, but after the
1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian
spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.[28][29][30]

The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their
influence in Africa and Southwest Asia. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean
during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II.

21st century and migrations

…

Satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea at

night

In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the
large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized.[31] European
Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the
Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region
as a direct result of the policies.[32] An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial
ground ... where people die".[33]

Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to
strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising
"Operation Mare Nostrum", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the
migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants
crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.[34]

Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis. Since 2013, over 700,000
migrants have landed in Italy,[35] mainly sub-Saharan Africans.[36]

Geography

A satellite image showing the The Dardanelles strait in

Mediterranean Sea. The Strait Turkey. The north (upper)
of Gibraltar appears in the side forms part of Europe
bottom left (north-west) (the Gelibolu Peninsula in the
quarter of the image; to its Thrace region); on the south
left is the Iberian Peninsula in (lower) side is Anatolia in
Europe, and to its right, the Asia.
Maghreb in Africa.

The Mediterranean Sea connects:

to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the "Pillars
of Hercules") in the west

to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles and the
Bosporus respectively, in the east

The Sea of Marmara (Dardanelles) is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea,
whereas the Black Sea is generally not.

The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean
Sea to the Red Sea.[10]

Large islands in the Mediterranean include:

Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos,
and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean

Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula, and Malta in the central Mediterranean
 Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands: Ibiza, Majorca, and Menorca in the Western
Mediterranean

The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters.
Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.

Marginal Seas
…
The Mediterranean Sea includes 14 marginal sea:[37][38][39][40][41]

Number Sea Area (km2) Marginal Countries

1 Levantine Sea 320,000 6 Countries

2 Tyrrhenian Sea 275,000 Italy, France

3 Adriatic Sea 235,000 7 Countries

4 Aegean Sea 214,000 Turkey, Greece

5 Libyan Sea Libya, Greece

6 Balearic Sea

7 Ionian Sea 169,000

8 Alboran Sea 53,000

9 Sea of Marmara 11,500

10 Sea of Crete 8,336

11 Sea of Sardinia

12 Ligurian Sea

13 Thracian Sea

14 Myrtoan Sea

Total Mediterranean Sea 2,500,000 21 Countries

Extent
…
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as
follows:[42] Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the
Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the
coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins:
 Western Basin:
On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel
(Africa)

On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina, a line joining the
north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42′E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the
Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily

On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E),
through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia)

Eastern Basin:
On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin

On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles, the western
entrance to the Dardanelles

On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal

On the east: The coasts of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel

Coastal countries
…

Map of the Mediterranean Sea

The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:

Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey.

Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt.

Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.

Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.

Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east):
the British overseas territory of Gibraltar

the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands

the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus

the Palestinian Gaza Strip

Alexandria, the largest city on the

Mediterranean

Barcelona, the second largest

metropolitan area on the
Mediterranean Sea (after
Alexandria) and the headquarters of
the Union for the Mediterranean

The Acropolis of Athens with the

Mediterranean Sea in the
background
 The ancient port of Jaffa (now part
of Tel Aviv-Yafo) in Israel: where
Jonah set sail (according to the
Bible) before being swallowed by a
whale[43]

Catania, Sicily, with Mount Etna in

the background

İzmir, the third metropolis of Turkey

(after Istanbul and Ankara)

Coastal cities
…
Major cities (municipalities), with populations larger than 200,000 people, bordering the
Mediterranean Sea include:
Country Cities

Algeria Algiers, Annaba, Oran

Cyprus Larnaca, Famagusta, Limassol, Paphos, Kyrenia,Rizokarpasso

Egypt Alexandria, Damietta, Port Said

France Marseille, Nice

Greece Athens, Patras, Thessaloniki, Volos, Heraklion

Israel Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv

Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Syracuse, Taranto,

Italy
Trieste, Venice

Lebanon Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon

Libya Benghazi, Khoms, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten

Malta Valletta

Morocco Tétouan, Tangier

Palestine Gaza City

Spain Alicante, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga, Palma, Valencia.

Syria Latakia, Tartus

Tunisia Sfax, Sousse, Tunis

Turkey Adana, Antalya, Istanbul (through the Sea of Marmara), İzmir, Mersin, Iskenderun

Subdivisions
…

Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe

(right), as seen from Gibraltar

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the Mediterranean into a number
of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):[42]

the Strait of Gibraltar

 the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco

the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands

the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy)

the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily

the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece

the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro
and Albania

the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey

Other seas
…

Positano, Tyrrhenian Sea

Some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the
present:

the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea

the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia

the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete

In the Aegean Sea,

the Thracian Sea in its north

the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese

the Sea of Crete north of Crete

the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios

the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus

the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean

Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from
such associations.
Other features
…

View of the Saint George Bay, and

snow-capped Mount Sannine from
the Corniche, Beirut

The Port of Marseille seen from

L'Estaque

Sarandë, Albania, stands on an

open-sea gulf of the Ionian sea in
the central Mediterranean.

