STD.

AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517012 749 ••

"Foci ..
100
Angle n jj
Amplitude

%FSH

Nominal
angle

65°t2=ª~~~~
O ./
Range ot

SO ..~
USE'

l00mm
4l3mm

-Soundpath 100
Distonce Irrun]

Figure 6.8 - Typical relation between

apparent beam angle and soundpath
working sensitivity to allow the side lobes to be
assessed.
From the beam profile, an estimate can be made
01 the focal distance lor TRL and locusing probes.
However, special blocks will normally be required
for determination 01 the precise characteristics 01
probes lor critica I applications.
The occurrence of "squint" may be recognized
by the need to twist the probe measurably in arder
to maximize a signal.
6.5.3.4 Amplitude behavior for diHerenl reflectors
{to r r RL or íocussong prooes)
One very important facl has to be mentioned:
when making a reference curve of amplitude ver-
sus distance, e.g. for 450,60° ,65°, and 70° using
the angled laces (Infinite plane rellectors) of the
probe characterization blocks, the maximum sen-
sitivity might be reached at a distance which
diHers Irom that for curves established using si de
drilled holes, see Figure 6.9. Furthermore, the dif-
lerence in sensitivity between the curves con-
strucled using different reflectors (side drilled
holes, Ilat batiam holes, inlinite plane rellectors
perpendicular to lhe beam) is most important. A
large difference in amplitude belween inlinite
plane retlectors and holes means a better ampli-
tude discrimination between small and larga re-
fJectors.
6.5.4 Eslimation 01 dominant frequency and
bandwidth
Exacl determination 01 the dominant Irequency
and bandwidth is onJy possible by special signal
analysis. These properties are strongly influenced
by material characteristics, sound path, and type
01 rellector. However, they can be esti mated
approximately by a straightforward method which
Figure 6.9 - Comparison between typical
distance amplitude correction curves
constructed using side drilled holes
and an infinite plane reflector
perpendicular to the beam
(note that dolted line associated
with lhe infinite plane reflector has
been plotted with 12 dB lower sensitivity)
is good enough lar most practical applications.
To measure the dominant frequency IR (see Fig-
ure 4.11), a fJaw detectar with an unrectified dis-
play may be used. The time base is lirst calibrated
for a beam path lenglh covering the range 01
interest. 1 ne ecno ot one 01 me cauoranon DIOCK
radii (Figure 6.1) is Ihen brought into lhe cali-
brated range 01 lhe lime base, and lhe Irequency
IR is estirnated by counling lhe number of cycles
N over a given sound palh S in mm (see Figure
6.10). The velocity c lar which lhe time base is
calibrated has 10 be known in mm/s.
The bandwidlh fa should be established in rela-
tion to lhe dominanl Irequency IA, which will give
a percenlage value by Ia (%) = (faliR) . 100. For
example, a bandwidlh 01 20% means "narrow-
bane", 80% "broadband", and 120% "exlremely
broadband" (shock-wave probes). The bandwidlh
can be estimated by counling the number 01
cycles N 01lhe complete echo (see Figure 6.10) of
a brock radius surface se! at FSH (or olhe r surta-
bleheighl).
6.5.5 Dead Zone and Near Field
The probe charac!erizalion block can be used
10 check lhe dead zone 01 a probe by observing
lhe echos lrom lhe near surface notch and Irom
holes which are at inlervals 01 5 mm Irom 2.5 mm
up 10 57.5 mm and determining which is the near-
eSI echo which can be distinguished.
These holes can also be used 10 explore lhe
varíatlon 01 sensilivily wilhin lhe near lield and

30

lnformaticn
HandlingServices.
WedJul 2408:52:512002
 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986
DOMINANT FRECUEHCY
I (IN THIS ElWf'LE Nl IS
Figure 6.10 - Estimation o, dominant frequency
ascertain whelher' a range 01 inleresl happens 10
coincide wilh a region 01 sufficienl sensilivity.
6.5.6 Nominal Slgnal 10 Probe-Noise Ratlo
A comparison 01 probes wilh regard 10 Iheir
noise levei (i.e. amplitude 01 spurious probe indi-
calions) lor ranges ai inlerest may be made in the
lollowing way:
(1) SeI the noise supression on lhe Ilaw delec-
tor to zero.
7. DEVELOPMENT OF AN
EXAMINATION PROCEDURE
7.1 Outline 01 Activities
As poinled out previously, Ihere is no general
rule lar developing procedures. The only efficienl
way is to seleet the besl combination 01 probes,
cable, and equipmenl by practical trials on repre-
sentative test pieees conlaining artilicial rellec-
tors and natural delects, il this is possible.
Testing teehniques can be developed using rel-
erence bloeks. Relerenee bloeks wilh relerenee
refleetors are essential lor longitudinal and trans-
verse detects. The detail 01 the rellectors musl be
chosen with regard 10 lhe weld charaeleristies
(see seetion 3.2) and 10 the requiremenls ai lhe
eustomer and/or inspeetion-aulhorities (see see-
lion 3.5). A possible choice is side drilled holes at
lhe lusion line belween lhe parenl and weld metal
or on the weld eenterline. The suitability 01 the
proposed examinalion procedure lor that type 01
eomponent must be demonslraled experimenlally
10 oblain approval. As early as possible, a record-
•• 0784265 0517013 685 ••
BANDWIDTH
3)
I~'
'R and bandwidth 'e
(2) Place lhe probe on lhe characlerizalion
bloek and sei lhe echo 01 the selected refleclor to
a predetermined height, lor inslance 20% FSH.
Read attenualor.
(3) While keeping the probe on the block, adjust
lhe attenualor until thé maxírrium noise indicalion
in lhe range 01 inleresl reaches lhe same heighl as
lhe largel echo levei selecled in (2) above. Read
attenuator,
(4) The difference between lhe two attenualor
readings gives lhe required value.
ing levei, a reporting levei, and an evalualion levei
lor indicalions and acceplanee criteria should be
agreed upon. There are rnanv steps to be taken 10
establish an examination procedure. The flow
chart on page 32 gives a typieal example 01 the
main steps required.
7.2 Preparalion 01 PreJiminary Procedure
The procedure to be established ean be strongly
inlluenced by lhe requirements expressed by the
customer and/or inspection authorilies.
The lirsl step is to consider the details of the
weld to be examined. Using inlormalion on the
weld geomelry, welding proeess, heat Ireatment,
and chemieal composilion as described in section
3.2, a preliminary choiee can be made ai the beam
angles, wave modes and Irequencies 10 be used to
arrive at an effective examination.
In making this ehoice, consideration should
also be given to the adviee in seelion 3.5 and to
the implieations 01 the behavior deseribed in see-
tion 4 on the teehnique, partieularly on the use 01
shear and longitudinal waves (Iull skip/half skip)
31
lnforrnatíon Handling Services,Wed Jul24 08:52:51 2002
 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 a. 0784265 0517014 511 ••

