CHAPTER ONE windows, floor, roof and stairs which individually are derived from the
basic materials mentioned. Physics involves many physical quantities.
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND
EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
INTRODUCTION
The word science comes from a Latin word ‘scientia’ which means ‘to
know’. Science is nothing but the knowledge gained through the
systematic study of nature. Scientific methods include the systematic
observations, reasoning, modelling and theoretical prediction. Science
has many disciplines, with Physics being one of them. The word
physics has its origin in a Greek word meaning ‘nature’. Physics is the
most basic science, which deals with the study of nature and natural
phenomena. Understanding science begins with understanding Physics.
What Physics is all about?
Physics is an experimental science. Physicists explore the Universe.
Their investigations range from particles that are smaller than atoms to
stars that are millions and millions of kilometres away. Physicists
observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles
that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories
or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws
or principles.
Hence, physics is the academic discipline that systematically studies
and describes the physical world, finds new fundamental laws of
Nature or generalises existing ones that govern Nature’s behaviour
under various conditions, and perhaps most important of all makes
new predictions about Nature, based on these new physical laws.
These predictions are put to systematic tests in independent, carefully
designed and performed, repeatable experiments that produce objective
empirical data. Merely describing Nature and explaining physical
experiments in terms of already existing laws is not Physics in the true
sense of the word. Had this non-creative, static view been adopted by
all Physicists since the days of Newton, we would still be doing
essentially Newtonian Physics.
Even if such a scientific giant as Michael Faraday, who had very little
mathematical training, was able to make truly remarkable contributions
to physics and chemistry using practically no formal mathematics
whatsoever, it is for us mere mortals most convenient to use the
shorthand scientific language, mathematics, together with the formal
methods of logic in Physics. After all, mathematics was introduced by
scientist to make it easier to quantitatively and systematically describe,
understand and predict the physical world around us. The expansion and
generalisation of mathematics has more than once provided excellent
tools for creating new physical ideas and to better analyse observational
data.
Common sense is not enough and logic and reasoning can never
‘outsmart’ Nature. Should the outcome of repeated, carefully
performed, independent experiments produce results that systematically
contradict predictions of a theory, the only conclusion one can draw is
that the theory in question, however logically stringent and
mathematically correct it may be, is wrong. On the other hand,
extending existing physical theories by mathematical and logical
generalisations is a very powerful way of making hypotheses and
predictions of new physical phenomena.
Physics, Technology and Society
Technology is the application of the doctrines in physics for practical
purposes. The invention of steam engine had a great impact on human
civilization. Mobile phones provide us with the convenience of instant
communication wherever we are. The modern technology of laser
surgery enables very delicate operations to be performed. In the search
for alternative energy sources, ‘wind farms’ of have been set up in
suitable locations, such as this one in North Wales, to generate
electricity. These are just a handful of examples of Physics giving rise
to technology.
The legitimate purpose of technology is to serve people. Our society is
becoming more and more science-oriented. We can become better
members of society if we develop an understanding of the basic laws of
physics.
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
The basic material used in constructing a building may be stone, water,
wood, steel or glass. Using some of the basic materials, a door or roof
of the building can be made. The building itself consists of doors, walls,
1
Physicists are required to make very careful and accurate observations
and measurements. Quantities that can be measured directly are known
as physical quantities. A quantity which can be measured and with the
help of which, various physical happenings can be explained and
expressed in the form of laws, is called a physical quantity. In fewer
words, any quantity which can be measured is called a physical
quantity. Examples of physical quantities include length, mass, time
electric current, force, velocity and momentum.
Physical quantities can be classified into two main groups namely, base
and derived.
Base Quantities and Derived Quantities
Base quantities are quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of
any other physical quantity. That is, quantities which do not depend on
any other physical quantities for their measurements are called base
quantities. Other quantities are based on them. They are seven base
quantities in the international system (S. I.) of units. They are length,
mass, time, thermodynamic temperature, electric current, amount of
substance and luminous intensity. All fundamental quantities are base
but not all base quantities are fundamental.
Quantities that can be expressed in terms of base quantities are called
derived quantities. In other words, physical quantities which depend
on one or more base quantities for their measurements are called
derived quantities. Area, volume, density, force, velocity, momentum,
magnetic flux and resistance are just a few examples.
When stating a physical quantity, two items need to be mentioned. The
first is its numerical value and the second is the unit. For example, if
the height of Asong is 1.20 m, then the numerical value is 1.20 and the
unit for height is metre (m).
UNITS OF QUANTITIES
Before a measurement can be made, a standard or unit must be chosen.
The size of the quantity to be measured is then found with an instrument
having a scale marked in the unit. Therefore, a unit of a physical
quantity is defined as the established standard used for comparison of
the given physical quantity. They are three fundamental quantities of
measurement in physics: - length, mass and time.
System of Units
A complete set of units, both base and derived for all kinds of physical
quantities is called system of units. The common systems of units are
given below:
 CGS system: This system is also called Gaussian system of units. In
this system, length, mass and time are chosen as the base quantities
and corresponding base units are centimetre (cm), gram (g) and
second (s) respectively from which the name comes from.
 MKS system: This system is also called Giorgi system. In this
system, length, mass and time are taken as base quantities. Their
corresponding base units are respectively metre (m), kilogram (kg)
and second (s) from which it obtained it name.
 FPS system: In this system, units foot, pound and second are used
respectively for measurements of physical quantities length, mass and
time. This is British engineering system of unit
 S.I. system: It is known as International system of units and is
extended system of units applied to whole physics today.
Since all the systems of units involved units of mass, length and time;
their units are considered to be fundamental.
System International de Units (SI System of Units)
The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of metric units
now used in many countries. To bring uniformity, the General
Conference on Weights and Measures in the year 1960, accepted the SI
system of units. This rationalisation was essential to obtain the units of
all the physical quantities in physics. It is the accepted form in which
units should be expressed so that the international scientific community
can easily compare and comprehend results of experiments carried
out in different countries.
Due to simplicity and convenience with which the units in this system
are amenable to arithmetic manipulation, it is in universal use by the
world’s scientific community.
In the SI system of units there are seven base quantities, two
supplementary quantities and a host of derived quantities alongside
corresponding units.
Base Units
The units in which the base quantities are measured are called base time as they are based on the properties of atoms. Further SI system of
units. These are units which can neither be derived nor be resolved into units are coherent system of units, in which the units of derived
other units. These are shown in the table below. quantities are obtained as multiples or submultiples of certain basic
Base physical quantity S.I. base unit units.
Name Symbols Names Symbols
Length l metre m Rules for writing S.I. units and their symbols
Mass m kilogram kg  Only units of the SI and those units recognized for use with the SI are
Electric current I ampere A used to express the values of quantities in published scientific work.
Time t second s Abbreviations such as sec, cc, or mps are to be avoided and only
Thermodynamic Temperature T or θ kelvin K standard unit symbols, prefix symbols, unit names, and prefix names are
Amount of substance n mole mol. to be used:- s or second; cm3 or cubic centimetre; or metre per second.
Luminous intensity lv candela cd  The units named after scientists are not written with a capital initial
letter except at the beginning of a sentence. For examples: newton,
Of these seven base quantities and units, you only need six of them at henry, watt and joule. The recommended abbreviations of units named
advanced level. Luminous intensity and its unit would be used in future. after scientist should be written clearly by a capital letter. For example:
All base units are different from one another. That is, base units are N for newton, W for watt, J for joule, T for tesla, H for henry, Hz for
units that cannot be expressed in terms of any other unit. In the SI hertz and Wb for weber.
system of units there are seven base quantities and units  The symbols of units not named after scientists are not written with a
capital letter. For example: m for metre, kg for kilogram.
Derived units  Unit symbols are unaltered in the plural. That is, the symbols of the
units do not take plural form. For example : 10 kg not as 10 kgs
Derived units are units of derived quantities. These units are
 Unit symbols are not followed by a period or other punctuation marks
combinations of the base units of the S.I. system. That is, can be
unless at the end of a sentence. That is, it is improper to write the bar is
expressed as combination of base units. Derived units are obtained by
75 cm. long in place of the bar is 75 cm long.
multiplying and/or dividing two or more base units. They exists many
 A space or half-high dot is used to signify the multiplication of units.
derived quantities and units. Below are some derived quantities and
For example the speed of the car is about 21 m·s -1 (metres per second)
their units often encountered in Physics at advanced level.
while the speed of the car is about 21 ms-1 (reciprocal milliseconds).
 Unit symbols (or names) are not to be modified by the addition of
Quantity Definition Unit
subscripts or other information.
Acceleration velocity ÷ time m s–2
 A solidus (i.e., slash), horizontal line, or negative exponent is used to
Angular acceleration* angular velocity ÷ time rad s 2 signify the division of units. The solidus must not be repeated on the
Angular frequency* plane angle ÷ time rad s 1 same line unless parentheses (brackets) are used. For example: m/s, m·s-
2
Area length × breadth m2 , m·kg/(s3·A), m·kg·s-3·A-1, m s-2, m kg/(s3 A), m kg s-3 A-1. Hence, J /
Capacitance* charge ÷ voltage farad (F) K mol or J K–1 mol–1 but not J / K / mol.
Charge current × time coulomb (C)  When temperature is expressed in kelvin, the degree sign is omitted. For
Conductivity 1 ÷ resistivity example: 273 K not as 273 oK. If expressed in Celsius scale, degree sign
 1 m 1
is to be included. For example 100 oC and not 100 C.
Density mass ÷ volume kg m–3
 Information should not be mixed with unit symbols or names. It must be
Electric field* voltage ÷ distance V m–1 clear to which unit symbol a numerical value belongs and which
Electric flux* voltage × distance Vm mathematical operation applies to the value of a quantity. There is a
Electromotive force power ÷ current volt (V) space between the numerical value and unit symbol, even when the
Energy (work) force × distance joule (J) value is used in an adjectival sense, except in the case of superscript
Entropy* work ÷ temperature J K–1 units for plane angle.
Force mass ÷ acceleration newton (N)  Some space is always to be left between the number and the symbol of
Frequency 1 ÷ time hertz (Hz) the unit and also between the symbols for compound units such as
Inductance* (voltage × time) ÷ current henry (H) force, momentum,. For example, it is not correct to write 2.3m. The
Impulse mass × velocity Ns correct representation is 2.3 m.
Magnetic field  Numerical value of any physical quantity should be expressed in
force ÷ (current × length) tesla (T)
strength* scientific notation. For an example, density of mercury is 1.36 × 10 4 kg
Momentum mass × velocity Ns m−3 and not as 13600 kg m−3.
Power work ÷ time watt (W) In the advanced Level assessments, learners will be expected to be able
Pressure force ÷ area pascal (Pa) to recognise and use compound units in the form m s−1, rather than m/s.
Resistance voltage ÷ current ohm (Ω) This is explained through the use of the power laws. Metres per second
Specific heat energy ÷ (mass × literally mean we divide metres by time. This is written as
J kg–1 K–1
capacity temperature) m
Speed (velocity) force ÷ distance m s–1 s
Surface tension* force ÷ length N m–1 The reciprocal of s, 1 s can be written as s−1 and the units for velocity
Torque force × distance Nm can be written as m s −1. Hence unit such as that of specific heat capacity
Volume length × breadth × height m3 which is joules per kilogram per kelvin is expressed as J kg 1 K 1
* would be discussed along our future work. So if you can’t derive them at the moment, fine.
rather than J /kg /K.
Supplementary Units
The General Conference on Weights and Measures has not yet Expressing larger and smaller physical quantities
classified certain unit of SI under either base or derived units. These S.I. Once the fundamental units are defined, it is easier to express larger and
units are called derived supplementary units. The units defined for the smaller units of the same physical quantity. In the metric (SI) system
supplementary quantities namely plane angle and solid angle are called these are related to the fundamental unit in prefix. Prefixes are used for
the supplementary units. These are used for the measurement of angles. multiples or submultiples of units. The table below lists the standard SI
prefixes, their meanings and abbreviations.
Supplementary physical S.I. unit
quantity Names Symbols Submultiples Multiples
Plane angle radian rad Power Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation
Solid angle steradian sr
10–24 yocto y 1024 yotta Y
10–21 zepto z 1021 zetta Z
Uniqueness of S.I. System 10–18 atto a 1018 exa E
10–15 femto f 1015 peta P
The SI system is logically far superior to all other systems. The SI units
10–12 pico p 1012 tera T
have certain special features which make them more convenient in
10–9 nano n 109 giga G
practice. Permanence and reproducibility are the two important
characteristics of any unit standard. The SI standards do not vary with 10–6 micro μ 106 mega M
10–3 milli m 103 kilo k
2
 10–2 centi c 101 daka da  all arguments of any exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric or other
10 –1
deci d special functions that appear in the equation must be dimensionless.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
For example, if a physical equation is represented by:
The word dimension has a special meaning in physics. It usually
( D  D2 )
denotes the physical nature of a quantity. Dimensions of a physical A  Be  C  1  F cos(G )  H
quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities must be E
raised. That is, the dimensions of a physical quantity is the relationship Form the above equation, C and G must be dimensionless. D1 and D2
between the physical quantity and the basic quantities. Hence, the must have identical unit and A, B, D/E, F and H must have identical
dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the base units.
quantities are raised to represent that quantity. The expression which An important consequence of dimensional homogeneity is that the form
shows how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of of a physical equation is independent of the size of the base units.
a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula. Derived units are defined as products of powers of the base units. When
We shall often use brackets [ ] to denote the dimensions of a physical the product of powers includes no numerical factor other than one, the
quantity. That is, the dimension of a physical quantity can be written as derived units are called coherent derived units.
[physical quantity]. For example [speed] read dimension of speed.
Angle has unit i.e. radian but dimensionless. Uses of dimensional analysis and units
The table below show the dimensions of the seven base quentities. The method of dimensional or unit analysis is used to:
 check the dimensional correctness of a given equation.
Base physical quantity Base Dimensions  establish a relationship between different physical quantities in an
Name unit equation.
Length m L  convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
Mass kg M
Electric current A I a) To check the dimensional correctness of physical equation
Time s T A physical equation is true irrespective of the units used for the physical
Thermodynamic temperature K Θ quantities mentioned in the equation. Each term in the equation has the
Amount of substance mol. N same dimensios (units). As said before, only quantities with the same
Luminous intensity cd J dimensions (or units) can be added, subtracted or equated in an
equation. The demension of an equation is said to be homogenous if all
Worked Examples the terms in it have identical dimensions or units. Hence, Dimensional
Find the base unit of the following physical quantities using analysis makes use of the fact that dimensions can be treated as
dimensional analysis. algebraic quantities. That is, quantities can be added, subtracted or
1) Velocity 4) Force equated only if they have identical units. The following example may
2) Area 5) Work help to illustrate dimensional homogeneity in physical equations and
3) Accelaration 6) Electric charge show how conceptual errors that may arise if homogeneity isn’t
Solution recognized. Let us take the equation of motion
base unit of distance m s = ut + 12 at2
1) Base units of velocity = =  m s 1 .
base unit of time s that relates the displacement s, initial velocity u, time t and accelaration
2
2) Base unit of area = (base unit of length) = m 2 a in motion under uniform motion. Applying base units on both sides,
base unit of velocity m s 1 2
Base units of s = base units of (ut) + base units of ( 12 at2)
3) Base units of accelaration = = ms
base unit of time s On the LHS, base units of s = m
4) Base units of force = base units of (mass  accelaration) = kg m s 2 On the RHS,
Base units of (ut) + base units of ( 12 at2) = m s–1 s + m s–2 s2 = m
5) Base units of work = base units of (force  distance) = kg m 2 s 2 .
( 12 is a constant having no dimension or unit)
6) Base units of electric charge = base units of (current  time) = A s .
As the units on both sides are identically equal, the equation is
dimensionally correct (homogenous).
Dimensional quantities
Suppose a student had written the equation badly as:
Constants which possess dimensions are called dimensional constants.
s = ut2 + 12 at
Planck’s constant, universal gravitational constants are a few
dimensional constants. Dimensional variables are those physical Applying dimensions on both sides,
quantities which possess dimensions but do not have a fixed value. For Base units of s = base units of (ut2) + base units of ( 12 at)
examples: - velocity, force, etc. On the LHS, base units of s = m
On the RHS,
Dimensionless quantities
Base units of (ut2) + base units of ( 12 at) = m s + m s–1
There are certain quantities which do not possess dimensions. They are
The dimensions for the three terms in the equation are not identically
called dimensionless quantities. Examples are strain, angle, specific
equal or homogeneous. It can be concluded that the equation is wrong.
gravity, etc. They are dimensionless as they are the ratio of two or more
An equation which is not homogeneous must be wrong. On the other
quantities having the same dimensional formula. All arguments of any
hand, if the units for the various terms in the equation are identically
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric or other special functions that
equal, it does not imply that the equation is physically correct as they
appear in an equation must be dimensionless. For example sin( at  Q ),
may be a unitless constant as the case of the half ( 12 ) in the above
log( A), eC , etc.
equation. There are cases where an equation is homogenous and yet
physically incorrect.
Principle of Homogeneity of Dimensions
An equation is dimensionally correct if the dimensions of the various Worked Examples
terms on either side of the equation are identically equal. This is 1) For temperature close 0 K, the specific heat capacity for a particular
called the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. Therefore, an solid is given by c  aT 3 where T is its thermodynamic temperature
equation is said to be homogenous when the dimensions (or units) of and a is a constant. What is the unit for a in terms of the base units in
all the terms on either side of the equation are identical equal. This S.I.?
principle is based on the fact that when quantities of the same Solution
dimension are added or subtracted the resulting quantity also possessing base units of energy kg m s 2 × m
the same dimension. The equation A  B = C is valid only if the Base units of c  =
dimensions of A, B and C are identical. Hence, to test if a physical base units of (mass  temperature) kg × K
equation is dimensionally homogeneous:-  base units of c  m 2 s 2 K 1
 both sides of the equation must have the same dimension (or units); base units of c m 2 s 2 × K 1
 wherever a sum of quantities appears in the equation, all the terms in Base units of a  =  m 2 s 2 K 4
the sum must have the same dimension (or units); ( base units of T ) 3 K3
Therefore the base unit for a  m 2 s 2 K 4
3
 2) The viscous drag F between two layers of liquid separated by a tension of the liquid with unit N m–1. Which of the equations is
distance dx moving with velocity different dv with surface area of dimensionally homogenous?
contact A is given by: Solution
dv [force] MLT 2
F  ηA [ X ]  [Y ]  [ Z ]  [ p]   2
 ML1T 2
dx [area] L
where η is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. Work out the a) [ Ag  v ]  [ A][ g ][  ][ v]  (LT 2 )(ML3 )(LT 1 )
base unit of η .
Solution  [ Ag  v ]  ML1T 3
Fdx Since the [ Ag  v]  [ p ]  ML1T 2 , this equation is not
η
Adv dimensionally homogenous.
base units of F  base units of dx kg m s 2  m b) [ B  v 2 ]  [ B ][  ][v 2 ]  (ML3 )(LT 1 ) 2
Base units of η  
base units of A  base units of dv m 2  m s 1  [ B  v 2 ]  (ML3 )(L2 T 2 )  ML1T 2
Hence, unit of η = kg m 1 s 1 Since the [ B  v 2 ]  [ p ]  ML1T 2 , this equation is dimensionally
3) a) What are coherent derived units? homogenous.
b) A sphere of radius a moving with a velocity v under streamline
c) [C gv 2 ]  [C ][ ][ g[]v 2 ]
condition in a viscous fluid experiences a retarding force F given by
F  kav where k is a constant. What are the S.I. units of k in teams  [C gv 2 ]  (MLT 2  L1 )(LT 2 )(LT 1 ) 2
of the base units?  [C gv 2 ]  ML1T 2
Solution
a) Coherent derived units are products of powers of base units that Since the [C gv 2 ]  [ p]  ML1T 2 , this equation is dimensionally
include no numerical factor other than one. homogenous.
F
b) k  b) To establish a relationship between the physical quantities in an
av
equation
base units of F kg m s 2
Base units of k   Determining a physical quantity usually depends on a number of other
base units of a  base units of v m  m s 1 physical quantities. For example, let us find an expression for the time
Therefore, base unit of k  kg m 1 s 1 period T of a simple pendulum. The time period T may depend upon
4) The heat capacity C of a solid can be expressed as a function of  mass m of the bob
temperature T to fit the expression:  length l of the pendulum and
 acceleration due to gravity g at the place where the pendulum is
C  T  T 3
suspended.
Find the possible units of α and β. Using units or dimensions, an equation can be derived to relate these
Solution quantities.
base units of energy Suppose that:
Base units of C   kg m 2 s 2 K 1
base units of temperature T  mxl y g z
Base units of C  Base units of ( T )  Base units of ( T 3 ) where x, y and z are non-dimensional constants. Then
T  km x l y g z
base units of C kg m 2 s 2 K 1 where k is a dimensionless constant of proportionality. Rewriting
Base units of     kg m 2 s 2 K 2
base units of T K equation above with dimensions,
base units of C kg m 2 s 2 K 1 [T ]  [ k ][ m]x [l ] y [ g ]z
Base units of   3
 3
 kg m 2 s 2 K 4
base units of T K  T  (M) x (L) y (LT 2 ) z
Therefore unit of  is kg m s K and unit of   kg m 2 s 2 K 4
2 2 2
 T1  M x Ly  2 z T 2 z
5) The drag force F excerted on a car moving with a velocity v through Since, M 0 L0  1
ait of density ρ is given hy the espression:
 M 0 L0 T1  M x Ly  2 z T 2 z
F  12 C D  v 2 A Since a physical equation must be dimensionally consistance; the
where A is the maximum cross-sectional area of the car dimension (or units) on the left side of the equation must be identical to
perpendicular to the direction of travel and CD is the drag coefficient. the dimensions on the right side of the equation. Comparing the powers
a) Show that CD is dimensionless. of M, L and T on both sides, we see that
b) When the car is travelling at a speed of 20 m s –1 it experences a drag x = 0, y + z = 0 and −2z = 1
force of 350 N. what drag force would be expected when the car is Solving for x, y and z:
travelling at its top speed of 40 m s–1? x = 0, y = 12 and z =  12
Solution
2F From the equation; T  km x l y g z :
a) C D  1  12 1  12
 v2 A  T  km 0 l 2 g  k l2g
[2][ F ] MLT 2 l
[C D ]   1 T  k
[  ][v ][ A] ML  (LT )  L
2 3 1 2 2
g
Hence, is dimensionless. The value of the constant of proportionality k can be determined
b) When F = 350 N, v = 20 m s–1 and when F  = ?, v = 40 m s–1 experimentally. Experimentally the value of k is determined to be 2π.
From the expression,
l
F 350 F  T  2
1
2
CD  A  2  2
 g
v (20) (40) 2
350 Worked examples
 F   (40)2  1, 400 N
(20) 2 1) If pressure P, velocity V and time T are taken as fundamental
6) The following equations had been suggested by a lower sixth student physical quantities, the dimensional formula of the force is
to describe the variation of the pressure, p with velocity v of a liquid Solution
of density, ρ which flows in a horizontal pipe. From the problem: F  p a v b t c
a) p  Ag  v  X Where a, b, c are dimensions
b) p  B  v 2  Y  F  kp a v b t c
c) p  C gv 2  Z k is dimensionless proportionality constant. Appling dimensional
where A, B and C are non-dimensional constant; X, Y and Z are analysis;
constants, g is the accelaration due to gravity and γ is the surface  [ F ]  [ k ][ p ]a [v]b [t ]c

