TABLE A.
Animals Reproductive
During meiosis, diploid cells divide into sperm in males
and ova in females. During sexual intercourse, the male
ejaculates semen, containing hundreds of millions of
sperm into the vagina. If the female is ovulating, a sperm
Man (Mammals) may encounter an ovum. When a sperm cell penetrates
the ovum's barrier, its 23 chromosomes fuse with the
ovum's 23, forming the zygote.The zygote divides and
multiplies many times. The growing embryo travels to the
uterus, where it remains, and about 40 weeks after
fertilization, a baby is born.
They reproduce by free-spawning: releasing their gametes into
the water where they hopefully are fertilized by gametes from
the opposite sex. To increase their chances of fertilization,
starfish probably gather in groups when they are ready to
spawn, use environmental signals to coordinate timing and
Starfish
may use chemical signals to indicate their readiness to each
other. Fertilized eggs grow into bipinnaria and later into
brachiolaria larvae, which either grow using a yolk or by
catching and eating other plankton. In either case, they live as
plankton, suspended in the water and swimming by using
beating cilia. The larvae are bilaterally symmetric unlike adults,
they have a distinct left and right side. Eventually, they
undergo a complete metamorphosis, settle to the bottom, and
grow into adults.
Circulatory
Double circulation pathways are found
in birds and mammals. Animals with
this type of circulatory system have a
four-chambered heart. The right atrium
receives deoxygenated from the body
and the right ventricle sends it to the
lungs to be oxygenated. The left atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs and the left ventricle sends it to
the rest of the body. Most mammals,
including humans, have this type of
circulatory system. These circulatory
systems are called 'double' circulatory
systems because they are made up of
two circuits ,referred to as
the pulmonary and systemic
circulatory systems.
Sea stars have a very unusual
circulatory system. They do not pump
blood around their bodies. Instead, they
use seawater and a complex
water vascular system to keep things
moving. Their tube feet, also used for
movement, are an important part of this
circulatory system. Sea stars have
hundreds of tube feet on their
underside.
Respiratory
Respiration in mammals is similar to
respiration in other air-breathing
animals. Respiration extracts oxygen
from the air, which is then used by cells.
Respiration also carries waste carbon
dioxide away from the cells. Mammalian
respiratory systems rely on a single
large muscle at the base of the lungs.
This muscle is called a diaphragm. The
diaphragm pulls the lungs downward to
increase their volume, causing air to
rush into the lungs. As it presses
upward, the lungs become smaller, and
air is exhaled. 
The starfish has an Open Respiratory
System because the oxygen is allowed
to move freely in the water vascular
system. Also the Carbon Dioxide that is
released during respiration were
roaming in the starfish.
 Both the male and female reproductive organs are at the rear
of the abdomen, but spiders don't mate by coupling these
organs. Instead, the male deposits some sperm onto a small
web and picks it up on the end of his pedipalps. When the
female is in position, the male deposits the sperm in the
female's genital opening. The female stores the sperm in
Spider receptacles near the ovaries. When she is ready to lay her
eggs, months down the road in some species, she uses the
sperm to fertilize them. Some spiders may lay hundreds, even
thousands of eggs in one shot. Once a spider's eggs are
fertilized, they have to stay safe from predators until the
spiderlings can hatch out. As we saw earlier, some spider
species will encase their eggs in a silken pouch and abandon
them, and others will stay with them until the babies hatch.
Many wolf spider species carry their hatched spiderlings
around on their back until the spiders are mature enough to
take care of themselves. The spiderlings continue molting,
growing larger until they reach sexual maturity
Earthworms are simultaneous hermaphrodites,
and reproduction usually occurs through copulation and cross-
fertilization, A seminal groove, carry sperm as droplets from
Earthworm the male pore to the clitellar region, where it collects, and
eventually enters the spermathecae of the partner earthworm
with the aid of the Tubercula pubertal. After which each of the
mated individuals produces cocoons containing variable
numbers of fertilized ova.The resistant cocoons are usually
deposited near the soil surface, except in dry weather when
they are laid in deeper layers. Earthworms are iteroparous
animals and display indeterminate growth, continuing to grow
in size after completing their sexual development.
Clams begin making babies when the water gets sufficiently Clams have an open circulatory system Clams typically draw in and expel water
warm, depending on the location and the species, this happens This system move blood throughout the for respiration and feeding through two
Spiders, like most arthropods, have
an open circulatory system, they do not
have true blood, or veins which
transport it. Rather, their bodies are
filled with haemolymph, which is
pumped through arteries by a heart into
spaces called sinuses surrounding their
internal organs. The haemolymph
contains hemocyanin, a respiratory
protein similar in function
to hemoglobin. Hemocyanin contains
two copper atoms, tinting the
haemolymph with a faint blue color.[
The earthworm has a Earthworms have no special respiratory
closed circulatory system.
