Gravimetric Determination of The Figure of The Earth

RM184623 - Geodesi Fisik
GRAVIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH
Ira Mutiara Anjasmara, PhD
Department of Geomatics Engineering

Faculty of Civil, Planning, and Geo Engineering
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember
Preface
The goal is to see how gravity measurements are used to determine

the figure of the Earth, i.e., the geoid. This specifically refers to
gravimetric geoid determination, which remains a “hot topic” in
physical Geodesy.
This goal is achieved by solving the Boundary Value Problem of
physical geodesy, which allows the determination of the shape of the
Earth from measurements upon its surface (c.f., Gauss’s and Stoke’s
theorems).
As known before, the anomalous potential is the difference between
actual values (W ) and model values generated by the reference
ellipsoid (U ). The fact that these differences are small allows
approximations and assumptions to be made that yield a simpler and
more practical solution to BVP of physical geodesy.
-IM Anjasmara, 2020-
GRAVIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH 2/35 RM184623 - Geodesi Fisik
Bruns’s Theorem
Bruns’s theorem relates the geoid height relative to the reference elliposid
(N ) to the disturbing potential (T ).
Figure 1 shows two points: P on the geoid, with W(rP ) = WP ; and Q on the
reference ellipsoid, with U(rQ ) = UQ . Recall that the potential of the
surface of the reference ellipsoid is defined as being the same as the
potential of he geoid, even though they are physically separated (by the
geoid height, N ), i.e., WP = UQ
h
n
level surface, U=UP

P
geoid, W=WP N gP
reference ellipsoid, U=U Q
Q
γQ
Figure 1: The separation of the geoid from the reference ellipsoid. The geoid
height, N , equals the distance QP; n is the geoidal normal, h is the ellipsoidal
normal
Bruns’s Theorem
Consider also another equipotential surface of the reference ellipsoid that
passes through point P: it has potential U(rP ) = UP . Using a Taylor
expansion (for small values of N to ensure convergence of the series), the
normal gravity potential at the geoid , UP , can be expressed in terms of the
normal potential on the ellipsoid as:
∂U 1 ∂2 U 2

UP = UQ + N+ N + ... (1)
∂h Q 2 ∂h2 Q
The third term and beyond on the RHS of Equation (1) can be neglected
as they are comparatively small - this is called linearisation. Furthermore,
we have:
∂U
γ=− (2)
∂h
giving
UP = UQ − γQ N (3)
Bruns’s Theorem
Now, at the point P we have
WP = UP + TP (4)
which, when substitute in Equation (3) becomes
WP = UQ − γQ N + TP (5)
Remembering that the gravity potential on the geoid is equal to the normal
potential on the reference ellipsoid, or WP = UQ , we get:
T P = γQ N (6)
which then rearrange to form Bruns’s formula:

T
N= (7)
γ
This important formula relates the disturbing potential to the geoid height.
Stokes’s Integral:
The fundamental equation of physical geodesy
First formulated by George Gabriel Stokes in 1849, the fundamental

equation of physical geodesy provides the relationship between gravity
anomalies and the disturbing potential.
Via this relation and Bruns’s formula, the geoid is able to be determined
from gravity measurements which have been reduced to the geoid.
Firstly, differentiate the disturbing potential T = W − U at point P, along the
ellipsoidal normal, h:
∂T ∂W ∂U

= − (8)
∂h P ∂h P ∂h P

then we also get:
∂T

≈ −gP − (−γP ) (9)
∂h P
The approximately equal sign is used because, g = − ∂W
∂n . A linearised
Taylor expansion may be applied to γP , giving
 
∂T ∂γ

= −gP + γQ + N 
 
(10)
∂h P ∂h Q
(and dropping the approximate sign).
If we now use the definition of the gravity anomaly, we get
∂T ∂γ