Flow Chart
Outline of Aclivilies

Reference Chapter

7.2

Pr-eper-ere f erence
7.3
blocks

7.4 SeJect probes and

e i ent

Characlerlze probes
7.5 and 6. end e ui menl

7.6

7.8 not
/
dcceptable
I

i. ( --
acceptoble

'l:.
I
,..-=~.,,\! ::.-i
!
~I
Quol! fy
Proco on
7.7 Referenca blocks
not •
agalnst lnspect íon acceptoble
requlreaents
LimiledUT
ar alter-
dcceplable nat i ve "I ri-
speclían
~ melhads e.9.
8. S/N-rotlo J
not ecceptebte
•
- PT
U/e!d
durínQ

buí ld
-

I up ar
- EXlended
dcceptôble I RT
I-rite õefrrü tlve
3.5 nrocedis-e
~

,o\pprovaJ
8. by customer ond not ~
authorilies acceptable

ecceotebt e

9. Examindtion,
Reoort I , ete.

32

lnformation Handling Services, Wed Jul24 08:52:51 2002

 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986
and attenuatíon. Furthermore, one must atso take
into account the following:
(a) The requirements for the examination
- sizes and orientations of the defects of
concern
- coverage for longitudinal and for transverse
deleets
(In view of the relative diffieulty of deteetion and
the infrequent occurrence of transverse manutac-
turing defects in austenitie welds, the necessiiy
for such an examination should only be consl-
dered in special cases. Supplementary reference
bloeks are then required.)
(b) Previous experience on similar welds if this
is available.
(e) Experimental work on weld qualification
speei mens if these exisl.
7.3 Preparation 01 Reference Block
7.3.1 General
Beeause of the special effeets of austenitie weld
metal on ultrasound, as described in seetion 4, it
is necessary to produce a reference block in order
to
(a) develop an examination procedure
(b) sei a preliminary sensitivity levei
(d) help to demonstrate the effectiveness of the
preliminary examination procedure before a defin-
itive procedure is wrilten.
The material Irom which the block is tabrtcatec
should have the same composition as the material
being examined, i.e. chemical analysis, product
form, fabrieation, procedure, heat treatment, coot-
ing rate.
The weld in the reference block should be sim-
ilar to the weld being examined and made using
the same welding procedure.All variables should
be respeeted, including those which may nol be
considered essential for the welding procedure
qualification test pieces, weld preparation,
weld position, heat input, cooling rate, etc.
The geometry and surface condilion of the
scanning and reverse side of the reference block
should be considered, both for the base material
and for the weld deposil. The reference block
should generally contain known artificial rellec-
tors, though in some cases, a weld conlaining real
defects may be useful.
7.3.2 Artificial Refleclors
Before machining artificial reflectors as des-
cribed below, lhe reference block should be ex-
amined by nondestructive methods such as pene-
_ 0784265 0517015 .458 _
trant testing, ultrasonie testing (straight beam),
and radiographic testing to detect possible un-
wanted defeets which would interfere with its use.
Side drilled holes (in eombination with notehesj
are most eommonly used as the artificial reílec-
tors. Holes may be drHled at regular depth inter-
vais, e.g. v.,
'h and ~ t (where t is weld thiekness)
for single erystal probes. For twin erystal probes
whieh are effeetive over a particular depth zone,
the holes may be located at the zone center and
the zone fimits (6 dB). Alternatively, when a set of
twin crystal probes is applied, a series of holes
distributed over the thickness, say every 10 mm,
may be used.
The holes may be drilled in the fusion zone of
the weld to allow comparison of the sensitivities
when the beam passes through the full width of
the weld and through base material only. In some
cases, this may not be practicable, and separate
sets of holes at the weld center line and within the
base material may be more suitable.
Flat boltom holes ean also be used with lhe lIat
bottom perpendicular to either the examination
surface ar to the nominal beam direction. In the
latter case, lhe holes represen! tlaw detection by
reflection from facets and should be of small
diameter.
Due to mode conversion (compression into
shear) even in fine grain material, a smooth notch
sometimes produces only asma" rellection.
Hence, when longitudinal waves are applied with
45° probes, the use of notches (corner effect) for
sensitivity calibration is not advisable.
Also due to the mode-conversion effects, the
response curve for a notch is a very irregular func-
tion of increasing depth as Figure 7.1 shows and
generally gives a low amplitude signal for longi-
tudinal waves.
Although weld defects similar in geometry to
notches (e.g. incomplete penetration) can be
expecled to show the same eflect, cracks in a
weld may be deteclable because of favorably
oriented facets giving distinct echoes above the
detection threshold.
In ali cases, it ís recommended that in addilion
10 lhe artificial reflectors in the weld, a similar set
of reflectors be machined in the adjacent plate or
pipe material of the reference block, as shown in
Figures 7.2, 7.3, and 7.4. This is importanl in arder
to quantify the effecls of lhe weld slructure and to
give a reference reflector for the examination of
the parent material near the lieat-affected zone.
The reference block shown in Figure 7.2 is an
example of one used for flat or large radius com-
ponents where transverse defects in the weld
33
Information Handling Services, Wed Jul 24 08:52:51 2002
 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517016 394 ••