An earthworm circulates blood
exclusively through vessels. There are
three main vessels that supply the
blood to organs within the earthworm.
These vessels are the aortic arches,
dorsal blood vessels, and ventral blood
vessels.
Spiders (Araneae) are unique regarding
their respiratory system: they are the
only animal group that breathe
simultaneously with lungs and tracheae.
physiology of respiration the existence
of tracheae plays an important role in
spiders with a well-developed tracheal
system
organs. Gases are exchanged through
themoist skin and capillaries, where
the oxygen is picked up by the
hemoglobin dissolved in
the blood plasma and carbon dioxide is
released. Water, as well as salts, can
also be moved through the skin by
active transport.
 in late spring/early summer when the water reaches about 68F organism providing exchange of tubes, the siphons, or “neck.” The water
called spawning, the smaller males release sperm into the nutrients/oxygen for waste is impelled by the beating of millions of
Clams ocean to meet up with the eggs produced by the larger clams products/carbon dioxide, at the cellular cilia (hairlike structures) on the gills;
that have become females. These millions of gametes join in level. The open system of the clam is other gill cilia strain food from the
the water where fertilization occurs. When a sperm and egg do not complete; blood pools around the incurrent water and transport it,
manage to meet, the cells of each young egg rapidly divide heart, as a result there is less pressure. entangled in mucus, to the mouth. 
until the embryo grows into a morula. After a day or two, cilia
grow on the creature, which again develops into a free-
swimming larva then the larva adds a shell and a foot and
becomes a veliger, the body begins to take on a clam-like
shape, After this phase, the creature has the typical bivalve
appearance, total time to reach this juvenile phase is between
8 days and two weeks. When above the sand, clams’
photoreceptors can distinguish when the shadow of a predator
floats above, an event which often sends them diving for cover.
There they wait until it’s spawning time again, and the life cycle
repeats.

As well as their morphology and feeding habits, reproduction in Rotifers possess a unique combination Rotifers have no specific organs for
rotifers is rather unusual. Several types of reproduction have been of traits that distinguish them from other respiration their small size allows them
observed in rotifers. Some species consist only of females that animals, including bilateral to exchange, respiratory gasses by
producetheir daughters from unfertilized eggs, a type of reproduction symmetry and a pseudocoelom , a diffusion across their body wall rotifers
Rotifers called parthenogenesis. In other words, these parthenogenic species
fluid-filled body cavity between two have a relatively high metabolic rate
can develop from an unfertilized egg, asexually. Other species
produce two kinds of eggs that develop by parthenogenesis: one kind different layers of embryonic tissue. conpared to other aquatic
forms females and the other kind develops into degenerate males The pseudocoelom serves as a sort invertebrates.
that cannot even feed themselves (sexual dimorphism). These of circulatory system and provides
individuals copulate resulting in a fertilized egg developing within the space for a complete digestive tract
rotifer. The males survive long enough to produce sperm that fertilize and organs.
eggs, which then form resistant zygotes that can survive if the local
water supply should dry up. The eggs are released and hatch in the
water. If the egg develops in the summer, the egg may remain
attached to the posterior end of the rotifer until hatching.
 A roundworm reproduces sexually. The female has an ovary, Roundworms have no circulatory or Roundworms have no circulatory
holds eggs in an oviduct and then passes them to the uterus, respiratory systems so they use or respiratory systems so they use
Roundworms where they are fertilized. The male has sperm cells are made diffusion to breathe and diffusion to breathe and for circulation of
in the testis and stored in the vas deferens. When it is time to for circulation of substances around substances around their body.
reproduce, the sperm cells pass through the spicule. Over their body. They are thin and are round
200,000 eggs can be deposited at once in the soil once they in cross section, though they are
are fertilized. actually bilaterally symmetric.

Platyhelminthes very commonly known as flatworms  Flatworms do not have a circulatory It has two eyespots that help it sense
Flat are hermaphroditic, and their reproductive systems are system in the usual sense. ... There is light. Aflatworm has a gastrovascular
worms generally complex. Numerous testes but only one or two no need for a special circulatory cavity with one opening. It eats small
ovaries are usually present in these flatworms. The female system as a human has because the worms, insects and microscopic matter.
system is unusual in that it is separated into two structures: the flatworm doesn't breathe with lungs A flatworm takes in oxygen, but has no
ovaries and the vitellaria, often known as the vitelline glands and doesn't need to transport oxygen formal respiratory system.
or yolk glands. The cells of the vitellaria form yolk and eggshell around its body. The flatworm simply
components. diffuses oxygen via its skin.