4
 Dimensional formula of force, F = MLT 2  M  (ML1T 2 ) (ML3 )  (L2 ) (T)
Dimensional formula of pressure, p = ML1T 2  M  M   L 3   2 T 2 1
Dimensional formula of velocity, v = LT 1 Equating dimension M gives: α + β = 1
Dimensional formula of time, t = T Equating dimension L gives: –α – 3β + 2γ = 0
Therefore, Equating dimension T gives: –2α – 1= 0
MLT 2  (ML1T 2 ) a (LT 1 )b (T) c Solving the three equations;
 MLT 2  M a L a b T 2 a b  c α = 12 , β = 12 and γ = 1
From the principle of homogeneity of dimensions 5) Explain why an equation must be homogeneous with respect to the
a = 1, –a + b = 1 and –2a –b + c = –2 units if it is to be correct.
Solving: Solution
a = 1, b = 2, c = 2. If the units on one side differ from those on the other, then the two
Hence the dimension of force = PV 2 T 2 sides of the equation relate to different kinds of physical quantity.
2) The speed of sound v in a medium depends on its wavelength λ, the They cannot be equal
Young modulus E, and density ρ, of the medium. Derive a formula
for the sound v in the medium. (Unit for Young modulus is Pa) c) To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to
Solution another
Suppose
v  k x E y  z Worked Examples
1) The [gravitational constant] is M−1L3T −2. Given the value of
where k, x, y and z are non-dimensional constants.
gravitational constant in CGS system to be 6.67 × 10–8 dyne cm2 g−2.
[v ]  [k ][  ]x [ E ] y [  ]z Calculate its value in SI units.
 LT 1  (L) x (ML1T 2 ) y (ML3 ) z Solution
In CGS system In SI system
 LT 1  Lx  y 3 z T 2 y M y  z
Equating indices of T: –1 = –2y G CGS  6.67  10 8 G=?
 y  12 m1  1 g m2  1 kg
Equating indices of M: 0 = y + z l1  1 cm l1  1 m
 z   y   12
t1  1 s t2  1 s
Equating indices of L: 1 = x – y – 3z
Since the dimensional formula for gravitational constant is M−1L3T −2.
 1 = x – ( 12 ) – 3(  12 ) x y z
In CGS system, dimensional formula for G is M1 L1T1
x  0 x y z
In SI system, dimensional formula for G is M 2 L 2 T2
1
 12 E
 v  kE  2
k Here x = −1, y = 3, z = −2