Prooe : 0.75 ~ Q,5jo

2.25 MHz

Snce : 45- StIl~O'

"'"
2mm dia 45" LonQ

Scturonoo

".
"2
Figure 7.3 - Reference refleclors in
.8 curved reference block
.~
o. '4
E
o Zero levei" 2 mm dio SDH

~
>

cr
-.
O

-8

-12
• d8
10%T

O 2 3 4 5
Deom of flQ1Ch (rn m }

50
Figure 7.1 - Comparison of amplitudes
______
J
of reflections from reference notches
-------j
of different depths in a lest block,
for shear and longitudinal waves :. 38 m
f '11
,t
Figure 7.4 - Reference block for smalt
______________ '::-~ :::."2f_ thickness and strong curvature

Figure 7.5 shows a se! 01 reference blocks

including the reference rellector lor both longi-
tudinal and transverse defect examination.

7.4 Selection of Probes

The major variables to be considered when
selecting a probe are
Figure 7.2 - Typical fia! reference block (1) wave type
wilh side drilled holes and nolches aI (2) angle
lhe weld cenler line plus addilional (3) frequency
side drilled holes in lhe base melal (4) type of probe
(5) size and geometry 01probe and component
need not be considered. The artilicial delects are
situaled at the weld center line. 7.4.1 Wave Type
Figure 7.3 shows a detail 01 the above blocks The use of conventional shear wave probes
adapted for a curvature and indicates suggestions should always be considered ürst. II the signal-to-
for machining. noise ratio is insufficient for an effective ínspec-
For thin components with a tighl radius 01 cur- tion, special probes like refracted longitudinal
vature, Figure 7.4 suggests another arrangement angle beam probes, including the surface wave
of reference block and reflectors. type, need to be used (see section 5.3.5).

34

lnformation Handling Services, Wed Jul 24 08:52:51 2002

 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 • 0784265 0517017 220 •

45

l
iig~J2
~~t
..,
<O
f

Ni
50

I ,,-
N

No
..•.•
:..\,$;
Y
Ni
,/
fC1/
. "'. I

'"
Figure 7.5 - Typical reference blocks for longitudinal and
traverse defect examlnation of plpe welds

7.4.2 Probe Angle

In general, lhe probe angle should be selecled
~_....".
~o
.~ - .- .~
,",";+"'~.!.o. f.-.=- ~h",.-!.o.f.:=. •.•.•+ :-.=-;e.:-t!-e!-:.-.,"", .o.._.,.."e.
- ~.-=-.-!
.- - .
- ....•.
This means Ihal il possible, lhe incidenl angle
should be chosen 10 strlke a delecl perpendicu-
larly for maximum echo amplitude.
For weld examinalion, il is Iherefore necessary
10 know lhe weld geomelry prior 10 and afler weld-
ing; parlicularly lhe delails 01 lhe weld root il Ihis
is not machined ar ground flush. ROOI orea ;ncl. lIOIum~

An example 01 how lhe enlire volume 01 weld

and lusion zone can be covered wilh ai least two
angles 01 incidence is shown in Figure 7.6.
However, Ihis approach does not lake into
accounl lhe above consideralion 01 preferred
beam 10 flaw orienlalion. Nevertheless, in some
45" seorcn unil
cases il may only be necessary 10 examine inner sr..or: tlvoogh pcreot metol
and ouler surfaces 01 lhe weld 10 dernonstrate long: IhrO'JQhweld meter
lilness-Ior-purpose Irom a Iraclure mechanics
poinl 01 víew. In Ihis case, lhe use 01 an addilional
surface wave probe may be considered (see sec-
Figure 7.6 - Volumetric examlnatlon of
lion 5.3.5). 11oplimized flaw deleclion over lhe austenltic welds
whole Ihickness is required, Ihen a range 01 probe
angles belween 60° and 70° should be included instance 60°) may be used loimprove lhe idenlili-.
10 delecl lack 01 sidewall lusion. cation 01 delecl echoes. Therelore, lhe choice 01
In some cases, one would also consider using probe angle largely depends on lhe weld prepara-
45° angle probes 10 ínspect lhe root area in rela- lion and weld surface condilion. II should also be
lively Ihick welds. However, il lhe weld penelra- remembered Ihal examinalion ai more Ihan hall-
lion is not ground flush, geomelrical or false skip distance is nol very elfective due 10 mode
echoes may be generaled wilh a 45° probe, and conversion ellecls ai lhe backwalL To reach lhe
lar that reason, a probe wilh a larger angle (Ior lower part 01 lhe weld wilh large angle probes