Jellyfish reproduction involves several different stages. In the
adult, or medusa, stage of a jellyfish, they can reproduce
Jelly sexually by releasing sperm and eggs into the water, forming a
fish planula. In this larval stage of jellyfish life, the planula hooks on
to the bottom of a smooth rock or other structure and grows
into another stage of jellyfish life, the polyp--which resembles a
miniature sea anemone. During this stage, which can last for
several months or years, asexual reproduction occurs. The
polyps clone themselves and bud, or strobilate, into another
stage of jellyfish life, called ephyra. It is this form that grows
into the adult medusa jellyfish.
Sponges may reproduce sexually and asexually. This helps
Sponges keep them alive in their habitats. Most sponges are both male
Jellyfish do not have a specialized
digestive system, osmoregulatory
system, central nervous system, or
circulatory system. They are able to
digest with the help of the gastrodermis
that lines the gastrovascular cavity,
where nutrients from their food is
absorbed. They do not need a
respiratory system since their skin is
thin enough that oxygen can easily
diffuse in and out of their bodies.
Jellyfish have limited control over their
movement and mostly free-float, but
can use a hydrostatic skeleton that
controls the water pouch in their body
to actuate vertical movement.
Sponges do not have a nervous,
digestive orcirculatory system. They
rely on keeping up a constant water
First, respiration can mean the process
an organism uses to procure oxygen.
This can include breathing or moving
water over gills. Additionally, the
process of using oxygen at the cellular
level also can be considered respiration,
sometimes termed "cellular respiration"
to avoid confusion. Jellyfish have such
thin tissue that they can get most of the
oxygen they need from diffusion without
any specific type of respiration.
Sponges breathe by taking oxygen from
the water that they filter through the pores
and canals in their bodies. They then send

and female. In sexual reproduction, they may play either role.
The ‘male’ sponge would release sperm into the water, which
would travel and then enter a ‘female’ sponge. After fertilization
in the sponge, a larva is released into the water. It floats
around for a few days and then sticks to a solid to begin its
growth into an adult sponge. 
TABLE B.
Animals NERVOUS
Man (Mammals) The nervous system of a mammal is based on
the brain and the spinal cord, which sends and
receive signals from the rest of the body. Signals
from the body are sent through nerve endings (or
receptors) to the brain, where neurotransmitters
send a signal to allow all mammals to feel pain or
other sensory information. The nervous system
of a mammal is divided into four main parts: the
central nervous system, the peripheral nervous
system, the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system. Each of the parts of
the nervous system of a mammal works in a
different way, and performs a different job in the
body to maintain health and to allow you to react
to the world.
Starfish The nervous system of the starfish is very simple...there is
no brain and there are not even any ganglia to coordinate
flow through their bodies to obtain food
and oxygen and to remove wastes.
MUSCULAR
The muscular system in vertebrates consists of three
different
typesof muscles: cardiac, skeletal and smooth.
Cardiac muscle is a striatedmuscle that makes up the
heart. It is the only type of muscle consisting of
branching fibers. Skeletal muscle consists
of voluntary musclesattached to the frame of
the skeletal system enabling bodily
movement. Smooth muscle is the involuntary muscle
that enables the movement of internal organs.
Movement of all muscles is controlled through
the nervous system.
A starfish's muscular system consists of muscles that
run along its numerous limbs. These muscles are used
carbon dioxide out with the water they
excrete. The respiratory system of
a sponge is based on the process of
diffusion.
IMMUNE
The mammalian immune system comprises a
complex, coordinated and finely controlled series
of interactions involving cells and molecules
which has evolved to protect the host against
disease. Mammals consist of a highly diverse
group of animals in which the immune system
has been subjected to a variety of selective
pressures. This is reflected in differences in the
organisation and function of their immune
systems, and is seen especially in those gene
families characterised by complexity and
polymorphism, such as those encoding
immunoglobulins (Ig), T‐cell receptors (TCR),
major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
molecules and natural killer (NK) cell receptors.
The evolution of these components in a range of
mammalian groups and species will be the main
focus of this article
The sea stars have an immune response that
is characterized by various types of immunities
 movement. The nervous system is characterized by a
nerve ring that surrounds the mouth. A radial nerve
branches off of the nerve ring and extends to each arm.
The picture on the left shows one of 3 nerve nets that
extend throughout the body.