In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are recognised:

the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon

the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria

the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.

the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria

the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and
separates Spain from Morocco
the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula

the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal

the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount
Pelion peninsula

the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea

the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of
Macedonia

the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia

the Gulf of Lion, south of France

the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain

the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and Calabrian peninsula

the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy

the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy

the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy

the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy

the Gulf of Saint Euphemia, southern Italy, with the international airport nearby

the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy

the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy

the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy

the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania

the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel

the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)

the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia

the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy

the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica

the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)

the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)
 the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia

the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta

the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo

Ten largest islands by area

…

The two biggest islands of the

Mediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia
(Italy)

Country Island Area in km2 Population

Italy Sicily 25,460 5,048,995

Italy Sardinia 23,821 1,672,804

Cyprus Cyprus 9,251 1,088,503

France Corsica 8,680 299,209

Greece Crete 8,336 623,666

Greece Euboea 3,655 218.000

Spain Majorca 3,640 869,067

Greece Lesbos 1,632 90,643

Greece Rhodes 1,400 117,007

Greece Chios 842 51,936

Climate
…
Map of climate zones in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according to the Köppen climate
classification

Much of the Mediterranean coast enjoys a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. However,

most of its southeastern coast has a hot desert climate, and much of Spain's eastern
(Mediterranean) coast has a cold semi-arid climate. Although they are rare, tropical
cyclones occasionally form in the Mediterranean Sea, typically in September–November.

Sea temperature
…
Mean sea temperature (°C)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Marseille[44] 13 13 13 14 16 18 21 22 21 18 16 14 16.6

Gibraltar[45] 16 15 16 16 17 20 22 22 22 20 18 17 18.4

Málaga[46] 16 15 15 16 17 20 22 23 22 20 18 16 18.3

Athens[47] 16 15 15 16 18 21 24 24 24 21 19 18 19.3

Barcelona[48] 13 12 13 14 17 20 23 25 23 20 17 15 17.8

Heraklion[49] 16 15 15 16 19 22 24 25 24 22 20 18 19.7

Venice[50] 11 10 11 13 18 22 25 26 23 20 16 14 17.4

Valencia[51] 14 13 14 15 17 21 24 26 24 21 18 15 18.5

Malta[52] 16 16 15 16 18 21 24 26 25 23 21 18 19.9

Alexandria[53] 18 17 17 18 20 23 25 26 26 25 22 20 21.4

Naples[54] 15 14 14 15 18 22 25 27 25 22 19 16 19.3

Larnaca[55] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19 21.7

Limassol[56] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19 21.7

Antalya 17 17 17 18 21 24 27 28 27 25 22 19 21.8

Tel Aviv[57] 18 17 17 18 21

Oceanography

Predominant surface currents for June

Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are
very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean
is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.
Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that
is central to the water circulation within the basin.[58] Evaporation is especially high in its
eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.[59] The
average salinity in the basin is 38 PSU at 5 m depth.[60] The temperature of the water in the
deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F).[60]

General circulation
…
Water circulation in the Mediterranean can be described from the surface waters entering
from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar. These cool and relatively low-salinity waters
circulate eastwards along the North African coasts. A part of these surface waters does not
pass the Strait of Sicily, but deviates towards Corsica before exiting the Mediterranean. The
surface waters entering the eastern Mediterranean basin circulate along the Libyan and
Israelian coasts. Upon reaching the Levantine Sea, the surface waters having experienced
warming and saltening from their initial Atlantic state, are now more dense and sink to form
the Levantine Intermediate Waters (LIW). Most of the water found anywhere between 50
and 600 m deep in the Mediterranean originates from the LIW.[61] LIW are formed along the
coasts of Turkey and circulate westwards along the Greek and South Italian coasts. LIW are
the only waters passing the Sicily Strait westwards. After the Strait of Sicily, the LIW waters
circulate along the Italian, French and Spanish coasts before exiting the Mediterranean
through the depths of the Strait of Gibraltar. Deep water in the Mediterranean originates
from three main areas: the Adriatic Sea, from which most of the deep water in the eastern
Mediterranean originates, the Aegean Sea, and the Gulf of Lion. Deep water formation in the
Mediterranean is triggered by strong winter convection fueled by intense cold winds like the
Bora. When new deep water is formed, the older waters mix with the overlaying
intermediate waters and eventually exit the Mediterranean. The residence time of water in
the Mediterranean is approximately 100 years, making the Mediterranean especially
sensitive to climate change.[62]

