YABA COLLEGE OF TCHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED

BY

GROUP 5
S/N NAMES
1 ANUKUA JOHN BROLIN
2 IBIDAPO MUJIDAT DAMILOLA
3 HAMMED AKINWALE
4 HAMZAT KAZEEM OLALEKAN
5 ESSIEN EFFIOK
6 OLUKANNI AKINOLA
7 ADELEKE ADEDAYO ISRAEL
8 AKINNEYIN ABIODUN
9 BANKOLA SODIQ OLAWOLE
10 EKEKHAWEN GABREL OSAWE

COURSE TITLE:
ELECTRICAL SCIENCE

COURSE CODE:
EEC 315
X-RAYS

In 1895 Rontgen found that some photographic plates kept carefully wrapped in his

laboratory had become fogged. Instead of merely throwing them aside he set out to

find the cause of the following. He traced it to a gas discharge tube, which he was

using with a low pressure and high voltage. This tube appeared to emit a radiation

that could penetrate paper, wood, glass, rubber, and even aluminum a centimeter and

a half thick. Rongen could not find out whether the radiation was a stream of

particles o a tin of waves - Newton had the same difficulty with light - and he

decided to call it X-rays.

NATURE AND PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS.

We now regard X-rays waves, similar to light waves, but of much shorter wavelength

about 10cm ior 1 Angstorm unit. They are produced when fast electrons or cathode

rays, strike a target, such as the walls or anode of a low-pressure discharge tube. In

a modern C –rays tube there Is no gas, or as little as high vaccum technique can

achieve; the pressure is about 10-5 mm Hg. The electrons are provided by thermionic

emission from a white tungsten filaments.

Effects and uses of X-Rays

When X-rays strike many minerals, such as zinc sulphide, they make them

fluoresce. (It was while studying this fluorescence that Becquerel discovered the

radiations from uranium) if a human - or other - body of its bones can be seen on

screen, because they absorb X-rays more thab flesh does. Unsual objects, such as

swallowed safety – pin, if they are dense enough can also be located. X - rays

photographs can likewise be taken with the plate in place of the screen. In this way

cracks and flaws can be detected in metal castings.

When X-rays passed through a crystal, they are scattered by its atoms and

diffracted as light is by a diffraction grating. By recording the diffraction pattern

on a photographics plate, and measuring it up, the structure of the crystal can be

discovered. This was developed by Sir Williams Bragg his son, Lawrence Bragg.

X-RAY SPECTRA

In an X-ray tube, very energetic electrons bombard atoms in a metal target such as

tungsten, and an electron may be ejected from the innermost shell, the K shell. The

atom is then in an excited state and is unstable. If an electron from the shell now

moves into the vacancy in the K shell, the energy of the atom is decreased and

simultaneously there is emission of radiation. If E is the change in enerfy of the atom

when the electron moves from L to the K shell, then E = hw, where v is the frequency

of the radiation, from Bohr’s theory. Thus v = E/h, and as E is very high for metals,
the frequency v is very high and the wavelength is correspondingly short, it is

commonly of the order of 10-8 cm, the wavelengths of X – rays.

The X- ray spectra of different metals such as copper, iron and tungsten are similar

in appearance. Each indicates energy changes of electrons in the interior of the

metals are related to the energy changes of electrons in the outermost shells of the

atoms which are different for different metals. The optical spectra are therefore

different.

CRYTSAL DIFFRACTION

The first proof of the wave-nature of X-rays was due to Laue to 1913, many years

after X-rays were discovered. He suggested that the regular small spacing of atoms

in crystals might provide a natural diffraction grating if the wavelength of the rays

were too short to be used with an optical line grating.

Experiments by Friedrich and knipping showed that X-rays were indeed diffracted

by a thin crystal and produced a pattern of intense spots round a central image on a

photographic plate placed to receive them (fig 3.2) The rays had thus been scattered

by interaction with electrons in the atoms of the crystal and the pattern obtained gave

information on the geometrical spacing of the atoms.

STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

CRYSTALLINE NATURE OF SOLIDS

A crystalline solid is characterized by three criteria

1) A crystal lattice

2) A definite melting point

3) A definite enthalpy of fusion

Substances which are rigid but which do not conform to these requirements are

called amorphous solids e.g. Glass, rubber, and solidified glue, one can’t tell by

external appearance whether a substance is crystalline. Many substance when to fine

powder appear to be amorphous but examination under a microscope will reveal

their crystalline nature moreover they will have define melting points and define
enthalpies of fusion {enthalpy- heat} The ideal crystal consist of extended “stacks”

of repeating unit cells. The external symmetry of the crystal also reflects the

arrangement within the unit cell.