= −∆g + N (11)
∂h P ∂h Q
then, using Bruns’s formula gives:
∂T 1 ∂γ
− T + ∆g = 0 (12)
∂h γ ∂h
This is the fundamental equation of physical geodesy. It is a differential
equation that relates gravity anomalies (the observables) to the disturbing
potential.
Solution of the fundamental equation
The fundamental equation of physical geodesy in its current form is very
difficult to solve. However, if we make a spherical approximation, it
becomes simpler.
In the spherical approximation, the ellipsoidal normal, h, is replaced by the

radius, r. Normal gravity then becomes:
GM
γ= (13)
r2
Therefore,
∂γ ∂γ GM 1 ∂γ 2
→ = −2 3 ∴ →− (14)
∂h ∂r r γ ∂h r
and the spherical approximation to the fundamental equation of physical
geodesy is:
∂T 2
+ T + ∆g = 0 (15)
∂r r
In geodetic practice, the gravity anomalies are computed on the geoid, so

the fundamental equation and its spherical approximation are classes as
boundary value problems, with solutions only on the geoid (r = R).
The effect of the spherical approximation is of the order of the ellipsoidal

flattening, f , or ∼ 0.3%: for N ≈ 100m, this error is approximately 30 cm,
but methods exist to reduce this value.
The solution of Equation (15) is (using Bruns’s formula):
"
R
N= ∆gS(ψ)dσ (16)
4πγ
σ
where R is the mean radius of the spherical earth, ψ is the surface

spherical distance, and S(ψ) is Stoke’s kernel:
1
S(ψ) = − 4 − 6s + 10s2 − 3(1 − s2 ) ln(s + s2 ) (17)
s
ψ
where s = sin 2 .
Equation (16) is called Stokes’s integral, and its enables the
determination of the geoid from gravity measurements on the earth’s
surface that are properly reduced to the geoid. Geoid models derived
through Stokes’s integral are known as gravimetric geoid. -IM Anjasmara, 2020-
Points to note:
1 While Equation (16) and Equation (17) have been derived from a
spherical approximation to the Earth, they are also used, and indeed
should be used, for data given on the ellipsoid.
2 cos ψ = sin φ sin φ0 + cos φ cos φ0 cos(λ − λ0 ), where the unprimed
coordinate is the computation point (of N ), and the primed coordinate
is the roving point in the integration.
3 dσ = cos φ dφ dλ is the spherical surface element.
!
4 The means integrate over the whole Earth. This means that,
σ
theorically, values of ∆g should be known over the whole Earth in
order to determine N at just one point!
5 γ is evaluated on the ellipsoid at the computation point, i.e., at
(φ, λ, 0).
6 ∆g should really be the Helmert anomaly, but the free-air anomaly will
do.
Global Potential Models: Theory
The anomalous potential can be written as:
∞ n+1
X R
T(r, θ, λ) = Tn (θ, λ) (18)
n=0
r
where n is the harmonic degree, and Tn are surface spherical harmonics

of the anomalous potential. Substituting Equation (18) into Equation (15),
we get, for the gravity anomaly:
∞ R n+1
1X
∆g(r, θ, λ) = (n − 1) Tn (θ, λ) (19)
r n=0 r
This result is important because it means that even the anomalous

potential contains a first-degree spherical term (T1 ), in ∆g it will be
multiplied by a factor (1-1=0), i.e., the gravity anomaly can never have a
first-degree spherical harmonic, even if T has one. -IM Anjasmara, 2020-
Global Potential Models: Theory
In terms of spherical harmonics, the geoid height is:

nmax n X
n
GM X a h i
NGGM = n (cos θ) δC̄nm cos mλ + S̄nm sin mλ
P̄m (20)
rγ n=2 r m=0
and the gravity anomaly is:

nmax n
a n X
GM X h i
∆gGGM = (n − 1) P̄ m
n (cos θ) δ C̄nm cos mλ + S̄ nm sin mλ (21)
r2 n=2 r m=0
Points to note:
1. Firstly, because sin mλ = 0, for m = 0, it is customary to set:

Sn,0 ≡ 0 (22)
2. The harmonic degree summation starts at n = 2. This is because, if we

choose the mass of the reference ellipsoid to be equal to the mass of the
Earth then the zero-degree harmonics vanish:
C0,0 = 0 (23)
Also if we choose the centre of the ellipsoid to coincide with the centre of
mass of the Earth, then the first-degree harmonics vanish:
C1,0 = C1,1 = S1,1 = 0 (24)
Furthermore, if the coordinate system’s z-axis is chosen along the mean
rotation axis of the Earth (i.e., the conventional terrestrial system), them:
C2,1 = S2,1 = 0 (25)
The five harmonics in last two equations are called inadmissible
harmonics -IM Anjasmara, 2020-
Points to note:
3. The summation should theorically go on to infinity, but in practice has

to be truncated at nmax .
4. The δ sign arises in front of the Cnm term because T = W − U and
∆g = g − γ: the W and g refer to the real Earth, the U and γ refer to
the ellipsoid:
δCnm = Cnm − Cnmell
(26)
Because the ellipsoid is symmetric about the equator, it has no
m-dependence , and Snm ell ≡ 0. Hence, it is customary not to write δS ,
nm
just Snm . Furthermore, due to north-south symmetry about the
ell will contain only even zonal terms (i.e.,
equatorial plane, the Cnm
n = 2k for some k, and m = 0); all other value will be zero.
Points to note:
5. The harmonic coefficients for the ellipsoid are calculated from the
dynamic form factor by the relationship:
ell
Cnm = −Jnell (27)
and by:
3e2k
!
5k
J2k = (−1) k+1
1 − k + 2 J2 (28)
(2k + 1)(2k + 3) e
Points to note:
6. The bars over the harmonic coefficients and the associated Legendre
functions indicate that they are fully normalized. This is performed to
make the values of these parameters not too large or too small. The
relationships between un-normalized and fully-normalized parameters
are:
s
k(2n + 1)(n − m)! m 1, m = 0
(
n (cos θ)
P̄m = Pn (cos θ) k = (29)
(n + m)! 2, m , 0
and
s
(n + m)! 1, m = 0
( ) ( ) (
C̄nm Cnm
= k= (30)
S̄nm k(2n + 1)(n − m)! Snm 2, m , 0
Points to note:
7. Remember that we would solve Laplace’s equation for a spherical

Earth, and then apply the solution to ellipsoidal (geodetic)
coordinates. So, we have that r is the geocentric radius of the point in
question, given by:
q
r = (ν + h)2 cos2 φ + [ν(1 − e2 ) + h]2 sin2 φ (31)
where φ is geodetic latitude, ν is traverse radius of curvature, e2 is

eccentricity, and h is ellipsoidal height of the point. The geocentric
colatitude is given by:
π −1 ν(1 − e ) + h
2
" #
θ = − tan tan φ (32)
2 ν+h
and geocentric longitude = geodetic longitude

The models
Global potential models (GGMs) are given as values of C̄nm and S̄nm for all
degrees and orders from n = 2 up to some nmax . The user may then
implemented Equation (20) and Equation (21) to obtain the geoid height,
or gravity anomaly, at any point on the Earth, or over a grid of points.
The actual values of the coefficients are determined from real data. The
type of data used in the construction of a GGM varies from model to
model.
Basically, if the GGM is to be constructed from surface gravity

observations only, then the coefficients are determined by:
"
δCnm
( ) ( )
cos mλ
∼ ∆gPm
n (cos θ) dσ (33)
Snm sin mλ
σ
The models
For the construction of a GGM, gravity data must be known over the whole
Earth. The resolution of the GGM, given by nmax , is determined by the
density of the gravity observations.
The models do not supply Cnm ell , and it is up to the users to compute these,
normalized them, and substract them from the supplied coefficients,

according to the desired reference ellipsoid.
The maximum degree of a GGM gives a minimum wavelength present in

the model according to:
2πRe 40, 000

λmin = √ ≈ km (34)
nmax (nmax + 1) nmax
The models
There are essentially three classes od GGM:

Satellite-only GGMs
Combined GGMs
Tailored GGMs
Satellite-only GGMs
These are derived solely from the analysis of the orbits of artificial
Earth satellites.
Historically, these models were limited in precision due to a
combination of: the power-law decay of the gravitational field with
altitude; the inability to track complete satellite orbits using
ground-based stations; imprecise modelling of the atmospheric drag,
non-gravitational and third-body perturbations; and incomplete
sampling of the global gravity field due to the limited number of
satellite orbital inclinations available.
Therefore, while some satellite-only GGMs are available above
degree 70, the higher degree-coefficients (>20 or 30), are heavily
contaminated by noise.
Combined GGMs
These are derived from the combination of satellite orbit data, land
and ship-track gravity observations, and marine gravity anomalies
derived from satellite radar altimetry, and most recently airborne
gravity data.
This generally allowas an increase in the maximum spherical
harmonic degree of the GGM. However, these models are also limited
in precision due to the same restrictions as on satellite-only GGMs, as
well as the spatial coverage and quality of the additional data used.
For instance, distortions in and offsets among different vertical
geodetic datums cause long-wavelength errors in terrestrial gravity
anomalies.
Tailored GGMs
These adjust (and often extended to higher degrees) a satellite-only

or combined GGM using gravity data that may not necessarily have
been used before.
This is normally achieved using integral formulas to derive
‘corrections’ to the existing geopotential coefficients, as opposed to
the combination at the initial stage that is used to construct combined
GGMs.
Tailored GGMs only apply over the area in which the tailoring was
applied, because spurious effects can occur in areas where no data
are available.
The remove-compute-restore technique
When computing a gravimetric geoid via Stokes’s integral, it is common to

subtract the gravity anomalies implied by a GGM from the observed gravity
anomalies before integration. Then after integration, the geoid height
implied by the same GGM is added back to the result:
"
R
N = NGGM + (∆g − ∆gGGM )S(ψ)dσ (35)
4πγ
σ
This is called the remove-compute-restore technique, because the GGM is

removed (from the gravity anomalies), Stokes’s integral computed, then
the GGM is restored (to compute the geoid).
It is important to ensure both NGGM and ∆gGGM are computed to the same
value of nmax , and from the same model.
The remove-compute-restore technique
The reasons for this procedure are:

1 whereas Stokes’s integral requires gravity anomalies over the entire
earth, and typical geoid determinations only cover a limited region,
the remove-restore procedure essentially fills in the missing gravity
anomalies outside the study region with GGM anomalies;
2 the long wavelengths present in observed gravity data are typically
error-prone, so in remove-restored they are replaced by more reliable
information from satellite tracking.
The Indirect Effect
Gravity reductions, such as the Helmert condensation, have the effect of

spatially changing the topographic mass distribution, and this naturally
alters the earth’s gravitational potential slightly. This results in a movement
of the geoid.
Hence, the surface computed via Stokes’s integral is not the true geoid,
but a slightly different surface called the cogeoid. To every gravity
reduction there corresponds a different cogeoid.
The change in the geoid caused by a gravity reduction is known as the

indirect effect, δN . It must be added to the cogeoid (NC , computed via
Stokes’s integral) in oreder to obtain the true geoid, N :
N = NC + δN (36)
The Indirect Effect
The indirect effect is calculated by the following integral:
πGρH 2 GρR2 H 03 − H 3 3GρR2 H 05 − H 5

Z Z
δN = − − dσ + dσ (37)
γ 6γ l3 40γ l5
σ σ
for flat-Earth approximation to third order.
The indirect effect typically has values ranging from zero to minus a few
decimetres, depending on the terrain variability.
Deflections of the Vertical from Gravity Data
The deflection of vertical is the (negative of the) gradient of the geoid with
respect to a particular reference ellipsoid. Therefore, the two components
of the vertical deflection are:
1 ∂N
ξ=− (38)
r ∂φ
1 ∂N
η=− (39)
r cos φ ∂λ
These give the deflection of the vertical from a knowledge of the geoid
gradient in an area, e.g., from a gravimetric geoid model.
Alternatively, the components of the vertical deflection can be derived from