Other events affecting water circulation

…
Being a semi-enclosed basin, the Mediterranean experiences transitory events that can
affect the water circulation on short time scales. In the mid 1990s, the Aegean Sea became
the main area for deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean after particularly cold
winter conditions. This transitory switch in the origin of deep waters in the eastern
Mediterranean was termed Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) and had major
consequences on water circulation of the Mediterranean.[63][64][65]
Another example of a transient event affecting the Mediterranean circulation is the periodic
inversion of the North Ionian Gyre, which is an anticyclonic ocean gyre observed in the
northern part of the Ionian Sea, off the Greek coast. The transition from anticyclonic to
cyclonic rotation of this gyre changes the origin of the waters fueling it; when the circulation
is anticyclonic (most common), the waters of the gyre originate from the Adriatic Sea. When
the circulation is cyclonic, the waters originate from the Levantine Sea. These waters have
different physical and chemical characteristics, and the periodic inversion of the North
Ionian Gyre (called Bimodal Oscillating System or BiOS) changes the Mediterranean
circulation and biogeochemistry around the Adriatic and Levantine regions.[66]

Climate change
…
Because of the short residence time of waters, the Mediterranean Sea is considered a hot-
spot for climate change effects.[67] Deep water temperatures have increased by 0.12 °C
(0.22 °F) between 1959 and 1989.[68] According to climate projections, the Mediterranean
Sea could become warmer. The decrease in precipitation over the region could lead to more
evaporation ultimately increasing the Mediterranean Sea salinity.[67][69] Because of the
changes in temperature and salinity, the Mediterranean Sea may become more stratified by
the end of the 21st century, with notable consequences on water circulation and
biogeochemistry.

Biogeochemistry

In spite of its great biodiversity, concentrations of chlorophyll and nutrients in the

Mediterranean Sea are very low, making it one of the most oligotrophic ocean regions in the
world. The Mediterranean Sea is commonly referred to as an LNLC (Low-Nutrient, Low-
Chlorophyll) area. The Mediterranean Sea fits the definition of a desert as it has low
precipitation and its nutrient contents are low, making it difficult for plants and animals to
develop.

There are steep gradients in nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll concentrations and

primary productivity in the Mediterranean. Nutrient concentrations in the western part of
the basin are about double the concentrations in the eastern basin. The Alboran Sea, close
to the Strait of Gibraltar, has a daily primary productivity of about 0.25 g C (grams of
carbon) m−2 day−1 whereas the eastern basin has an average daily productivity of 0.16 g C
m−2 day−1.[70] For this reason, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is termed
"ultraoligotrophic". The productive areas of the Mediterranean Sea are few and small. High
(i.e. more than 0.5 grams of Chlorophyll a per cubic meter) productivity occurs in coastal
areas, close to the river mouths which are the primary suppliers of dissolved nutrients. The
Gulf of Lion has a relatively high productivity because it is an area of high vertical mixing,
bringing nutrients to the surface waters that can be used by phytoplankton to produce
Chlorophyll a.[71]

Primary productivity in the Mediterranean is also marked by an intense seasonal variability.

In winter, the strong winds and precipitation over the basin generate vertical mixing,
bringing nutrients from the deep waters to the surface, where phytoplankton can convert it
into biomass.[72] However, in winter, light may be the limiting factor for primary productivity.
Between March and April, spring offers the ideal trade-off between light intensity and
nutrient concentrations in surface for a spring bloom to occur. In summer, high atmospheric
temperatures lead to the warming of the surface waters. The resulting density difference
virtually isolates the surface waters from the rest of the water column and nutrient
exchanges are limited. As a consequence, primary productivity is very low between June
and October.[73][71]

Oceanographic expeditions uncovered a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean Sea

biogeochemistry: most of the chlorophyll production does not occur on the surface, but in
sub-surface waters between 80 and 200 meters deep.[74] Another key characteristic of the
Mediterranean is its high nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio (N:P). Redfield demonstrated that
most of the world's oceans have an average N:P ratio around 16. However, the
Mediterranean Sea has an average N:P between 24 and 29, which translates a widespread
phosphorus limitation.[75][76][77][78]

Because of its low productivity, plankton assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea are
dominated by small organisms such as picophytoplankton and bacteria.[79][80]

Geology
 A submarine karst spring, called
vrulja, near Omiš; observed through
several ripplings of an otherwise
calm sea surface.