G CGS M1 L1T1  GM 2x Ly2 T2z
x y z

3) Poiseuline assumed that the time rate of flow of the volume of a x y y

liquid through a horizontal tube under streamline flow depends on: M  L  T
- a, radius of the tube,  G = G CGS  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
- η, viscosity of the liquid, and 1 3 2
p  1 g   1 cm   1 s 
8
 G = 6.67  10 
-
l
, the pressure gradient along the tube,
 1,000 g   100 cm   1 s 
where p = pressure difference across the length of the tube and l =  G  6.67  10 11
length of tube.
Therefore, in SI units, G  6.67  10 11 N m 2 kg 2
Using Poiseuline’s assumption, derive an expression for the rate of
flow of a liquid through a horizontal tube in terms of a, l, p and η. 2) Convert 76 cm of mercury pressure into pascal using the method of
dimensions. Density of mercury 13600 kg m–3.
(Units of η = kg m 1 s 1 )
Solution
Solution In cgs system, 76 cm of mercury pressure = 76 × 13.6 × 980 dyne
Suppose that the rate of flow is cm–2
y
dV  p Let this be P1. Therefore P1 = 76 × 13.6 × 980 dyne cm–2
 ax    z
dt l a b c
In cgs system, the dimension of pressure is M1 L1T1
y a b c
dV  p Dimension of pressure is ML–1 T–2. Comparing this with M1 L1T1
  ka x    z
dt l we have a = 1, b = –1 and c = –2.
a b c
where k, x, y and z are dimensionless constants. By applying M  L  T
dimensions: ∴ Pressure in SI system P2 = P1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L 2   T2 
[ dV ] [ p] y
 [ k ][ a ]x [ ]z 1
 10 3   10 2   1
1 2
[ dt ] [l ] y  P2 = (76  13.6  981)  = 1.01  105 Pa
1 1 2 1 y 1 1 z  1   1   1
 L T  (L) (ML T  L ) (ML T )
3 x

 L3 T 1  M x  z Lx  2 y  z T 2 y  z Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:

Equating indices of M: 0 = y + z
Equating indices of T: –1 = –2y – z Using dimensional analysis, we cannot find the value of dimensionless

Equating indices of L: 3 = x – 2y – z Solving the three constant such as 1, 6π etc that exist in an equation.
equations simultaneously, The equations containing trigonometric functions (
x = 4, y = 1 and z = –1. 
sin  , cos  , tan  , etc. ), logarithmic functions ( log x, log x 3 , etc. )
dV ka 4 p
  2

dt l and exponential functions ( e x , e x , etc) can neither be derived nor be

4) The mass m of gas escaping in a short time, t through a small hole of
area, A in the wall of a cooking gas bottle is given by the expression
m  cp   A t
where c is a dimensionless constant, and p and ρ are pressure and the
density of the gas respectively. Determine the values of the constants
α, β, and γ.
Solution
[ m]  [c][ p ] [  ] [ A] [t ]
checked because they are independent of dimensions of fundamental
quantities. That is, they are dimensionless.
It cannot inform that whether a quantity is scalar or vector.

It cannot find the exact nature of plus or minus, connecting two or

more terms in formula.
The relation containing more than three physical quantities cannot be

derived using dimensional analysis. It can only be checked.