a GGM. For the north-south component:
nmax n X
n
GM X a dP̄m h i
ξGGM = 2 n
δC̄nm cos mλ + S̄nm sin mλ (40)
r γ n=2 r m=0 dθ
and for the east-west component:

nmax n X
n
GM X a h i
ηGGM = mP̄m
(cos θ) −δC̄nm sin mλ + S̄nm cos mλ (41)
r2 γ cos θ n=2 r m=0 n
where the results are in radians
In addition, the deflection of the vertical can be derived from gravity

anomalies via Vening-Meinesz’s integrals after their creator:
"
ξ dS cos α
( ) ( )
1
= ∆g dσ (42)
η 4πγ dψ sin α
σ
where α is the azimuth of the roving point in the integral, given by:
cos φ0 sin(λ0 − λ)
tan α = (43)
cos φ cos φ0 − sin φ cos φ0 cos(λ0 − λ)
However, this method is not widely used nowadays.
GPS Height determination using a Gravimetric Geoid
A gravimetric geoid may be used to determin orthometric heights from

ellipsoid heights in two ways: in an absolute sense, and in a relative sense.
In the absolute case, a WGS84 ellipsoidal height (at point A) is directly

converted into an orthometric height via:
H A = hA − N A (44)
This method depends on the absolute accuracy of the geoid model with
respect to the centre of the Earth.
GPS Height determination using a Gravimetric Geoid
In the relative case, a GPS height difference between two points A and B
is converted into an orthometric height difference, using the difference in
the geoid heights at A and B:
∆HAB = ∆hAB − ∆NAB (45)
In this case, the act of taking a geoid height difference removes any
uncertainty in its absolute accuracy, and the orthometric height difference
is now only dependent upon the precision of the geoid model (and of
course the GPS precision).
As the relative precision of gravimetric geoid models is often much better

than their absolute accuracies, the relative method is preferable in certain
circumstances.

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RM184623 - Geodesi Fisik

GRAVIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH

Ira Mutiara Anjasmara, PhD

Department of Geomatics Engineering

The goal is to see how gravity measurements are used to determine

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

level surface, U=UP

which, when substitute in Equation (3) becomes

which then rearrange to form Bruns’s formula:

First formulated by George Gabriel Stokes in 1849, the fundamental

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

(and dropping the approximate sign).

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

then, using Bruns’s formula gives:

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

In the spherical approximation, the ellipsoidal normal, h, is replaced by the

In geodetic practice, the gravity anomalies are computed on the geoid, so

The effect of the spherical approximation is of the order of the ellipsoidal

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

where R is the mean radius of the spherical earth, ψ is the surface

where n is the harmonic degree, and Tn are surface spherical harmonics

This result is important because it means that even the anomalous

In terms of spherical harmonics, the geoid height is:

and the gravity anomaly is:

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

1. Firstly, because sin mλ = 0, for m = 0, it is customary to set:

2. The harmonic degree summation starts at n = 2. This is because, if we

3. The summation should theorically go on to infinity, but in practice has

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

7. Remember that we would solve Laplace’s equation for a spherical

where φ is geodetic latitude, ν is traverse radius of curvature, e2 is

and geocentric longitude = geodetic longitude

Basically, if the GGM is to be constructed from surface gravity

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

normalized them, and substract them from the supplied coefficients,

The maximum degree of a GGM gives a minimum wavelength present in

2πRe 40, 000

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

There are essentially three classes od GGM:

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

These adjust (and often extended to higher degrees) a satellite-only

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

When computing a gravimetric geoid via Stokes’s integral, it is common to

This is called the remove-compute-restore technique, because the GGM is

The reasons for this procedure are:

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

Gravity reductions, such as the Helmert condensation, have the effect of

The change in the geoid caused by a gravity reduction is known as the

-IM Anjasmara, 2020-

The indirect effect is calculated by the following integral:

πGρH 2 GρR2 H 03 − H 3 3GρR2 H 05 − H 5

for flat-Earth approximation to third order.