35

Information Handling servces.weo Jur24 08:52:51 2002

 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL
requires a long sound paI h and Ihis can also
reduce lhe effecliveness 01 lhe examinalion.
This is inlluenced Q.y lhe iqlal attenualion and is
highly material dependen\.
1I ali Ihese differenl ellects are considered, il
can generally be coneluded thal
- For Ihin welds and lor lhe near surfaee area
(at lhe scanning side) 01 thick welds, large
angle probes provide lhe best results.
- For wide welds, lhe weld surface should be
dressed smoolh 10 enable lhe probe 10 be
scanned aeross lhe weld.
- 1I lhe weld is narrow, Ihen surface wave
probes ean stltl provide a good examinalion
01 lhe upper par! 01 lhe weld even il lhe weld
crown is not dressed.
- Surfaee wave probes are also well suited lar
detection 01 surfaee breaking deleels and
near surfaee detects in wide welds, provided
lhe welds are dressed smooth since lhe
effeclive range is reslricted.
As lhe surface wave probes do not have a
signilicanl dead zone, Iheir use can be con-
sidered under ali circumslances where lhe
required working deplh does not extend
beyond aboul 10 mm (see also section 5.3.5).
For delection 01 deep Iying dele cts in thiek
welds, sleeper angles musl be selected and a
•..•
VIII •...••
Vlllh:lO
.
Ivuin.'"
. ,
I...iGl.;CO;:;;'
dence on Ilaws and seanning distance. This
may result in the selection 01 a range 01
angled probes.
Also, a tandem arrangement 01 longitudinal wave
probes or a eombination 01 a longitudinal and
shear wave probe(s) should be considered as
suggesled in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7 - Tandem inspeclion
As a result 01 lhe above approaeh, Ihiek welds
are olten considered divided inlo Ihickness zones
and examined wilh differenl probes whereby each
zone is inspected'by thé most appropriate
probe(s), as illuslraled in Figure 5.7.
7.4,3 Frequency
The Irequencies used are generally in lhe range
01 1 10 5 MHz. The interaetion between grain-size
36
1986 •• 0784265 0517018 167 ••
and wave length dominales the seleclion 01 the
best Irequency to oplimize signal-Io-noise ratio
(see section 5).
Ultimately, the Irequency selected is a eom-
promise between lhe resolulion required and sig-
nal to noise ratio. This often leads 10 the use 01
probes wilh a large bandwidlh. In speeial cases, a
selectable bandwidth lar lhe ultrasonic pulse
mighl be appropriate.
Equipment bandwidlh should be appropriate to
probe type.
In praclice, il is lound Ihat lor welds ave r 25 mm
thickness and cast malerial, frequeneies 01 2 and
1 MHz are predominantly used.
For welds below 25 mm thickness, the Irequen-
eies rnost eommonly used are 4 and 2 MHz.
The si de drilled holes in lhe probe characteriza-
tion bloek provide a means lar comparing differ-
enl probes wilh respeel 10 signai-to-noise ratíos.
The "signal" is lhe echo 01 a side-drilled hole,
whereas the "noise" can be laken as lhe maximum
levei 01 malerial grain indications occurring ai lhe
same soundpalh as lhe side-drilled hole.
Clearly the signal-Io-noise ratio 01 a probe is
nol a conslanl, but dependent on soundpath. The
signal-Io-noise ratio lound on lhe probe charac-
terization block represenls lhe "nominal" condi-
lion and can change considerably in lhe presence
,
,"'
vt-'u",Uoi. ",,,,,
. 01 a weld, and it should also be delermined on the
re/erence oiock.
7,4,4 Type
The main probes in use lor austentic weld
inspection are
~ sinqle cryslal probes
- Iwin crystal probes wilh separate transmitter
and receiver crystal (TR)
The selection is olten arbilrary.
In arder to' decrease the number 01 probes and
inspeclion zones, single cryslal probes are lavored
because they do not show so pronounced a dis-
lance amplitude curve as lar TR probes.
On the olher hand, many single crystat probe
designs show a long acouslic dead zone. which
decreases the efficiency 01 surface and near sur-
face examination.
Occasionally, single crystal point- or line-Iocus-
sing probes are used, particularly where lhe more
convenlional probes described above lai!. The
use 01 such purpose built locussing probes is crit-
ical because they will behave only as calculated il
ali aspecls 01 the examinalion such as surface
roughness, geometry, acoustic malerial proper-
) ties, etc., are kept within narrow lolerance limils.
The above remarks are valid lor both immersion
and conlact lechniques.
Information Handling Services, Wed Jul 24 08:52:51 2002
 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517019 OT3 ••

Immersion lesling, in particular, requires a very DAC- curve

stable and precise machanical arrangamenl be- DAC= Qlstance - ~mplltude - ,Çorrectlon
causa lha retractive index is roughly Iwice Ihal lor
conlacl probas. As a resull, small varialions in Material:
angle 01 incidence cause considerable varialions X 20 CrMoV12 1 Incone! 10CrMo910
in lhe angle 01 relraclion.