5
 It can check only whether a physical relation is dimensionally correct

or not. It cannot tell whether the relation is absolutely correct or not.
For example applying this technique s  ut  at 2 is dimensionally
correct whereas the correct relation is s  ut  12 at .
2
If the dimensions are given, then the physical quantity may not be
 Addition or Subtraction: In addition or subtraction, the final result
unique as many physical quantities can have the same dimensions. For
example, the dimensional formula is ML 2T–2 may be torque, work or
energy but their physical characteristics are different.
Hence, for an equation to physically correct, it must be homogenous
and contains no dimensionless constant. Some cases where an
equation can be homogeneous and yet incorrect are:
 Incorrect Coefficient(s): The correct equation relating s, u, t and a for
motion under uniform acceleration is:
s  ut  12 at 2
Look at this equation which has been written wrongly.
s  12 ut  2at 2
It has the same dimensions for each term in the equation, hence
homogenous; but wrong because the coefficient of the first term on
the right is 12 instead of 1 and the coefficient of the last term is 12 and
not 2.
 Missing term(s): The relationship s, u, t and a may just be written as:
s  12 at 2
which is incomplete and wrong; although the equation is homogenous.
 Extra terms: Conversely, the above corrent equation may be wrongly
writtern with an extra term which has the same dimension or unit as
other terms, for example,
s  ut  vt  12 at 2
The correctness of a physical equation is confirmed only
experimentally.
 Present of exponential and trigonometric functions
Therefore, when the dimensions on both sides of the equation agree,
the equation is often correct dimensionally. When the dimensions
don’t agree, the equation must be wrong. An equation being
homogeneous does not necessarily mean the equation will be true,
since it does not take into account dimensionless factors.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value and
is subject to errors arising from limitations of the apparatus and the
experimenter. The number of figures, called significant figures, given
for a measurement indicates how accurate we think it is and more
figures should not be given than is justified.
Significant figures may be defined as the reliable digits plus the first
uncertain digit are known as significant digits or significant figures.
Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement,
greater is the accuracy of the measurement and vice-versa.
Rules for counting the significant figures:
 All the non-zero digits are significant. For example, 1254 has four
significant figures (4 sf).
 All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all. For example, 1004 has four
significant figures
 If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point
but to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. In 0.00
2308, the underlined zeroes are not significant.
 The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point
are not significant. Thus 145 m = 14500 cm = 145000 mm has three
significant figures, the trailing zero(s) being not significant.
 The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant.
The numbers 8.500 or 0.007900 have four significant figures each.
Operations on significant figures
When doing a calculation your answer should have the same number of
significant figures as the measurements used in the calculation. For
example, if your calculator gave an answer of 3.4185062, this would be
written as 3.4 if the measurements had two significant figures. It would
be written as 3.42 for three significant figures. In deciding the least
significant figure you look at the next figure to the right. If it is less than
5 you leave the least significant figure as it is (hence 3.41 becomes 3.4)
6
but if it equals or is greater than 5 you increase the least significant
figure by 1 (hence 3.418 becomes 3.42).
If a number is expressed in standard notation, the number of significant
figures is the number of digits before the power of ten. For example,
2.73 × 103 has three significant figures.
should retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with
the least decimal places. For example,
10.342 + 3.12 = 13.46
(not 13.462, because result should retain two decimal places as there are
least two decimal places in 3.12) 13.682 – 13.6 = 0.1 (on rounding off)
Multiplication or division: In multiplication or division, the final
result should retain as many significant figures as are there in the
original number with the least significant figures. For example,
3.145 × 3.01 = 9.47
(not 9.46645, as result can have at the most three significant figures)
and
8500 ÷ 9.42 = 910
(on rounding off, not 902.33546, as result can have at the most two
significant figures)
Worked Examples
1) Explain scientific notation method of finding the number of
significant figures.
Solution
In this notation, every number is expressed as a  10b , where ‘a’ is a
number from 1 to 9, and ‘b’ is any power of 10. The number of digits
in the decimal number gives significant figures.
2) A goldsmith put 5.42 g of ruby in a box weighing 1.2 kg. Find the
total mass of the box and ruby.
Solution:
Total mass = mass of box + mass of ruby = 1.2 + 0.00542 = 1.20542
kg
After rounding off, total mass = 1.2 kg
3) Multiply 2.2 and 0.225. Give the answer correct to significant
figures.
Solution
2.2 × 0.225 = 0.495
Since the least number of significant figures in the given data is 2, the
result should also have only two significant figures.
∴ 2.2 × 0.225 = 0.50
EXPERIMENT IN PHYSICS
Practical work is a vital part of physics. Physicists apply their practical
skills in a wide variety of contexts: from nuclear medicine in hospitals
to satellite design; from testing new materials to making astronomical
observations. In your A-level physics course you need to learn, practise
and demonstrate that you have acquired these skills.
Experimental Error
Error is the inaccuracy in taking measurements. The term ‘experimental
errors’ does not generally refer to the sort of blunders we all make from
time to time, such as forgetting to connect the battery, misreading a
scale or failing to take a reading at the right time. Hence, the
uncertainity in the measurement of a physical quantity is called error.
That is, the difference between true value and measured value is known
as error in measurement. These are annoying, but repeating the
experiment with more care usually solves the problem. Therefore, in
experimental work, students are often advised to repeat readings in
order to:
 identify anomalies in readings
 allows an average to be taken
 reduces random error and hence, reduces uncertainty
Experimental errors fall into two main categories: systematic errors and
random errors.
a) Systematic errors:
Systematic errors are uncertainities in the measurement of physical
quantities due to instruments, faults in the surrounding conditions or
mistakes made by the observer. One important characteristic of
systematic error is that the size of the error is roughly constant and the
measurement obtained is always less or greater than the actual value.
Repeating these readings is pointless, since the error occurs in the same
way each time. Systematic errors may also occur due to a number of
reasons. Some of these are errors are:
  Zero errors arise from the errors due to imperfect design or zero error
in the instrument, etc. For example, in a vernier calliper, the zero mark
of vernier scale may not coincide with the zero mark of the main
scale, or simply an ordinary metre rule may be worn off at one end as
students keep on tapping.
 Personal error of the observer is the error results from the physical
constraints or limitation of an individual. For example, the reaction
time of an experimenter in starting and stopping a stopwatch.
 Error due to instruments. For example, an ammeter which is used
under different conditions from which it had been calibrated. A
mechanical ammeter manufactured to be used in China had been
calibrated under different temperatures and earth’s magnetic fields
from Cameroon where the ammeter is used. A spring balance
calibrated to be used in the pole is faulty when used at the equator.
 Errors due to wrong assumption. For example, the value of g, the
acceleration due to gravity, is assumed to be 9.81 m s –2 where the
actual value of g is not 9.81 m s–2 but say 9.81 m s–2.
 Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure. To determine
the temperature of a human body, a thermometer placed under the
armpit will always give a temperature lower than the actual value of
the body temperature or measuring the room temperature using a
thermometer while holding the bob.
b) Random errors:
Random errors are uncertainities in a measurement made by an
experimenter. In other words, random errors are those errors, which
occur irregularly and hence are random with respect to sign and size.
The characteristic of random error is that it tends to be in one direction,
either positive or negative and not constant. Thus, the reading obtained
may sometimes be greater than the actual value and sometimes be
smaller than the actual value. These can arise due to random and
unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions. This may also
due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus or
individual’s carelessness in taking observations without observing
proper precautions For example, when the same person repeats the same
observation, he may get different readings every time. Repeating the
readings and calculating a mean value is useful because the more
readings you have, the more the random fluctuations will be averaged
out. As such, it is often advisable to analysis experimental results
graphically in order:
 to allows trend and relationship to be identified
 that anomalous readings can be identified
 to detected systematic errors
 for line of best fit to be drown and ‘averages’ results
 to allows interpolation and/or extrapolation .
 to allows intercept, gradient and/or area to be determined
Examples of random errors include:
 Errors due to parallax when reading a scale.
Fig.1.02 shows how the correct reading is obtained with the eye in
position B which is normally to the scale.
A B C Possible error for a calculated answer
rule
1 2
0 n  n  ( x  x )( y  y )
Fig.1.02
If the reading is taken with the eye at A, the reading would be smaller
than the correct reading, resulting to negative error. On the other hand,
if the reading is obtained with the eye at C, the reading is larger than the
correct value and the error is positive.
Observation or reading errors may perhaps occur when timing the
oscillations of a pendulum, or when trying to read the flickering needle
on the dial of an analogue meter.
 Random errors occur when using a micrometer screw gauge or vernier
callipers in measuring the diameter of an object if different pressures
are applied when closing the gap of the instrument. As such, it is
advisable to screw a micrometer screw gauge using the ratchet to avoid
deforming the object. The object just fit with an audible signal.
 Environmental error: perhaps the temperature of the room is
fluctuating, wind may blowing in one direction as with the case with
pendulum or the supply voltage keeps changing.
c)Gross (Compound) Error
Most experimernts in Physics involve measurament of various physical
quantities which may then be used to evaluate a particular quantity.
Error in the measurement of the various physical quantities are then
7
compounded, resulting in a larger error. Gross errors arise due to one or
more of the following.
 Improper setting of the instrument.
 Wrong recordings of the observation.
 Not taking into account sources of error and precautions.
 Usage of wrong values in the calculation.
Gross errors can be minimised only if the observer is very careful in his
observations and sincere in his approach.
Repeating measurements of a quantity have reduces random error and
does not altered systematic error.
Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty
In practice, an experiment is repeated by the experimenter to check that
it gives consistent results. If so, then the measurement is said to be
repeatable. If other experimenters get similar results, preferably in
different laboratories using different techniques, then the measurement
is said to be reproducible.
Accuracy
A result is said to be accurate if it is close to the true value, that is, the
standard or accepted value. Hence, accuracy is a measure of how close
a measured value is to the true value of the physical quantity. In
exceptional cases, of course, the new measurement may not agree with
the accepted value, because the accepted value is wrong.
Precision
Precision means, to what limit of the instrument, the quantity is
measured. ‘Precision’ does not mean that the measurements are right; it
merely tells you whether the results are numerically close together. It is
given by least count.
Physical quantities obtained from experimental observation always have
some uncertainty. Measurements can never be made with absolute
precision. Precision is reflected in how the results are recorded. If a
distance is quoted as ‘15 m’ then it implies that it was only measured to
the nearest metre, whereas if it is quoted as ‘15.0 m’ then it suggests
that it was measured to the nearest 0.1 m. Hence, precision is the
smallest change in value that can be measured by an instrument or an
operator. A precise measurement is one made several times, giving the
same, or very similar, values.
Maximum Possible Error
The maximum possible error can easily be eliminated. A metre rule
marked off in millimetres should give an answer correct to within 1 mm
unless the rule is badly made or not seen clearly. The most common
way of expressing an error is percentage error. If the accuracy in
measuring a quantity is x  x , then the percentage error in x is given
by
x
Percentage error =  100%
x
 Suppose a physical quantity n is calculated from the equation n = xy
and errors in x and y are respectively x and y . Then error in the
calculation of n is n given by the equation
 n  n  xy  y x  xy  ( x )( y )
The product of ( x)( y ) very small and can be neglected. Subtracting n
(xy) on both side of the equation, we are left with
n  y x  xy
Dividing both sides by n (xy) and multiplying by 100%, we have
n  x y 
 100%     100%
n  x y 
Hence, this show that the percentage error in n is equal the sum of the
percentage errors in x and y.
 Suppose a physical quantity n is calculated from the equation n = x y
and errors in x and y are respectively x and y . Then error in the
calculation of n is n given by the equation
n  n  ( x  x ) ( y  y )
 n  n  ( x y )  (x y )  ( xy y 2 )
The product of ( x)( y ) is very small and left out. Subtracting n ( x y )
on both side of the equation, we are left with
n  ( x y )  ( xy y 2 )
Dividing both sides by n ( x y ) and multiplying by 100%, we have
 n  x y 
 100%      100%
n  x y
MEASUREMENT IN PHYSICS
Hence, this show that the percentage error in n is equal the different
To take careful and accurate observation in physics, measurements are
of the percentage errors in x and y.
inevitable. In the scientific terminology, measurements and readings
have different meaning. A reading is a single determination of the value
 Suppose a physical quantity n is calculated from the equation n = x  y
of an unknown physical quantity. A measurement is the final result of
and errors in x and y are respectively x and y . Then error in the the analysis of a series of readings. A measurement is only accurate up
calculation of n is n given by the equation to a certain degree depending on the instrument used and the physical
n  n  ( x  x )  ( y  y ) constraints of the observer. The devise that is used for measurement of
 n  x  y certain physical quantity is called as measuring instrument.
Therefore, when two quantities are added or subtracted the absolute
error in the final result is the sum of the absolute error in the individual
quantities.