Starfish have an interesting way of detecting light. They
have "eyespots" at the tip of each arm. The eyespot
contains light sensitive pigments that allow the starfish to
detect shadows and changes in the brightness of light.
Spider The nervous system of spiders, unlike that
of other arachnids, is completely
concentrated in the cephalothorax. The
masses of nervous tissue (ganglia) are
fused with a ganglion found under
the esophagusand below and behind the
brain. The shape of the brain, or
epipharyngeal ganglion, somewhat reflects
the habits of the spider; i.e., in the web
builders, which are sensitive to touch, the
posterior part of the brain is larger than in
spiders that hunt with vision.
Earthworm The nervous system of the earthworm is "segmented" just
like the rest of the body. The "brain" is located above the
pharynx and is connected to the first ventral ganglion. The
brain is important for movement: if the brain of the
earthworm is removed, the earthworm will move
primarily for movement. They power the tubes along
the limbs to stick on to objects in the ocean. The suction
process withdraws water from the targeted area,
allowing for a suction effect. It releases water to come
off of objects that it sticks to, which stops the suction
effect. this whole process of movement is vital to a
starfish and is controlled primarily by the muscular
system.
Spiders have muscles in their legs which makes the legs
bend at the joints. There are no muscles for the spider
to extend its legs. A spider use muscles to retract its
legs, but spiders lack extensor muscles
The earthworm has two muscles which it uses for
locomotion, both of which run the whole length of
the worm's body. These two muscles are circular
muscles and longitudinal muscles (Musurca). The
longitudinal muscles are the inner layer of the
and that they have multiple aspects of the toll-
signaling pathway, which is an important
recognition. It's how a cell recognizes a
pathogen and then elicits a change in its
genes so that the sea star can start defending
itself against the pathogen, It was found a lot
of interesting genes - including the first
melanin gene ever recorded in a sea star.
Invertebrates can use melanin to wall off
pathogens or any bacteria-like viruses that are
attacking them.
The immune system of spiders is
localised in their hemocytes and
reacts very fast to an invasion by
pathogens and to injuries by
releasing several compounds into
the hemolymph. The immune
response comprises (1)
phagocytosis, nodulation and
encapsulation of invaders, (2) the
regulation of
hemocyanin/phenoloxidase to
produce melanin which destroys
pathogens, (3) a clotting cascade
to stop hemolymph loss and
immobilise invaders and (4) the
constitutive production of
antimicrobial peptides. 
 continuously. If the first ventral ganglion is removed, the
earthworm will stop eating and will not dig. Each
segmented ganglion gets sensory information from only a
local region of its body and controls muscles only in this
local region.
Earthworms have touch, light, vibration and chemical
receptors all along the entire body surface.
Clams Clams use their muscular food for digging into
the sand or soil forming the bottom of the body of
water in which the clam lives. The movement
of clams is quite limited, and these are
sedentary animals.The nervous
system of clams consists of three pairs of
ganglia connected by nerve cords
Rotifers Rotifers have a small brain, located just above Muscular System of Rotifers: In rotifers, the The long-term success of bdelloids
muscular series and cradle the coelom, the innards
of the earthworm (Noble). When the circular
muscles are contracted, the diameter of the body is
reduced, making the worm thin. When the
longitudinal muscles are contracted, the length of
the body is reduced, making the worm short. So, if
an earthworm is short and thin, which is a common
reaction, both types of their muscles are contracted.
Obviously, if the whole muscle, circular or
longitudinal, contracted all at once, the worm would
not move but just alter its size and shape. The
contractions of an earthworm's muscles resembles a
wave, contracting and relaxing a few segments at a
time. The process is similar to the digestive process
of peristalsis, but instead of squeezing along a bolus
of food, the muscular peristalsis of an earthworm
moves the whole organism.
The clam does not have a lot of control over how or
where water currents carry them when traveling this
way. Most clams have two different kinds of muscles.
The most basic one helps them open and shut their
shells; these are called the "valve" muscles. These
muscles are very strong and can allow some clams,
which, by nature, are required to live in water, to
survive for short periods of time outside of the water.
The other muscle that clams have  is a muscular foot.
The foot is controlled by two muscles, the anterior
and posterior foot muscles, which work together to
control the foot. Clams are unique in that they have
retracting muscles that allow for greater control of the
foot.