7.4.5 Slze and Geomelry 01 Probe and Component

Apart from lhe baam characterlstics nacessary
lor lhe examinalion, lha proba should be 01 a size
which allows manual examinalion wilh good
acouslic coupling.
Thus, coupling involves an inlaraclion between
probe size, roughnass, and lhe gaomelry of lhe lu:rII1':,· " . ',o
; .
componen!. If lhe proba dimension W lails 10
mael lha requiremenl R < W2/4, dimensions in
mm, or lhe coupling gap exceeds 0.5 mm, lhe
probe shoe should be adapted to lhe geomelry of
lhe cornponent. R ; radius 01 lhe curved surface
under examinalion and W ; probe dimension
(Ianglh or width).
This can be done by machining or by applying
grinding papar on the componenl and malching
lhe probe shoe 10 lhe componenl curvalure.
-x- - -. DAC t hrough parent meta I
Care should be laken when operaling Irom
• DAC through weld metal
curved surfaces. The probe performance should
be checked aller modilicalion 01 lhe probe shoe Probe:
. .
proba index poinl and/or nonimal angle may
change if shoe adaption is not carried out prop-
erly (see 6.5.2). Figure 7.8 - Typlcal DAC-curves of a
transmltter receiver longitudinal (TRL)
angle probe through anisotropic weld
7.5 Use of Reference Blocks to Establish metal and isotropic parent material
DAC-Curves
In seclion 6.5.3.4, lhe delerminalion 01 Dlstance eslablished probe positions for maximum echo
Amplilude Correclion (DAC) curves on lhe probe indications ot the dilferenl holes. Olher ellecls DI
characlerizalion block, Figure 6.4, is described. the material on the ultrasound pulse Irom lha
This DAC curve will differ Irom one made on a probe under tesl can be invesligated. The results
relerence block due 10 lhe influence 01 lhe weld will guide a decision thal can be made as 10
slruclure. whether the weld should be examined in differeol
Figure 7.8 shows a Iypical example of a DA C- depth zones with dilferenl probes. An example of
curve construcled wilh the help of side-drilled a DAC-curve lor an examination lor Iransverse
holes in lhe lusion line 01 lhe weld in a relerence defecls is shown in Figure 7.9.
block. The indicatlons lrom lhe various refleclors In this situation, differenl DAC-curves can again
(Iaken wilh lhe probe on the lell side) where lhe be oblained depending on lhe direction 01 inci-
beam is passing Ihrough lhe weld, have beeo dence (whether Irom left or right). For actual
exposed successively 00 a pholograph of lhe examinalions, the one with lhe lower response
screen. The DAC-curve from the opposile direc- curve should be used for sensitivity setting.
lion, with lhe beam passing only Ihrough the line- II should be noted that wittrdiflerent reference
grained parenl melal, is quite differen!. blocks represenling the same weld one will gel
A comparison 01 lhe Iwo DAC-curves gives lhe slighlly different DAC-curves. In practice, it is also
opportunily 01 assessing lhe apparenl attenualion permissible 10 connecl the individual points with
by lhe weld metal. Beam distortion can be investi- slraight lines inslead 01 conslructing a best litting
gated by comparing lhe expected and empirically curve as described in 6.5.3.1.

37

Information Handling Services, Wed Jul 24 08:52:51 2002

 --------------------

STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517020 815 ••

Probe RTD 45° TRL2 2(10xI5)8 n=16° , f-25

81 82 83 Ni
Reference Block for Examination for Transverse Defects (Axtat)
Material
8A-376 Type 316
Crown modified

No

, 0/
'0 .. n
~--+I-- "VI
'-01
N,
Incidence through Weld 'Q..

Figure 1.9 - Typical DAC-curve for transverse defect examination

7.6 Sensitivity Setting Where lusion lace holes are used. two calibra-
tions are to be perlormed per scanning surlace:
7.6.1 Inlroduclion (a) by establishing the echo height 01 the side
' ' " ...•
.'.:. .. -
"'·"7
---,--
•...
'"'•,."'~,
.:.:"'-
,,'
-_.::_-----
, •...••...
, •...
:..:_-,.-
, •......
v •.....
---'
' .•..••..•.
"~ ~"~
dril'led holes, with the beam passing throuqh par-
enl metal only
relerence rellectors described in 7.3 are used.
(b) by establishing their echo height with the
There are several starting points to deline this
bearn passing through the weld metal
setting:
li center line holes are used, sensitivity setting
(a) Previous experience
lrom both sides is not required unless dissimilar
(b) Experimental work on specimens with
metais are welded together (e.g. casl and rolled
detects
austenitic material).
(c) Acceptance standards given in codes,
Within lhe zone over which a particular probe
standards or the specilications 01 clients or
will be used, lhe echoes lrom each 01 the available
authorities
notes is maximized. The highesl echo should lhen
Obviously, the sensitivity settings should. where
be set 10 approximately 80% screen height. Then,
possible, be adequate to detect delects 01 sizes
without a!tering lhe gain setting, lhe peaks 01 lhe
that might be 01 concern.
echoes 01 the other holes are marked on the
7.6.2 Selling Examination Sensilivily screen, and a DAC-curve is drawn to connect lhe
poinls.
Alter selecting lhe probes for a particular wall In practice, lhe shape 01 such a curve can differ
thickness and weld -geomeiíy (section 7.4) and considerably Irom that oblained on lhe probe
determining their characteristics on the probe characterization block: especially when the beam
characterizalion block (section 6.5), lhe examina- passes through lhe weld meIaI.
tion sensitivity should be set. This is done with lhe 11may somelimes be lound lhat a different
aid 01 the relerence blocks shown in Figure 7.3 probe cornbination and/or zone distribution are
using side drilled holes at the lusion lace or at the required lrom that previously chosen on the basis
wel.d center line. 01 'measurements on the probe characlerization
Where possible. welds should be examined Irom blocks.
lour sides to detect longitudinal delects (see also For this revised probe selection, a new seI 01
section 7.7.3).and in principie lour different sensi- DAC curves should be eslablished on lhe reler-
tivity scans will be required. ence block.