 If the error in ‘n’ is n , then the percentage error in

 n 
n  a  100
a

 n 
(a)Analogue instruments
Worked Examples
1) a) Define error.
b) Describe possible causes of error.
Solution
a) The difference between the observed and true value of a physical
quantity is called error.
(b)Digital instruments
b) The errors may occur due to following reasons:
Fig.1.03
- Negligence or inexperience of a person
The measuring instruments are used frequently in our day-to-day life
- The faulty apparatus
for the measurement of various quantities like length, weight,
- Inappropriate method or technique
temperature, pressure, current, voltage etc. The instruments indicate the
2) Differentiate among precision and accuracy
value of these quantities, based on which we get some understanding
Solution
and also take appropriate actions and decisions. There are two main
 The precise measurement is one which has least absolute uncertainty
types of the measuring instruments: analogue and digital. The analogue
while an accurate measurement is one which has less fractional or
instruments indicate the magnitude of the quantity in the form of a
percentage uncertainty.
physical pointer moving over a scale. The digital measuring
 The precision of measurement depends on the instrument or device
instruments indicate the values of the quantity in light format that is in
being used whereas the accuracy in any measurement not only
numbers, which can be read easily.
depends on instrument being used, but also on the total measurement
taken
1 Analogue instruments against digital instruments
A3 B 2

3) Find the relative error in Z, if Z  3

.  The instrument which gives output that varies continuously as
CD 2
Solution
Z 3A B C 3D
   
Z A 2B C 2D
4) Differentiate between random and systematic errors.
Solution
 If the repeated measurements of a quantity give different values under
same conditions, then the error is called random error whereas
systematic error refers to the effect that influences all measurement of
a particular quantity equally.
 The random error occurs due to some unknown causes but systematic
error may occur due to zero error of the instrument, poor calibration
or incorrect marking etc.
 Repeating the measurement several times and taking an average can
reduce the effect of random error while systematic error can be
reduced by comparing the instrument with another which is known to
be more accurate.
5) a) When using a digital voltmeter and digital ammeter to determine
the resistance of a wire, state one possible random error which could
occur in the use of the digital meters.
b) How could this error be kept to a minimum?
c) Explain why the voltmeter must have a resistance much greater than
that of the wire, which resistance it is trying to measure, in order to
avoid a systematic error in the use of the voltmeter.
Solution
a) Quantization error (rounding-off error), where the reading is rounded
up or down. Hence a reading of 2.3 could actually be anything
between 2.25 to 2.35.
b) Quantization errors, like all random errors, can be minimized by
taking several readings of voltage and current and by plotting a
graph of voltage versus current and drawing a best fit line to even
out under and over estimations.
c) Additionally, using higher voltages and currents, and digital meters
with greater precision and more decimal places will also reduce the
random error. The voltmeter has to have a much greater resistance
than that of the wire so that it will draw minimal current away from
the wire when connected across it. This is to minimize the systematic
error arising from the reduction in potential difference across the
wire when the voltmeter is connected.
8
quantity to be measured is known as analogue instrument. Whereas,
the instrument which gives output that varies in discrete steps and
only has finite number of values is known as digital instrument.
 The accuracy of analogue instrument is less than of it corresponding
digital instrument.
 The analogue instruments required more power than of it
corresponding digital instrument.
 The sensitivity of analogue instrument is more than of it
corresponding digital instrument.
 The resolution of analogue instruments is less than of it corresponding
digital instrument.
General analogue scale of measurement
Most measuring instruments in science have scales marked on them. A
scale is a regular interval series of marks on a measuring instrument.
Along the side of the marks are assigned numerical values. In the
measurement of any physical quantity, the measuring instrument is first
study. The scale is checked to know the interval and the smallest
dimension it can measure. Fig.1.04 is an example of such a scale.
2
3 4 5
mA 6
1
7
0 8
Fig.1.04
From Fig.1.03, each ‘big’ interval mark is 1 unit. Each of this unit is
divided into 5 sub-units. This means that each sub-unit is 0.2 ( 15 ) units.
This scale is of two significant figures and can measure 1.0 unit but
cannot measure 1 or 1.3 units for example.
Each measurement needs a unit, a standard value that is well defined.
Giving as ‘1.6’ for example form the scale in Fig.1.03, means nothing,
but giving it as 1.6 mA makes it clear. The numerical value of a
measurement depends on the unit that is used.
Measurement of length
Length is the separation between two given points. Length is usually
measure in the laboratory using either a metre rule, vernier calipers or
micrometer screw gauge. The choice of the instrument depends on the
magnitude of the physical quantity.
a) Metre Rule
A metre rule is one metre long and mostly graduated in millimetre but
numbered in centimetre. Fig.1.05 show part of a metre rule.
Fig.1.05
Each large interval is sub-divided into ten units. Therefore, each sub-
interval is 0.1 ( 101 ) cm. The arrow on Fig.1.04 is at 5.8 cm.
When using a rule to determine a length, the rule must be held so that it
in line with the object. If the rule is at an angle, a systematic error is
introduced.
Lengths can be measured with a ruler to an accuracy of about 1 mm.
Some investigations may need a more accurate measurement of length,
which can be achieved by using vernier callipers or a micrometer screw
gauge.
b) Vernier Callipers
The vernier callipers consist of an auxiliary scale, called the vernier
scale, which is capable of sliding along the edge of a main scale as
shown in Fig.1.06.
Fig.1.06
The simplest type enables a length to be measured to 0.01 cm. It is a
small sliding scale which is 9 mm long but divided into 10 equal
divisions. So, they both use a vernier scale – a movable scale that
allows a fractional part on the main scale to be determined.
Fig.1.07 shows a sphere enclosed between the outer jaws of calliper.
Fig.1.07
The reading in mm is taken from the position of the zero on the sliding
scale. Here this is between 24 and 25. The next significant figure (to 0.1
mm) is found by judging which scale mark on the sliding scale is
perfectly aligned with a mark on the main scale. Here this is 5. The
reading is 24 + 0.5 = 24.5 mm.
c) Micrometer Screw Gauge
This measures very small objects to 0.001 cm. One revolution of the
thimble opens the accurately flat, parallel jaws by one division on the
scale on the sleeve of the gauge; this is usually 12 mm, i.e. 0.05 cm. If
the thimble has a scale of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the
drum by one division opens the jaws by 0.05/50 0.001 cm
(Fig.1.08). A ratchet ensures that the jaws exert the same force when the
object is gripped.
0.01 mm
mm scale vernier scale
anvil lock
spindle
object
sleeve
ratchet
rotating
0.01 thimble
Fig.1.08
To slip, rather than overtighten and deform the specimen, the ratchet is
used in moving the spindle. The reading to the nearest 0.5 mm is taken
where the thimble meets the sleeve. In Fig.1.07, this is 12.5 mm. The
final significant figures are given by judging which mark on the rotating
scale coincides with the horizontal line on the sleeve. Here this is 16.
9
The reading is 12.5 + 0.16 = 12.66 mm.
Worked Examples
1) Fig.1.09 represents a section of a pair of vernier callipers. What is
the reading on the instrument?
4 5 6 7
Fig.1.09
Solution:
The gap between 5 cm and 6 cm is divided into 10 divisions. This
means that each division is equal to 0.1 cm. After 5 cm there is zero
divisions before the zero mark on the vernier scale. This implies that
the reading on the main scale is 5 cm + 0.0 cm = 5.0 cm. On the
vernier scale, the division that coincides with a division on the main
scale is the one after 5, therefore, the reading of the vernier scale is
0.06 cm.
Reading of main scale = 5.0 cm,
Reading of vernier scale = 0.06 cm
Reading of calliper = 5.0 + 0.06 = 5.26 cm.
2) Fig.1.10 represents a portion of micrometer screw gauge in which
the horizontal scale is in millimetres. What is the reading on the
instrument?
25
0 mm
1 2 3 20
15
10
5
Fig.1.10
Solution:
Main scale reading =3.5 mm.
The division on the thimble that is opposite the centre line of the
sleeve scale is 17
 Reading on the thimble = 0.17mm.
 Reading of instrument = 3.5 + 0.17 = 3.67 mm.
VECTOR AND SCALAR QUENTITIES
Certain physical quantities may have both directions and numerical
magnitude. In each case, the direction is as important as the magnitude
of the quantity. The quantities encountered in analytical description of
physical phenomena may be classified into two groups according to the
information needed to specify them completely: scalars and non-scalars.
The scalars are given by a single number. Non-scalars have not only a
magnitude specified but also additional information, such as direction.
Non-scalars that obey certain rules (such as the parallelogram law of
addition) are called vectors. Not all non-scalar quantities are vectors, for
example, a finite rotation is not a vector. At this level, all quantities will
be divided into two categories: - scalars and vectors.
Scalar Quantities
A scalar quantity is one which can be described full by just stating the
magnitude. Hence, a scalar quantity is a quantity that has only
magnitude and no direction. Some examples are mass, time, length,
temperature, density, speed, work, energy and volume. Scalars of the
same kind can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by ordinary
laws.
Vector Quantities
A vector quantity is one which can only be full described if it
magnitude, direction and sense are stated. Hence, a vector quantity has
magnitude, direction and sense. Some examples are displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, weight, momentum, moment, magnetic
flux density and electric intensity.
Worked Example
a) Many physical quantities are defined from two or more other
physical quantities. Fig.1.14 shows how a number of different
quantities are defined by either multiplying or dividing other
quantities. i) State and defined the correct quantities in the four
ellipses marked A, B, C and D.
b) Explain what is special about the physical quantities in the four
shaded ellipses.
c) i) Suggest a general name for the quantities represented by group X
and group Y.
ii) State and define specific names for quantities in groups X and Y. 
Group X Group Y A 
energy B
momentum
mass
power Fig.1.16
length velocity
charge Unlike vectors
voltage C
time The vectors of different magnitude acting in opposite directions are
  