The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the
sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now
known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by
the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early
Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the
Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The
Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean
became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on
the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than
three kilometres thick.[81][82]

Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than
two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly
breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three
orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon
River.[83]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest
recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline
extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between
the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the
Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850,000 km2 (330,000 mi2); and the Eastern
Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640,000 mi2). Coastal areas have submarine karst
springs or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the water from below the
surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.[84][85]

Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis

…
 This section does not cite any sources.
Learn more

The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian
continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed
over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents
Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassic period (roughly
170 million years ago) a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly
before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions
pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros
Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine
orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated
foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to
5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the
Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are
the foundation of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction
contain the highest oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean. The
Central Indian Ridge runs east of the Mediterranean Sea south-east across the in-between
of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean.

Messinian salinity crisis

…

Messinian salinity crisis before the

Zanclean flood
 Play media
Animation: Messinian salinity crisis

During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on
Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa.
There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins created two roughly-
parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed
the Betic and Rifian corridors, they gradually closed during the middle and late Miocene:
perhaps several times.[86] In the late Miocene the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the
so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried
out. The start of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it
persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya;[87] see Animation: Messinian salinity
crisis, at right.

After the initial drawdown and re-flooding, there followed more episodes—the total number
is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when
the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the
Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a
desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could
explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition.[88][89] Recent studies, however,
show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of
view.[90][91]

Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna

…
The present-day Atlantic gateway, the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via
the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, there were two earlier gateways: the Betic Corridor
across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The Betic closed
about 6 mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the Rifian or possibly both
gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis"
(from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), long before the MSC and lasting much longer. Both "crises" resulted
in broad connections between the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which allowed
migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the
two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of
mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland
migrations of new species:[92] see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal
migrations), at right.

The almost complete enclosure of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic
gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and
basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate,
bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce
precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby
Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during
the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the
Messinian age). Many diatomites are found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a
connection between their formations.

Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh
water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the
Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier
Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer
flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline
Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold
oceanic water from the Atlantic. In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a
hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project) across the Straits, using the inflow current to
provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was also
intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Maghreb part of
Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some
parallels in the planned grid).[93]

Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"

…
The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin.
Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical
climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean
climate" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as
summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they
persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the
present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and
sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in
the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond
recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively
intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.

Paleoclimate

Because of its latitude and its land-locked position, the Mediterranean is especially
sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its
sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is subject to the deposition of eolian dust
from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones,
the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic
information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated
time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past
geomagnetic reversals.[94] Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic
records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.

Biodiversity

Unlike the vast multidirectional ocean currents in open oceans within their respective
oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the
subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favorably, even the smallest
macroscopic type of volcanic life form. The stable marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean
Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to
flourish while assuring a balanced aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep
oceanic factors. It is estimated that there are more than 17,000 marine species in the
Mediterranean Sea with generally higher marine biodiversity in coastal areas, continental
shelves, and decreases with depth.[95]

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis,[96] the marine biota
of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is
considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of
the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since
the basin was reflooded.

The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of
Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of
bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour
porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead
sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran Sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including
sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In
2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing
endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the spiny
squat lobster.

There was a resident population of killer whale in the Mediterranean until the 1980s, when
they went extinct, probably due to long term PCB exposure. There are still annual sightings
of killer whale vagrants.[97]

Environmental issues

For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and
the "humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present
Mediterranean climate.[98] The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a
Mediterranean paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations,
dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological
and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents,
analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric
analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove's and Oliver Rackham's work on
"The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean
Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively
degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.[98] The belief stems more from the
failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as
idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.[98]

The thermonuclear bomb that fell

into the sea recovered off
Palomares, Almería, 1966
The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from
prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For
example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in
the Roman age large enterprises such as the latifundia took effective care of forests and
agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some assume
that the major deforestation took place in modern times—the later usage patterns were also
quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been
unstable and there is evidence of various ancient and modern "Little Ice Ages",[99] and plant
cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient to various patterns of
human activity.[98]

Human activity was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.[98] The wide
ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human
behavior, as it is and has been closely related human usage patterns.[98] The diversity range
was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly
diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with
settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however,
came after World War II, in line with the "1950s syndrome"[100] as rural populations
throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham
suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns and instead became
scenery-setting agents for tourism. This resulted in more uniform, large-scale
formations.[98] Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are
overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss
of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.[98]

Natural hazards
…

Stromboli volcano in Italy

The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human
activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera
eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts
hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further
leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis
legend.[101] Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while
others, Mount Etna and Stromboli, are on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius
including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active[102] and constitute
the most densely populated volcanic region in the world where an eruptive event may occur
within decades.[103]

Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian)
eruptions.[104] It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and
destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the
international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities
and private persons.[105] The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive
example of natural hazards leading to improved relations between traditional rivals in the
region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens in 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund
(EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to
disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.[106] The largest amount of funding requests in
the EU relates to forest fires, followed by floods and earthquakes. Forest fires, whether man
made or natural, are a frequent and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.[105]
Tsunamis are also an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908
Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and
was among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.