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 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517021 751 ••

7.6.3 Recording levei (f) design of

A recordirig levei is otten specified in terms 01 a
percentage 01 the relerence rellector·response or
lhe distance amplilude correclion (DAC)-curve.
In lhe absence 01 any experience and 01 any
prescribed crileria, 50% 01 the DAC lor relerence
relleclors indicaled Ihrough lhe weld mighl be a
good firsl approach. In certain cases, il may be
necessary 10 go down 10 25%. However, lhe re-
cording levei in lhe approprtate depth zone should
be at leastB dB higher Ihan lhe maximum noise
levei in that dep!h zone.
7.6.4 Acceptance Crlterla
Acceptance crileria can be relaled 10 the record-
ing leveI. In general. quality assurance criteria are
delined in terms 01 signal amplitude (relalive 10
recording levei), indication lenglh, number 01
indicalions, and their posilion.
11is not lhe intenlion 01 Ihis documenl 10 deline
acceptance crileria. Nevertheless, some ideas are
given irr seclion 9.
- calibration block
- probe characterization block
- referenceblock(s)
(g) data to be recorded and method of recording
(h) techniques for data interpretalion, plotting
(i) personnel qualification requirements
(j) approval of the procedure
7.7.2 General Examlnatlon
,.'
Requlremenls
...-
7,7,2.1 Examlnatlon coverage
The required examinalion volume shall be
scanned with beam overlap. While scanning, the
search unil shall be oscillated approximalely +20·.
11 oscillation is not possible, the search unit shall
be overlapped aI least 50%.
The weld should be examined Irom both sides,
and wherever possible, Irom both surfaces 01 the
weld (Figure 7.10).