A called unlike vectors. Fig.1.17
B shows unlike vectors A and B .
current D 
B A 
Fig.1.14 B
Solution
charge Fig.1.17
a) A = Capacitance = (not energy)
voltage
voltage Unit vector
B = Resistance = (not power) A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit vector. It is also defined
current
as a vector divided by its own magnitude. A unit vector in the direction
momentum 
C = Force = of a vector A is written as  and is read as ‘A cap’ or ‘A caret’ or ‘A
time hat’. Therefore,
D = Impulse = force  time (not momentum) 
A
b) Base (not fundamental) quantities. These are physical quantities that  =
are not derived from other physical quantities. A
c) i) Derived quantities. Thus, a vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and unit
ii) Quantities in group X are scalars. These are quantities with vector along its direction.
magnitude but no direction.
Quantities in group Y are vectors. Vectors are quantities with
Orthogonal unit vectors
magnitude, direction and sense.
There are three most common unit vectors in the positive directions of
Representation of a vector x, y and z axes of Cartesian coordinate system, denoted by iˆ, ĵ and k̂
A physical vector is often shown as a straight line segment with an respectively. Since they are along the mutually perpendicular directions,
arrow head. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the they are called orthogonal unit vectors.
vector and the arrow indicates the sense. The angle of inclination with
respect to the horizontal or to the vertical indicates the direction. In Null vector or zero vectors
written or typed material, it is customary to place an arrow over the A vector whose magnitude is zero, is called a null vector or zero vector.
 
letter denoting the vector, such as A . Fig.1.14 shows the representation It is represented by O and it’s starting and end points are the same. The
of a vector. direction of null vector is not known. All non-zero vectors are called
magnitude proper vectors.
sense
θ = direction Co-initial vectors
Fig.1.14 Vectors having the same starting point are called co-initial vectors.
In this case, the direction, θ, is with respect to the horizontal. It is
measure in an anticlockwise direction. Coplanar vectors
Vectors lying in the same plane are called coplanar vectors and the
Equal Vectors plane in which the vectors lie are called plane of vectors.
Two vectors P and Q are equal if the magnitude of P is equal to the
magnitude of Q, the direction of P is equal to the direction of Q and Addition of Vectors
both having the same sense. Hence, they must be parallel. Fig.1.14 Most vectors have both magnitude and direction they cannot be added
illustrates this. by the method of ordinary algebra. These vectors can be added
Q Q=P
graphically or geometrically. We shall now discuss the addition of two
vectors graphically using head to tail method. The addition of two
vectors P and Q yields another vector which is known as the resultant
 
P or sum of the two vectors and written as ( P + Q ). A resultant is one
Fig.1.14 vector, which has the same effect on a body as the two or more vectors
Therefore, two or more vectors are said to be equal if they have the that are actually acting on that body. It starts at the beginning of the
same magnitude, same direction and sense, wherever be their initial first vector and ends at the end of the last one. In order to find the sum
positions. of two vectors, which are inclined to each other, the triangle law of
vectors or parallelogram law of vectors can be used.
Like vectors
Triangle law of vectors
Two vectors are said to be like vectors, if they have same direction and
sense but different magnitudes as shown in Fig.1.15. If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two
adjacent sides of a triangle taken in order, then their resultant is the

A closing side of the triangle taken in the reverse order. For example,
  
 vectors P and Q are drawn such that the tail of vector Q touches the
B   
head of vector P . The resultant ( P + Q ) is represented by the third
Fig.1.15  
side of the triangle from the tail of vector P to the head of vector Q as
These vectors must be parallel and may not originate from the same
point. shown in Fig.1.18.
B
Opposite vectors R β
Q
The vectors of same magnitude but opposite in direction are called P Q = α θ
O
opposite vectors as shown in Fig.1.16. P A
Fig.1.18

10
 
The magnitude and direction of R , can be obtained by using the sine R  P2  Q2
law and cosine law of triangles. Let α be the angle (direction) made by  
   The vector R acts at an angle α with vector P given by:
the resultant R with respect to P . The magnitude of R is:
R 2  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos(180 o   )
 Q
  tan 1  
 P
 R  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 

The direction of vector R can be obtained by, Subtraction of Vectors
P Q R The subtraction of a vector from another is equivalent to the addition of
 
sin  sin  sin(180 o   ) one vector to the negative of the other. For example, the subtraction of
two vectors P and Q can be treated at the addition of a negative vector.
R= P  Q = P  (  Q )
Parallelogram law of vectors
The vector P  (  Q ) is then determined by using the method of
If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their addition just mentioned above. The parallelogram and triangular
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal diagram are shown in in Fig.1.23 (a) and in Fig.1.23 (b) respectively.
passing through the common tail of the two vectors. For example,
 
vectors P and Q are drawn such that their tails have the same origin as
 
shown below. A straight line is drawn parallel to P from the head of Q
(shown with dotted line) and another straight line is drawn parallel to
  Fig.1.23
Q from the head of P so as to form a parallelogram as shown in Therefore, to subtract Q from P, the reverse of Q is added to the P. The
Fig.1.19. resultant of two vectors which are antiparallel to each other is obtained
B by subtracting the smaller vector from the bigger vector. The direction
of the resultant vector is in the direction of the bigger vector.
Q R β
Q = θ α
θ
P O Components of a Vector
P A
Fig.1.19 One method of adding vectors makes use of the projections of a vector
 along the axes of a rectangular coordinate system. These projections are
The resultant R is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram that
 called components. Any vector can be completely described by its
passes through the origin marked O. The magnitude and direction of R
 components. Any two vectors can be replaced by a single resultant
, can be obtained from the following. The magnitude of R is: vector. Any single vector can be split into two vectors acting at some
R  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ sin  appropriate angle, θ, between them. As it is often convenient, the angle
 between these two vectors called components is 90 0 and the procedure
The direction of vector R is given by is known as resolving a vector into two components at right angles.
Q sin  For example, consider two forces V (vertical component) and H
tan  
P  Q cos  (horizontal component) acting perpendicularly to each other as shown
in Fig.1.26.
Special Cases
y
 When two vectors act in the same direction: B
A
In this case, the angle between the two vectors is θ = 0o, cos (0o) = 1
and sin (0o) = 0. This illustrated in Fig.1.20. V R

 Q
P θ H C
O x
Fig.1.20 Fig.1.26
The projection of R along the x-axis, H, is called the horizontal
R  ( P  Q ) 2  2 PQ sin(0o )  P  Q
component of R, and the projection of along the y-axis, V, is called the
 Q sin(0o )  vertical component. These components form two sides of a right angle
  tan 1  0
 P  Q cos(0o )  triangle having a hypotenuse with magnitude R. It follows that the R’s
magnitude and direction are related to its components through the
Thus, the resultant vector acts in the same direction as the individual Pythagorean theorem and the definition of the tangent:
vectors and is equal to the sum of the magnitude of the two vectors.
R2  V 2  H 2
 When two vectors act in the opposite direction:  R  V2 H2
In this case, the angle between the two vectors is θ = 180°, V
cos(180o )  1 and sin(180o )  0 . This is shown Fig.1.21. tan  
 H
 Q V  R sin  and H  R cos 
P Note that the horizontal component is independent of the vertical
component. That is, the vertical component does not affect the
Fig.1.21
horizontal component.
R  ( P  Q )  2 PQ sin(0o )  P  Q
2

 Q sin(0o )  Resolvation of Vectors and Rectangular Components

1
  tan  0
 P  Q cos(0o )  A vector directed at an angle with the co-ordinate axis, can be resolved
into its components along the axes. This process of splitting a vector
Thus, the resultant vector has a magnitude equal to the difference in into its components is known as resolution of a vector. At this level, it is
magnitude of the two vectors and acts in the direction of the bigger useful to find the component of a vector say R, in two mutually
of the two vectors. perpendicular directions. This process is known as resolving a vector
into components. For example, a mother pushing a pram as shown in
 When two vectors are at right angles to each other Fig.1.27
In this case, the angle between the two vectors is θ = 90°,
cos(90o )  0 and sin(90o )  1 . This is as shown in Fig.1.22.
θ X
Q R
α P
O Y F
Fig.1.22
The resultant Fig.1.27

11
If she apply a force of magnitude F in the direction θ to the horizontal, M
then resolving into components F
T L 30o
horizontal component, X  F cos  and K
vertical component, Y  F sin  W
S
Forces in equilibrium Fig.1.33
If a point body has two or more forces acting on it and it does not move Since the forces W, T and F are in equlibrium, the resultant of the
(accelerate) then the forces are balanced (or in equilibrium). Any one three forces must be zero. The vector diagram is as shown in
force is the equilibrant of the others. An equilibrant is one vector, Fig.1.34.
which cancels out the effect that two or more vectors actually have on F sin300
a body. It is equal in size to the resultant of the vectors but opposite in
direction. For example, Fig.1.28 shows three forces P, Q and R acting
resolving T F cos300
on a point O.