(Rotifers) in such environments
 the mastax, from which a number
of nerves extend throughout the body. The
number of nerves varies among species,
although thenervous system usually has a
simple layout. Close to the brain lies a
retrocerebral organ, consisting of two glands
either side of a medial sac
Roundworms Roundworms also have a simple nervous
system with a primitive brain. There are four
nerves that run the length of the body and are
connected from the top to the bottom of the
body. At the anterior end of the animal (the head
region), the nerves branch from a circular ring
which serves as the brain. The head of a
nematode has a few tiny sense organs, including
chemoreceptors, which sense chemicals.
Though still a relatively simple structure, the
nervous system of roundworms is very different
from that of the cnidarian nerve net.
Flatworms The nervous system of the flatworm has an organization
sub-epidermal muscles consist of a number
of muscles found in different parts of the body.
In typical cases they are circular and
longitudinal muscles
The muscular system of nematodes is very
simple. Long muscles stretch the entire
length of the body and are found underneath
the epidermis, and the muscles are
controlled by the ventral and dorsal nerves
that run the entire length of the roundworm.  host immune response, and in vertebrate
Unlike most other animals, the nerves do not
branch out into the muscles, but rather the
muscles branch into the nerves.  The
muscles of a roundworm allow it to bend its
body from side to side and slither, but not to
crawl or lift itself.
Species of platyhelminthes can have any
suggests that their innate immune
system evolved in response to
pathogens without the benefit of sexual
reproduction.
To invade these hosts successfully, parasitic
nematodes must be able to protect
themselves from the efficiency and potency
of the host immune system. Innate
immunity comprises the first wave of the
animals it leads to the induction of the
adaptive immune response. Nematodes
have evolved elegant strategies that allow
them to evade, suppress, or modulate host
immune responses in order to persist and
spread in the host. Nematode
immunomodulation involves the secretion
of molecules that are capable of
suppressing various aspects of the host
immune response in order to promote
nematode invasion. Immunomodulatory
mechanisms can be identified in parasitic
nematodes infecting insects, plants, and
mammals and vary greatly in the specific
tactics by which the parasites modify the
host immune response. Nematode-derived
immunomodulatory effects have also been
shown to affect, negatively or positively,
the outcome of some concurrent diseases
suffered by the host. 
 different from the invertebrates describe above. It does
have a nerve net, but these are connected by long nerve
cords. These cords are connected to cerebral ganglia
located in the head region. The central nervous system
has been described as "ladder-like" because of the nerves
connecting the nerve cords.
Flatworms have "auricles" that project from the side of
the head. These auricles contain chemoreceptors that are
used to find food. Flatworms also have eyespots called
"ocelli". The ocelli are sensitive to light and are connected
to the cerebral ganglia. Generally, the flatworm avoids
light.
of three types of muscles:
circular, diagonal, or longitudinal. These
muscles, which are attached to a central
bodily skeleton, are usually located in a
gastrovascular cavity.  Most
Platyhelminthes move by twisting and
turning, with the exception of several
species who are parasites, meaning that
they move, feed, and reproduce by
attaching themselves to a host organism

Jellyfish The jellyfish has a nervous system characterized by a
series of interconnected nerve cells (a nerve net). The
nerve net surrounds the whole body of the jellyfish.
Some jellyfish (for example, Aurelia) have specialized
structures called "rhopalia". These rhopalia have
A jellyfish has a ring of muscle around its bell.  When
the jellyfish tightens the muscle the bell closes.  The
pushes the water inside the jellyfish out, shooting
the jellyfish forward.  As the muscles relax the bell
refills with water.  Ocean currents often control where
The immune system of a jellyfish is
really just based on defending itself
from other predators. When it is
attacked, stinging threads uncoil quickly
from its tentacles when it makes contact
 receptors for:
light (called ocelli)
balance (called statocysts)
chemical detection (olfaction),
touch (called sensory lappets)
Sponges Sponges are the only multicellular animals without a
nervous system. They do not have any nerve cells or
sensory cells. However, touch or pressure to the outside
of a sponge will cause a local contraction of its body.
they go.  Jellyfish are extremely fragile and during a with another object. This reaction then
storm they can be damaged. spreads to the rest of the same tentacle
making contact with the other object.
Finally, the jellyfish then releases a
toxin that can either paralyze or kill
another predator. This action comes in
handy when the jellyfish is going to
consume another species.
sponges do not have the
Sponges lack true muscle they still have some proteins complex immune systems of most
that are found in muscle cells.  These proteins are other animals. However, they reject
involved in regulating the circulation of water through the grafts from other species but accept
sponges pores.   One is a type of myosin that is them from other members of their own
essential for the function, and the striated appearance, species. In a few marine species, gray
of skeletal muscle fibers in higher organisms.
cells play the leading role in rejection of
foreign material.