Invasive species
…

The reticulate whipray is one of the

species that colonised the Eastern
Mediterranean through the Suez
Canal as part of the ongoing
Lessepsian migration.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the
Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so
the canal functions as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The
Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the
migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity
of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was
removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern
Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so
the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor
Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and
not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de
Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean ("red") invasion. The construction of the Aswan
High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-
rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more
like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.

Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and
have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic
Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species shows that more than
70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the
Mediterranean are of Indo-Pacific origin,[107] introduced into the Mediterranean through the
Suez Canal. This makes the Canal the first pathway of arrival of alien species into the
Mediterranean. The impacts of some Lessepsian species have proven to be considerable,
mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species
and becoming a familiar sight.

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are
alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they
are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these
species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and
begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of
change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to
the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural
range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human
agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and
unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native
Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years,
the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal
have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the
invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, and lead to even more species passing
through the canal.[108]

Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

…
In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become
noticeable. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now
enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the
water caused by global warming; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the
result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as
intense as the "Lessepsian" movement, the process may be of scientific interest and may
therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.

Sea-level rise
…
By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in)
as a result of the effects of climate change.[109] This could have adverse effects on
populations across the Mediterranean:

Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt
water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking
water.[110]

A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile
Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.[111]

Cyprus wetlands are also in danger of being destroyed by the rising temperatures and sea
levels.[112]

Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas
such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and
primarily east–west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of
organisms in these areas.[113] Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between
30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep
sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional
diversity.[114]

Pollution
 …
Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations
Environment Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of
sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of
mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates
are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.[115] The Barcelona Convention aims to
'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment
in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'[116] Many marine species
have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the
Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered
marine mammals.[117]

The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using
trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean
concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for
76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.[118]

Shipping
…

A cargo ship cruises towards the

Strait of Messina

Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated
that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the
Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping.
These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the
marine environment.

The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant
source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water
surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year
between 100,000 t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000 t (150,000 long tons) of crude oil are
deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.
Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the
Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers
crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10
spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.[114]

Tourism
…

Antalya on the Turkish Riviera

(Turquoise Coast) received more
than 11 million international tourist
arrivals in 2014.

Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries,
despite the man-made geopolitical conflicts in the region. The countries have tried to
extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that might affect the region's economies and
societies in neighboring coastal countries, and shipping routes. Naval and rescue
components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered to be among the best due to the
rapid cooperation between various naval fleets. Unlike the vast open oceans, the sea's
closed position facilitates effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and
regardless of any man-made or natural disaster.

Tourism is a source of income for small coastal communities, including islands, independent
of urban centers. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the
coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by
Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region; but
this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats by erosion and pollution in many
places along the Mediterranean coasts.

Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the
habitats of endangered species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural
wealth may reduce the incentive for tourists to visit.[114]

Overfishing
 …
Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment
Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological
limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most
important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet
and sea bream—are threatened.

There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and
in many areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial
catches.

Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of
years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report
revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80%
in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the
stock will collapse.

Gallery

Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia

The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, France

 Sardinia's south coast, Italy

Pretty Bay, Malta

Panoramic view of Piran, Slovenia

Panoramic view of Cavtat, Croatia

View of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina

A view of Sveti Stefan, Montenegro

Ksamil Islands, Albania

Navagio, Greece

Marmaris, Turquoise Coast, Turkey

Paphos, Cyprus
 Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, Syria

A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon

A view of Haifa, Israel

Coast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt

Old city of Ibiza Town, Spain

 Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, Algeria

El Jebha, a port town in Morocco

Europa Point, Gibraltar

Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco

Sunset at the Deir al-Balah beach, Gaza Strip

See also
 Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean cultures

Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly

Familial Mediterranean fever

History of the Mediterranean region

Holy League (1571)

List of islands in the Mediterranean – Wikipedia list article

List of Mediterranean countries

Mediterranean diet

Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub

Mediterranean Games

Mediterranean race

Mediterranean Sea (oceanography)

Piri Reis – Early cartographer of the Mediterranean

Seto Inland Sea – A marginal sea between Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū – also known as
the Japanese Mediterranean Sea

Tyrrhenian Basin

Union for the Mediterranean

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