7.7 Preparation of Oelailed Procedure

7.7.1 WrlHen Procedure Requlremenls
Ultrasonic examination shall be performed in
accordance wilh a written procedure, including as
a minimum, lhe lollowing inlormalion:
(a) weld types and conligurations to be exam-
ined, including thickness dimensions, materiais Figure 7.10 - Examinátion from both
and product lorm (casling, forging, plate, etc.) sides and surfaces of the weld
(b) scanning surface(s) and surface condilion
requirements To detect ali possible longiludinal delecls, lhe
(c) equipment lisl including each 01 the lollow- weld should be scanned over its enlire cross sec-
ing items: tion and along lhe specified length, perpendicular
(1) make and model of pulse-echo ultrasonic to lhe weld (Figure 7.11).
flaw detection instrumenl
(2) search unit(s), including for each Iype,
SCANtONG PAHI
angle, Irequency and transducer size
(3) size(s) and configuralion(s) 01 welds and
shoes
(4) couplanl
(5) search unil cable type, lenglh, and number
of connectors
(d) examination technique, including angles
and modes 01 wave propagation in the material
and direclions, maximum speed, and exlent of
scanning
(e) techniques of calibralion ano of establish-
ing scanning sensitivity levels, including instru- Figure 7.11 - Scanning path for.
menl controls to be used and acceptance stan- examinalion in half skip for
dards for the calibrated conditions longitudinal defects
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 STD.AWS·UEAW-ENGL 1986
For lhe deleclion of transversa .delects, the
probe must be moved parallel to the weld and in
both direclions.
7.7.2,2 Rale 01 probe movemenl
The rate of probe movement shall not exceed 50
mm/sec, unless lhe examination capability has
been verified at the higher scanning speed. (This
reduced speed is because of the low signaHo-
noise ratio cornpared-to ferritic welds.)
7.7,2,3 Scanning sensitivity
Manual scanning shall be done at a minimum 01
twice (+ 6 dB) the primary relerence levei, il
siqnal-to-noise allows.
7.8 Assessment 01 Procedure and
Documentation
For lhe assessment 01 the procedure, the 101-
lowing characterizatics and capabilities 01 spe-
cilic probes in the relerence block should be doe-
umented by trials on the test rellectors. The lollow-
ing variables are 01 interest:
(a) DAC-curves
(b) Signal-to-noise ratio 01 relerence rellectors
8. INSPECTABILlTY OF THE
COMPONENT COMPARED TO
THE REFERENCE BlOCK
8.1 Introduction
The aim 01 this section is to specily a series 01
checks to ensure that the components can be
reliably examined, or examined to a standard at
least as good as that lar the relerence block.
8.2 Surface Condition
Belore the examination, requirements lor sur-
face finish will have been specilied in terms 01
contact surlace roughness and surlace waviness.
8.3 Geometrical Conditions
Geometrical conditions will sometimes limit
access compared to the relerence block. In par-
ticular, mismatched slopes across lhe weld and
other geometrical limitations rnust be noled.
Furthermore, inner surface conditions (weld root)
which are not in agreement with the relerence
block may limit the effectiveness 01 lhe examina-
tion. Wherever possible, counterbore and inner
/ /
40
Information
•• 0784265 0517022 698 ••
(c) Amplitude dillerence between a relerence
rellector and an ideally oriented inlinite reflector
For each probe, a DAC-curve through weld
metal and through base metal should be doeu-
menled with photographs 01the screen, showing
responses lrom appropriate relerence reflectors.
For judgement 01 signal-to-noise ratio, the most
important case is that where the beam has passed
through the weld metal. Examples 01documenta-
tion are given in Figures 7.8 and 7.9.
In preparing the photographs described, a
demonstration 01Ilaw detector linearily should be
included: e.g. an indication 01 50% screen height
should, alter a reduclion aí 20 dB (calibrated
attenuator), slill be visible on lhe base line. II lhe
indication is no longer visible, the apparatus
should not be used lar ultrasonic testing 01 aust-
enitic welds.
Furthermore, it is worthwhile 10 document the
results in relation to the recording levei and the
acceptance criteria il these are available.
The larger the difference that can be demon-
strated between the recording threshold and the
echo lrom an inlinite retlector, lhe grealer lhe
conlidence that can be placed on the results 01
the inspection.
surlace condilions in pipes should not inlerfere
with lhe examination.
8.4 Comparison 01 Attenuation Between
Relerence Block and Component
A comparison of ultrasound attenuation should
be made between the relerence block and the
component using the adjacent base material on
both sides 01 the weld. Care should be laken 10
avoid making measurements on the weld ar above
lhe counlerbore run-out. Measuremenls should
be made at regular inlervals along lhe weld by
straíqht beam probes 01lhe same wave lenglh and
wave mode as applied during volumetric inspec-
lion 01 lhe weld.
Devialions must be compensated for. In lhe
report on the reliability 01 the examination, large
deviations should be reported. In some cases, it
may be concluded that lhe component cannot be
ultrasonically examined.
For lhe examination itsell, lhe maximum devia-
lion should be cornpensated lar. Where shear
wave inspeclion is required (e.g. for lhe weld
tusion laces ar lar lhe root region) it will be valua-
ble ia make an attenuatior. ~"mparison using lwo
shear wave probes in a V-path arrangement.
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 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986
8.5 Signal-to-Nolse Ratlo
For a reasonable ullrasonic examinalion, lhe
noise levei should be ai least 6 dB below lhe
recording levei lor lhe whole sound path.
9. REPORTING ANO
EVALUATION
9.1 Reportlng
The results 01 an ullrasonic examinalion should
be given in a report which includes ali lhe neces-
sary inlormalion required 10
- make decisions on lhe acceplance .01 lhe
detects revealed
- lacililale repairs 01 nonacceplable detecte
- permil lhe examinalion 10 be repealed by lhe
same or another operalor
As a minimum, lhe lollowing data shall be
reported:
(a) Date 01 examinalion.
Ib) Narnes arid levels of examination personnel.
(c) Examinalion procedure (including revision).
(d) Applicable calíbratíon sheel idenlilication (in-
cluding relerence 10 the procedure qualilication
record).
(e) Idenlilication and location 01 the weld(s)
examined (including, il necessary, marked up
drawings or skelches). The report shall include
observations 01 any geometrical lealure which
have limiled lhe access compared 10 lhe reler-
ence block or in other ways reduced the effec-
liveness 01 lhe examinalion.
(I) Surface Irom which examinalion is con-
ducled, scanning direction, orienlation 01 the
probe(s). Nonconlormity 01 surface condilion wilh
regard to specilication should be included.
(g) Idenlilicalion 01 the apparatus, cables (in-
cluding lenglh) and probe(s) (brand name, type,
serial number, labrication or idenlilicalion sheet
01 lhe probe).
(h) II applicable, a record 01 reportable indica-
tion (s) including:
- attenuation correction il required
- peak amplitude (in dB or percenl 01 OAC)
range 10 rellector, search unit position, and
sound beam path direclion
- delect length or locatlons 01 lhe reflector
end points where the amplitude crosses the
recording levei or -6 dB poinls
•• 0784265 0517023 524 ••
8.6 Weld Repairs
Alter weld repairs, lhe condilion 01 lhe weld
mighl have changed, and Ihis may require alterna-
live procedures lor examinalion 01 lhe repaired
area.
- plot 01 refleclor localion on a cross seclion
skelch showing 00 profile and to geomelry
(such as root and counterbore) in lhe case 01
pipe welds
- lhe localion 01 any subsidiary peaks in lhe
amplilude response as lhe probe is moved
. lowards or away lrom lhe refleclor (il Ihey
are pronounced)
Nole: The beam angle shall be measured on an
artilicial relleclor in lhe relerence block at a range
ciose 10 that dislance. This angle shall be used 10'
plol lhe posilion 01 lhe ipdicali911.
9.2 Evaluatlon
II is not the purpose 01 Ihis handbook 10 deline
acceplance criteria lor welds. (Acceplance crite-
ria shall be eslablished belween authorilies, pur-
,...h~~:!:!!'"9.!"!rl th~ rnanufacturer) Nevertheless, it is
recommended Ihat importanl tacts such as signal-
to-noise ratio, ele. be laken ínto accounl belore
delining acceplance crileria.
In general, lhe acceptance crileria should be
specilied in terrns 01 signal amplitude (relative 10
recording levei), indicalion lenglh, number 01 indi-
cations, and position wilhin lhe weld, which are
lhe usual quality assuranee erileria. False indica- .
lions or geometrieal indieations may oecur. II may
help a linal judgemenl 01 lhe acceptabilily 01
queslionable indicalions 10 use a variely 01 probes
01 different angles tcgether with accurate plotting
01 lhe deleel location.
9.3 Additional Investlgatlons
In general, delecl sizing anil characlerizalion
cannot be reliable lor indicalions Irom within
austerutc weld metal, However, the assessment
routine delailed below is helplul since indicalions
which plot out as having signilicant Ihrough wall
extent are unlikely 10 be associated wilh insignili-
eanl delecls. (11 must be remembered that lhe
reverse is not necessarily Irue. Thal is, it is possi-
ble for a large defecl to be represented bya small
indicalion.)
For each probe used, indiealions delecled ai.
lhe specified lesting sensilivity shall be examined
41
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 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517024 460 ••