In the closest package arrangement there are two distinct way adding successive

layers of spheres in one case € a hexagonal c pack is obtained

VARIOUS TYPE OF BONDING IN SOLID COVALENT BOND

In this type of combination electrons are not actually gained or low the atoms

concerned they pass into shard state e.g. two ch atoms in covalency the atoms

contribute one electron each shared- pair in this way both obtain an approximation

to the ex-octet by making fourteen electrons do the work of sixteen

Here molecules are produced not ions Each share –pair electron passes from an orbit

controlled by the nucleus of the one chlorine atom into an orbit controlled by the

nuclei of both chlorine atoms this joint control of the orbit constitutes the valency

bond. Other examples of molecules formed by covalency are

4, METALLIC BOND

Metals are held together in solid crystalline form by metal bonding the outer

(valency) electrons of each atom are only loosely held, being relatively distant from

the nucleus and they separate from particular nuclei to move at random through the

crystalline lattice. The residua lions, how positively charge by loss of valency

electrons tend to repel each other but are held together by moving electron cloud and

some overlapping of residual electron orbits this type of bonding is every strong in

some metals e.g. iron which are difficult to shatter, but is much weaker in e.g. sodium

or potassium, which can be cut with a knife. If an electric potential difference is

applied to the end of the a metallic rod, the free electrons lose their random motion

and move towards the positive end of the rod being steadily replaced by more from

the source of potential difference hence metals are good electrical conductors as
freely moving electrons can convey heat energy metal are also good conductors of

heat.

Since the bonding agent in metal mainly a moving electron cloud, the ions of most

metals will usually slide relative to one another under stress without shattering the

lattice and produce a new position of stability though special temperature condition

may sometimes be necessary.

ELECTOVALENT OR IRONIC BOND

An atom of a metallic element or group losses from its outermost electron shell, a

number of electrons equal to its valence. These electrons pass over to the outer

electron shell of non-metallic atoms which the metal is combining. Electron octets

are left behind in the metal and create in the non-metal for example Na and Cl the

ions.

5 Association in tonic form Na Cl ( An association or sodium and chlorine ions in

equal number sodium and chlorine ions crystallize in a pattern which is face-centered
cubic with respect to each ion in an end face of the cube a Na ion occupies the

center then the four corner of the face are also occupied by Na ions four Ci ions

spaced equally between them in the next face the position of Na and Ci are reversed

and so on alternatively the attractive forces between the ions are natively great the

only ionic motions is some vibration consequence the solid appears rigid and has

negligible electrical conductively other example is (Ca2+ 2Cl) and calcium oxide

(Cao)(Ca2+ O)

VANDER WAALS FORCES

Forces of attractive and repulsion between nuclei () of one molecule and the

electrons (-) of another and electrons of one atom and electrons of an another atoms

is referred to as Vander Waals forces

HYDROGEN BOND
On melting ice, the whole structure being to break up and collapse causing a decrease

in volume which continues in the liquid state causing a decrease in volume which

continues in the liquid state at 4oc due to the close proximity of the water molecules

in the solid state there exists a week interaction between them in which the hydrogen

atom of one water molecule becomes associated with the oxygen atom of another

this known as hydrogen bonding which substantially affect the properties of those

component present.
Electron diffraction refers to the wave nature of electrons. However, from a
technical or practical point of view, it may be regarded as a technique used to study
matter by firing electrons at a sample and observing the resulting interference
pattern. This phenomenon is commonly known as wave–particle duality, which
states that a particle of matter (in this case the incident electron) can be described as
a wave. For this reason, an electron can be regarded as a wave much like sound or
water waves. This technique is similar to X-ray and neutron diffraction.

Electron diffraction is most frequently used in solid state physics and chemistry to
study the crystal structure of solids. Experiments are usually performed in a
transmission electron microscope (TEM), or a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
as electron backscatter diffraction. In these instruments, electrons are accelerated by
an electrostatic potential in order to gain the desired energy and determine their
wavelength before they interact with the sample to be studied.

The periodic structure of a crystalline solid acts as a diffraction grating, scattering

the electrons in a predictable manner. Working back from the observed diffraction
pattern, it may be possible to deduce the structure of the crystal producing the
diffraction pattern. However, the technique is limited by phase problem.

Apart from the study of "periodically perfect" crystals, i.e. electron crystallography,
electron diffraction is also a useful technique to study the short range order of
amorphous solids, short-range ordering of imperfections such as vacancies,[1] the
geometry of gaseous molecules, and the properties of short-range ordering of
vacancies.
DUAL NATURE OF ELECTRON

(1) In 1924, the French physicist, Louis de Broglie suggested that if light has
electron, behaves both as a material particle and as a wave.

(2) This presented a new wave mechanical theory of matter. According to this
theory, small particles like electrons when in motion possess wave properties.

(3) According to de-broglie, the wavelength associated with a particle of mass m,

moving with velocity v is given by the relation λ = h/mv where h = Planck’s
constant.

(4) This can be derived as follows according to Planck’s equation, E = hv = hc /λ ∴

v=c/λ(energy of photon (on the basis of Einstein’s mass energy relationship) E =
mc2,

Equating both hc/λ = mc2 or λ = h/mc which is same as de-Broglie relation. (∴ mc

= p)

(5) This was experimentally verified by Davisson and Germer by observing

diffraction effects with an electron beam. Let the electron is accelerated with a
potential of V than the Kinetic energy is

(1/2) mv2 = eV; m2V2 = 2eVm

mv = √2eVm = P;λ = h/√2eVm

(6) If Bohr’s theory is associated with de-Broglie’s equation then wave length of
an electron can be determined in bohr’s orbit and relate it with circumference and
multiply with a whole number 2πr = nλ or λ = (2πr/2π) From de-Broglie equation,
λ = (h/mv).

Thus h/mv = (2πr/n) or mvr = (nh/2π)

(7) The de-Broglie equation is applicable to all material objects but it has
significance only in case of microscopic particles. Since, we come across
macroscopic objects in our everyday life, de-broglie relationship has no
significance in everyday life.