W
Fig.1.34
Therefore, the algebraic sum of the component of the forces in any
directionmust be zero.That is, the algebraic sum of the horizonat
component is zero and the algebraic sum of the vertical component is
Fig.1.28 zero. Hence
By the triangle of vectors, the resultant of P and Q, that is, (P+ Q) is F cos 30o  T  0 and
needed in magnitude and direction by OC of the triangle OAC as shown F sin 30o  W  0
in the second diagram above. If the thrid force R is eqaual in From the above equation, we see that
magnotude to (P+ Q) but opposite direction, then the point O is in W
equilibrium and aslo can be represented by the side CO of the triangle T  F cos 30o and F 
sin 30o
OAC as shown in Fig.1.28 (c).
Solving for T we have
Worked Examples  W 
T  cos 30o  1.7W
1) A capenter is to drives a nail into a wood. Her hammer strikes a nail  sin 30 o 
with a force of 60N as shown in Fig.1.29. 4) Forces 5 N, 7 N and 8 N are in equilibrium. Find the angle between
60o the 5 N and the 8 N force.
Hammer
Solution

Nail 5N 7N

Wood 120o 8N
Fig.1.29
Fig.1.35
Say if the nail moves into the wood or jumps forward.
Since the forces are in equilibrium, they can be represented by the
Solution
sides of a triangle taken in order. Using a pair of compasses and a
Resolving the force into components as shown in Fig.1.30,
suitale scale, say 1 cm to 1 N, we can draw a vector diagram as shown
V 60N
Fig.1.35.
Let the largest force be the base of the triangle of forces. By
60o
measuring the angle between the 8 N and 5 N force in Fig.1.35, we get
30o
H 120o. Try this measurement.
Fig.1.30 5) Fig.1.36 shows a picture of weight 5.0 N hanging freelly by a cord
V = 60 cos600 = 60  0.5 = 30 N EFG.
H = 60 sin600 = 60  0.866 = 52.0 N F
Since the horizontal component is greater than the vertical component,
the nail jumps forward. 60o 60o
2) Forces 5 N, 4 N and 3 N are in equilibrium. Assuming that sin 37 o = E G
0.6, find the angle between the 5 N force and the 3 N force. Picture
Solution
Since the forces are in equilibrium, they can be represented by the sides
of a triangle taken in order as shown in Fig.1.31. Fig.1.35
5N
37 o Find the tension T in the cord.
β Solution
37o 3N F
4N 5N T T
60 o
60o T sin(60o) T sin(60o)
4N E G
3N Picture
Fig.1.31 T cos(60o) T cos(60o)
So, 52 = 42 + 32
Therefore the right angle triangle. The angle between the 5 N force 5.0 N
5.0 N
and 3 N force, Fig.1.36
β = 90o + 37o = 127o Since the picture is in equalibrium, the algebraic sum of the l
3) Fig.1.32 show a body S of weight W hanging vertically by a thread components of the forces is zero. From the vertical component of
tied at L to the string KLM. vector diagram in Fig.1.36,
M T sin 60o  T sin 60 o  5.0  0
L 30o 5.0
K T   2.9 N
2 sin 60 o
6) a) In principle, the size of the voltage V generated by a homopolar
S generator can be calculated from the relationship
Fig.1.32 V   (rd2  ra2 ) B
Find the tension in the section KL if the system is in equalibium.
Solution

12
 where rd and ra are the radii of the disc and axle,  is the frequency of Using Fig.1.41, we write the condition for equalibrium as follow:
rotation of the disc and B is the magnetic flux density assumed to be cos10o
uniform over the surface of the disc. What are the base units of B? T2 cos 5o  T1 cos10o  0  T2  T1
cos 5o
b) A candidate in a Physics examination has worked out a formula for
the kinetic energy E of a solid sphere spinning about its axis. Her T2 sin 5o  T1 sin 10o  90  0
formula is  cos10o 
 cos 5o T1  sin 5  T1 sin 10  90  0
o o
E  12  r 5 2
where ρ is the density of the sphere, r is its radius and  is the
 T1  3.5  10 N
2
rotation frequency.
i) Show that this formula is homogeneous with respect to dimensions. cos10o
ii) Why might the formula still be incorrect?  T2  (3.5  102 N)  3.4  10 2 N
cos 5o
Solution
9) A 5 kg box is pulled by a boy using a rope straight across the floor
base units of E
a) Base units of V  of a room at constant speed by a force of 25 N as shown in Fig.1.42.
base units of t  base units of I
 Base units of V  kg m 2 s 3 A 1
base units of V
Base units of B 
base units of (r 2 )  base units of  Box 400

kg m 2 s 3 A 1 Fig.1.42
 base units of B   kg s 2 A 1
m 2 s 1 i) How large a friction force impedes the motion of the box?
b) i) [ E ]  [ F ][ s]  ML2 T 2 ii) How large is the normal reaction force?
Solution
[  ][ r ]5 [ ]2  (ML3 )(L5 )T 2  ML2T 2 The vector diagram is as shown in Fig.1.43
The dimensions of both of the equation are identically equal. Hence, FN 25N
the equation is dimensionally homogenous.
25sin40o (1)
ii) Because of the dimensionaless constant, 12 . FF o
40
7) The photograph in Fig.1.37 shows a climber of mass 65 kg abseiling 25cos40o x
down a rock face. At the instant shown the climber is in equilibrium.
50N
Fig.1.43
From the vector diagram,
i) FF  25 cos 40o  19.2 N
ii) FN  25sin 40 o  50  0
Fig.1.37  FN  33.9 N
a) Explain what is meant by equilibrium in this context.
10) A form six student pulls a tree trunk of mass 90 kg with a force of
b) Draw a free-body force diagram of the climber. (represent the
600 N inclined at 40o to the horizontal as shown in Fig.1.44.
climber with a large dot)
c) The rope is at an angle of 40° to the horizontal. Calculate the tension
in the rope.
Solution
a) It is when there is no resultant force acts on the climber.
b) See Fig.1.38
Tension

Push from rock face

Fig.1.44
a) Determine the vertical force between the tree trunk and the ground
Weight b) The horizontal frictional force acting on the tree trunk is 0.8 times
Fig.1.38 the vertical force between the tree trunk and the ground. Calculate
c) From the vector diagram in Fig.1.39, the horizontal acceleration of the tree trunk.
c) The weight of the tree trunk is a measure of the Earth’s gravitational
T
mg pull on the tree trunk. Identify the Newton third law ‘equal and
40o opposite’ force to the weight of the tree trunk.
Solution
Fig.1.39 The vector diagram is as shown in Fig.1.45.
mg 600 sin(40o)
sin 40o  600 N
T
mg 65  9.81
T    992 N 40o
sin 40o sin 40 o 600 cos(40o) 0.8 F
8) A rope is extends between two poles. A circus performer of weight
90 × 9.81
90 N standing on the tightrope and placed her leg on the rope as
shown in Fig.1.40. Fig.1.45
From Fig.1.45,
Pole o
5o
Leg 10o Pole a) FV  600 sin 40  385.7 N
T2 T1 F  (90  9.81)  385.7  497 N
o
Fig.1.40 b) FH  600 cos 40  459.6 N
Find the tensions in the two parts of the rope.
FF  0.8  497  397 N
Solution
Resolved the forces into their component as shown in Fig.1.41. 459.6  397
0 0 a  0.70 m s 2
T2 sin5 T1 sin10 90
c) The gravitational pull of the tree trunk on the earth
T2 cos50 T1 cos100 11) An object is acted upon by two forces at right angles to each other.
One of the forces has a magnitude of 5.0 N and the resultant force
90 N produced on the object is 9.5 N. Determine
Fig.1.41 a) the magnitude of the other force,
13
 b) the angle between the resultant force and the 5.0 N force. Fig.1.51
Solution Find the tension in cord AB, BC, CD, BD and DE.
From Fig.1.46, Solution
F Let us seclect as our object the knot at C because we know one force
9.5 N actiong on it. The weight pulls downward as shown in the partial vector
diagram in Fig.1.52.
TCB sin(60o) TCD sin(60o)
θ
5.0 N
Fig.1.46 TCB cos(60o) TCD cos(60o)
C
a) 9.52  F 2  5.02
 F  90.3  25.0  8.1 N 600 N
1  8.1 
Fig.1.52
b)   tan   58o
 5.0  Applying the condition for equilibrium, we have
12) Fig.1.47 shows a body of mass 4.0 kg being rasied by two nnequal TCD sin 60o  TCB sin 60o  600 N and
forces of 25 N and 40 N. The 25 N for acts at an angle of 30 o to the TCD cos 60o  TCB cos 60o ( TCD  TCB )
veritical and the 40 N acts at an angle of 60o to the vertical.
 2TCB sin 60o  600 N
25 N 30
o
 TCD  TCB  346 N
60o 40 N
Let us isolate knot D as our object. Its free-body force diagram is shown
Fig.1.53.
4 kg
TDE sin(20o)
TDE
Fig.1.47
o
Calculate the accelaration of the body. 20
TBD +TCB cos(60o) TDE cos(20o)
Solution 60 o D
The vector diagram is presented in Fig.1.48.
TCD TCD sin(60o)
25 cos(30o) 40 cos(60o)
Fig.1.53
25 sin(30o) 40 sin(60o) Applying the condition for equilibrium in Fig.1.53, we have
TBD  TCD cos 60o  TDE cos 20o and
39.24 N TCD sin 60 o  TDE sin 20 o
Fig.1.48 But TCD is equal to 346 N and from the second equation above,
FY  25 cos 30 o  40 cos 60o  39.24  2.41 N sin 60o
TDE  TCD  346(2.532)  876 N
FX  40 sin 60o  25sin 30o  22.14 N sin 20o
TBD  TDE cos 20 o  TCD cos 60o
Resultant, F  (2.41) 2  (22.14) 2  22.27 N
 TBD  (876)(0.940)  (345)(0.5)  823  173  650 N
1 2.41 o
Direction,   tan  6.2 to the horizontal. Isolating knot B as shown in Fig.1.54,
22.14
TAB sin20o
F 22.27 2
a   5.6 m s at an angle of 6.2o to the horizontal. TAB
m 4.0
13) The tension in the horizontal cord shown in Fig.1.49 is 30 N. o o
TAB cos20o 20 TBD + TCD sin30
B
40o
30o
Fixed TCB cos30 o TCB
50o
Fig.1.54
30 N we obtain
TAB cos 20o  TBD  TCD sin 30o and
Object
TAB sin 20o  TCB cos 30 o
Fig.1.49
Find the weight of the object. But TCB is equal to 346 N and from the second equation above,
Solution cos 30 o
TAB  TCB  (346)(2.532)  876 N
T sin40o sin 20o
 TBD  823  173  650 N
T cos40o 30 N 15) Two forces act over pulleys to support a block of wood as shown in
Fig.1.55.
W
45o
Fig.1.50
For the system at equilibrium, 60o