by probe movement in two mutually perpendicu-
lar directions. Angle beam scans shall be made in
directions towards and away frorn the rellector,
and at right angles to these directions. The res-
ponse 01 each defect shall be noted, and the
delect shall be classified in terms 01 Patterns 1 to
3, as detailed below.
Pattern 1
A single sharp signal rising smoothly in height
to a maximum then lalling smoothly to zero (see
Figure 9.1).
Pattern 2
A single sharp signal rising smoothly in height
to a maximum which is held with or without minor
amplitude fluctuations with probe movement and
falling smoothly to zero (see Figure 9.2).
Pattern 3
A signal. or group of signals, which may be fully
or partially resolved, fluctuating in height as iVthey
rise to and fali from one or more principal maxima
(see Figure 9.3).
For Pattern 1 behavior, it is not possible to esti-
mate the defect size because the width 01 the
beam in austenitic weld metal cannot be accu-
rately known (see section 4.2.1.3). Such indica-
tions are often associated with volumetric delects,
but it is recommended that indications 01this type
be assessed by olher angles 01probe to confirm a
volumelric character.

ECHO
AMPLITUDE

RANGE PROBE POSITION

A-SCAN ECHO ENVELOPE

Figure 9.1 - Patlern 1 for echo envelope evaluation

ECHO
AMPLITUDE

RANGE PROBE POSITION

A-SCAN ECHO ENVELOPE

Figure 9.2 - Patlern 2 for echo envelope evaluation

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 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986
ECHO
AMPLITUDE
RANGE
ECHO
AMPLITUDE
RANGE
A-SCAN
Pallern 2 and Pallern 3 behavior are likely 10
indicale lhe presence of a planar defect. A rough
estimate ot defecl height can be obtained by plot-
ting the positions 01 lhe last maxima in lhe echo
response (for Pallern 2 this involves plolling lhe
positions corresponding to the extremes 01 lhe
"plateau" in lhe echo response).
10. GENERAL
RECOMMENOATIONS
ANO COMMENTS
(1) Ultrasonic examination 01 austenitic and
transition welds remains difficult, but inspections
are possible in many cases. However, ali parties
must be aware that sensitivity is invariably inlerior
to that achievable on a lerrilic weld 01comparable
Ihickness.
(2) In view 01 lhe reduced capabilities, Iracture
mechanics studies should be iniliated ai an early
stage to provide estimates 01 tolerable delect
•• 0784265 0517025 3T7 ••
PROBE POSITION
ECHO ENVELOPE
.,- /'
These techniques should only be applied when
the operator has a clear understanding ai lhe
principies involved.
In some circumstances, specialized lechniques
may be 01 value, but these are outside the scope
of this documento
sizes and to idenlify regions lar ultrasonic cover-
age. Then, ullrasonic procedures can be devised
10 take account 01 lilness for purpose criteria,
rather lhan attempl 10delecl small delecls which
will be wilhoul slruclural signilicance. lt should
be remembered that even the detection of large
delects may require high sensitivity, together with
an adequate number 01 beawangles.
(3) Inspection capability varies significantly
with weld process and procedure.
(4) Designers should be aware 01the major fac-
tors, including weld process and geometry, that
will influence inspectability.
43
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 STD.AWS UEAW-ENGL 1986 •• 0784265 0517026 233 ••

(5) Operator qualilications and specilic train-
ing on austenitic welds are especially important.
(6) Proper attention to combined equipment
characteristics and probes can be 01 signilicant
benelit in austenitic weld inspection.
(7) A knowledge 01 ultrasound propagation
behavior is important, and the possibility 01 lalse
indications should be considered.
delect 01 concern. Experimental work is neces-
sary to qualily procedures. These activities make
austenitic weld inspection more expensive than
lerritic weld inspection, and early planning is
required.
(9) Further development 01 the techniques is
still required and is continuing. It is important to
keep up to date with developments in this area.

(B) To develop ultrasonic procedures requires (10) While the techniques described in this
the manulacture 01 lully representative weld spec- handbook are not perfect, they provide a valuable
imens which may need to reproduce lhe types 01 solution in many situations.

44

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