T cos 40o  30 N and 500 N 380 N

W  T sin 40o Block
30 N Fig.1.55
T = 39.2 N
cos 40o Calculate:
 W  (39.2 N) sin 40 o  25 N a) the resultant horizontal force acting on the object.
14) Fig.1.51 show cords suppoting an object of weight 600 N. b) the weight of the block assuming the block is not moving the
upward.
fixed
A 20o E c) the acceleration of the block.
70o Solution
B D The vector diagram is as shown in Fig.1.56
30o 30o

600 N
14
 500 cos45o 380 cos60o 5m
3 m T1 T2
o o θ 4m
500 sin45 380 sin60 θ

W
Fig.1.56 W
Fig.1.60
a) RH  500 sin 45  380 sin 60  25 N to the left
o o

sin   45 , cos   53 and tan   4

3
b) Since the block is not moving the upward force equals the weight,
Resolving the vector, we have Fig.1.61
W:
W  500 cos 45o  380 cos 60o  354  190  544 N T1 sinθ T2 cosθ
W 544
c) m   = 55 kg T1 cosθ T2 sinθ
g 9.81
R 25 5 × 9.81 N
a H  = 0.45 m s 2 to the left
g 55 Fig.1.61
16) An electric lamp of mass 0.8 kg is attached by an electric cable to From the law of equilibrium,
the ceiling at point D. To position it directly over her desk, Nkeng has T1 cos   T2 sin 
pulled the lamp to one side by a string tied to the lamp holder H and
fixed to point E on the ceiling. Nkeng is curious as to whether the T1 sin   T2 cos   5  9.81
tension in the electric cable is affected when the lamp is pulled aside. From the first equation above, T1  T2 tan 
To investigate this, she measures the angles which the cable and the
 (T2 tan  ) sin   T2 cos   5  9.81
string make with the ceiling and finds them to be 60 o and 40o
respectively as shown in the diagram at the right. The setup is as  T2 ( 43  54  53 )  49.05
shown in Fig.1.57. 49.05
 T2   29.4 N
D 60 o
40 o E 1.67
cable string  T1  T2 tan   (29.4)( 43 )  39.2 N

H Vector and Fluid

Fig.1.57 A swimmer jumps into a river and swims to the opposite shore. In still
a) What would be the tension in the electric cable if the lamp were (standing) water, she can swim at a certain speed, say vA,. There is a
hanging down straight? current in the river pushing her downstream at another given speed, say
b) Draw a force diagram for the lamp holder H and label all the forces vB. As a result, she does not actually go straight, but moves at an angle
acting on it. to the bank of the river as shown in Fig.1.96.
c) Find the tensions in the electric cable and the string.
d) Has the tension in the electric cable been affected when the lamp is Water current B
O
pulled aside?
Solution Swimmer
direction in
a) Tension in the cable = weight of lamp = 0.8 × 9.81 = 7.8 N Swimmer real direction
still water θ
b) See Fig.1.58
Tension in cable, TC Tension in string, TS A

(a)
Fig.1.96
The swimmer’s velocity is found by adding her velocity relative to the
Weight, W water to the velocity of the water relative to the bank.
Fig.1.58 vB
c) Resolving the forces, we have Fig.1.59
TC cos30o TS cos50o
vA
TC sin30 o
TS sin50 o vR
θ

W
Fig.1.59 Fig.1.97
W  TC cos 30  TS cos 50
o o
and TC sin 30 o  TS sin 50 o That is,

sin 50o
vR2  v A2  vB2  vB 
  tan 1 
 TC  TS
sin 30o
 vA 
Worked Examples
sin 50o
7.8  TS o
cos 30o  TS cos 50 o 1) A swimmer swims across a river at a speed of 0.8 m s –1 in the
sin 30 direction perpendicular to the river banks. The water flows down the
 sin 50o  river at 0.6 m s–1. Find the resultant velocity of the swimmer.
 7.8  TS  cos 30 o  TS cos 50o  Solution
 sin 30 o

vR2  vA2  vB2
 7.8  1.970TS = (0.8)2 + (0.6)2
7.8 vR  (0.64  0.36)  (1.00)  1.0 m s –1
 TS   4.0 N
1.970 æ0.8 ö
÷
tan θ = çç
ç ÷
÷=1.33
sin 50 o
è0.6 ø
 TC  (4.0)  6.1 N
sin 30 o  θ = tan –1 (1.33) = 53.10
d) The tension in the cable has decreased (more of the weight is The resultant velocity of the swimmer is 1.0 m s -1 at an angle of 53.10
supported by the string). to the horizontal.
1) A mass of 5 kg hangs from two light strings of lengths 3 m and 4 m 2) A sailing boat is kept motionless in a fast flowing river by ropes held
from two points at the same level and 5 m apart. Find the tension in by two boys, A and B, on opposite banks as shown in the diagram
each of the strings. below. The water exerts a force of 450 N (parallel to the bank) on the
Solution boat. The angles of the ropes connecting A and B with the boat, with
The setup is as shown in Fig.1.60 respect to the river bank, are 55o at A and 35o at B as shown in
Fig.1.98.

15
 A D. a systematic error results in a different reading each time the
55o
measurement is taken.
7) Vernier callipers are to be used to measure a short pipe. Which of the
following statements is false?
A Vernier callipers can be used to measure the internal and external
B 35o diameter of the pipe.
Fig.1.98 B Vernier callipers have better resolution than a micrometer.
a) Give a reason why it is correct to say that the forces acting on the C Vernier callipers have a larger range than a micrometer.
boat are in equilibrium. D Vernier callipers can measure to the nearest 0.1 mm.
b) Draw a fully labelled diagram of forces indicating all the forces 8) A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the diameter of a
acting on the boat. copper wire. The reading with the wire in position is shown in
c) By means of an accurate vector diagram, using a scale of 1 cm = 50 Fig.1.12(a). The wire is removed and the jaws of the micrometer are
N, or by calculation, determine the magnitude of the forces acting on closed. The new reading is shown in Fig.1.12(b).
the boat.
Solution
a) The boat is at rest. In accordance with Newton’s first law of motion,
no resultant force acting on the boat.
b) See Fig.1.99
Tension in A, TA
Force exerted by water (a) (b)
current on the boat = 450N Fig.1.12
Tension in B, TB What is the diameter of the wire?
Fig.1.99 A. 1.90 mm B. 2.45 mm C. 2.59 mm D. 2.73 mm
c) Resolving the forces 9) Fig.1.81 shows a weight of 40 N suspended by an arrangement
T-B
consisting of a light cord strut hinged at A and a light cord tied at C
TA and to the wall at B.
o o
35 55 B cord
450 N
Fig.1.100 strut
From Fig.1.100, A C
TA  450 cos 55o  258.1 N
40 N
at an angle of 55o to the river bank
Fig.1.81
TB  450 cos 35o  368.6 N at 35o to the river bank Which statement about forces acting in this situation is true?
A. The tension in cord BC must be 40 N.
REVISION QUESTIONS B. The tension in cord BC is less than 40 N.
C. The vector sum of the three forces acting at C must be 40 N.
1) Which definition is correct and uses only quantities rather than
D. The vertical component of the force cord BC exerts on C is equal to
units?
40 N.
A. Density is mass per cubic metre.
10) The kinetic theory equation is given by P  13   c  where P is
2
B. Potential difference is energy per unit current.
C. Pressure is force per unit area. the pressure exerted by the gas particles, ρ is the density of the gas
D. Speed is distance travelled per second. and  c 2  the root mean square velocity of the gas. Show that the
2) Which of the units correctly define volt?
equation is dimensioally correct but physically wrong.
A. kg 2 m s 3 A 1 3 2
C. kg m s A
1
11) a) What is meant by homogeneity of a physical equation?
B. kg 1 m 2 s 3 A 2 3
D. kg m s A
1 b) The de Broglie wave equation can be written in term of
wavelength, λ, as
3) The time dependence of physical quantity P is found to be of the
form h2
2 
P  P0 e   t 2mEk
where ‘t’ is the time and α is some constant. Then the constant α will where h is the Planck constant, m is the mass of a particle and Ek is
A. be dimensionless
its kinetic energy.
B. have dimensions of T–2
i) Show that this equation is homogeneous with unit but nevertheless
C. have dimensions of P
physically incorrect.
D. have dimensions of P multiplied by T–2
ii) An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 2500 V.
4) A 1.2 kg mass is supported by a person’s hand and two newton-
Calculate de Broglie wavelength of this electron.
meters as shown in Fig.1.77.
12) Fig.1.90 shows a string PQRS. P and S are attached to a fixed
5 support and masses, m, and 2.5kg are attached at the points Q and R
5 respectively and the system is in equilibrium.
0 37 o P S
53o 0 30 N T θ
60o
Q R

12 N
m 2.5 kg
Fig.1.77
When the person’s hand is removed, what is the initial vertical Fig.1.90
acceleration of the mass? Calculate
A. 0.6 m s–2 B. 2 m s–2 C. 4 m s–2 D. 6 m s–2 a) the mass m,
5) The respective number of significant figures for the numbers 23.023, b) the tension T,
0.0003 and 2.1 × 10−3 are c) the angle θ.
A. 4, 4, 2 B. 5, 1, 2 C. 5, 1, 5 D. 5, 5, 2
6) The measurement of a physical quantity may be subject to random
errors and to systematic errors. Which statement is correct?
A. random errors can be reduced by taking the average of several
measurements.
B. random errors are always caused by the person taking the
measurement.
C. a systematic error cannot be reduced by adjusting the apparatus.

16