PINE PORTS AUTHORITY BBONIFACIO DRIVE; SOUTH ORT AREA, MANILA, PHILIPPINES ‘STANDARDSPREFACE L ‘This design manual Is an updated version of the Philppine Ports Authority 1995 Design Manual fr Fort end Harbour Facies. It hes generaly adopted the Provisions of the Technical Standards for Port and Herbour Facies in Jepan (2002) |. ‘with modifications to suit local conditions and practices. Allrelevant codes and standards referenced in tis manual are consdered as partof © the provisions ofthis manual, Where diferencos occur between provisions ef hie) manual and referenced codes and standards, the most stingent provisions shalt _[] poly. —a| onan oor u J VOLUME II (A) DESIGN STANDARDS FOR PORT AND "HARBOR STRUCTURES MANUAL TABLE OF CONTENTS PART-1 DESIGN CONDITIONS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL, Page CHAPTER 2 VESSELS 2a 22 DIMENSIONS OF VESSELS. ne EXTERNAL FORCES GENERATED BY VESSELS. ve 1B 221 General = vn 18 222 Berthing Force of Vessel sen 16 223 Moored Vessel. : 19 2.24 Tractive Foree Acting on Mooring Post and Bollard 23 CHAPTER 3 WIND AND WIND PRESSURE at 32 33 34 35 GENERAL. STORM SURGE. WIND. ' GRADIENT WINDS. WIND PRESSURE. CHAPTER 4 WAVES 4a 42 43 GENERAL nnn so 30 4.1.1 Procedure for Determining the Waves Used in Design 30 44.2 Design Wave... 31 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS. . 82 42.4. Definitons and Terminology... 32 422. Fundamental Properties of Waves 33 423 Statistical Properties of Waves. 39 424 Wave Spectrum so 42 METHOD OF DETERMINING DESIGN WAVE... 48 4.3.1. Principles for Determining the Design Deepwater Waves. 48 4.3.2 Procedure for Obtaining the Parameters of Design Waves... 504.4 WAVE HINDCASTING = 61 44:1 Wve Hindcasting In Generating Area 51 442. Swell Hindcasting 87 45. STATISTICAL PROCESSING OF WAVE OBSERVATION AND HINDGASTED DATA 58 48 TRANSFORMATIONS OF WAVES 84 48:1 Wave Retraction. a 462 Wave Difraction 70 463 Wave Reflection 89 4.84 Wave Shoaling 2 465 Wave Breaking 7 92 4:7 WAVE RUNUP, OVERTOPPING, AND TRANSMISSION, nen 10, ATA Wave Rur-Up. snes 102 47.2. Wave Overtopping. 109 47:3. Wave Transmission... 118 4.8 WAVE SETUP AND SURF BEAT. 124 48.1 Wave Setup, 124 482 SurfBeat... 123 4.9 WAVES INSIDE HARBORS... 123 49.4 Calmness and Disturbances = 123 4.92. Evaluation of Harbor Caimness. ve 124 CHAPTER § WAVE FORCE 5.1 GENERAL o : 126 52 WAVEFORCE ACTING ON UPRIGHT WALL 27 5.21 General Considerations. 27 5.22. Wave Forces of Standing an Breaking Waves. 128 5.23. Wave Force Under Wave Trough... : 430 5.24 Impulsive Pressure Due to Breaking Waves 131 5.2.5 Wave Force on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks _ 138 526. Effect of Aignment of Breakwater on Wave Force. 140 5.2.7 Effect of Abrupt Change in Water Depth on Wave Force 142 52.8 Wave Force on Upright Wall near Shoreline or on Shor®....-- 142 529 Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson... 143 5.3 MASS OF ARMOR STONES AND CONCRETE BLOCKS ...scmrorn 144 5.3.1 Armor Units on Slope. sn 53.1.1 Hudson's Formula 145 53:12. Stabity Number and Nominal Diameter... 145 5.1.3 Design Wave Height... — ar5.3.14 Parameters Affecting the Stability Number... 446 5.3.4°5 Stability number Ns and Ko value. 147 534.8 Vander Meer’ Formulas for Armor Stones. 148 5.3.1.7 Stabilty Number for Armor Concrete Units of Rubble Mound Breakwater 180 5.3.18 -Stablity Number of Conerete Unis ofthe Wave Dissipating Block Mound in Front of Upright Walls (horizontally-composite breakwater). 160 53.1.9 Breakwater Head... 182 8.3.4.40. Submerged Armor Uni... ne 182 5.3.4.11 Effect of Wave Direction nnn: A852 5.8.1.12 Integrity of Concrete BlOGKS 153 6.1.13 Armor Unis in Reef Area 153 53.114. Armor Units of Low Crest Breakwater no 153 5.3.1.15 Effect of Sieep Slope Bed... 183 5.3.1.18 High-density Blocks. 194 5.3.1.17 Effect of Placement. 154 5.3.1.18 Standard Method of Hydraulic Model Experiments 154 5.32 _Anmor Units on Foundation Mound of Composite Breakwater .. 155 5.4 WAVE FORCES ACTING ON CYLINDRICAL MEMBERS AND LARGE ISOLATED STRUCTURES. 7 180 5.4.1 “Wave Force on Cylindrical Members... esr 180 5.42 Wave Force on Large Isolated Structure. 164 5.5 WAVE FORCE ACTING ON STRUCTURE LOCATED NEAR THE STILL WATER LEVEL. 165 55.1. Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate near the Still Water Level. 165 CHAPTER 6 TIDES AND ABNORMAL WATER LEVEL, 61 GENERAL 169 62 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY... 169 63 ASTRONOMICAL TIDE 170 64 STORM SURGE, 170 65 TSUNAMI 172 68 SEICHE, 17 CHAPTER 7 CURRENTS AND CURRENT FORCE. 7.4 GENERAL... 177 7.2. GURRENT FORCES ACTING ON SUBMERGED MEMBERS AND ‘STRUCTURES, 178 7.3 MASS OF ARMOR STONES AND CONCRETE BLOCKS AGAINST CURRENTS. fe 181CHAPTER 8 EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON FLOATING BODY AND ITS. at 32 83 84 MOTION GENERAL. o DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY... EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON FLOATING BODY. MOORING FORCE OF FLOATING BODY CHAPTER § ESTUARINE HYDRAULICS 94 GENERAL... CHAPTER 10 LITTORAL DRIFT 40.4 GENERAL. 10.2 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY. 103 10.4 105 108 10.2.1 Littoral Dri. 10.22 Beach Profile (Figure 10.2.1) 10.23 Beach Type. 40.24 Characteristics of Seciment. 10.2.5 Form of Littoral Drift Movement... ‘THRESHOLD DEPTH OF SEDIMENT MOVEMENT. LONGSHORE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT. ‘SCOURING AROUND STRUCTURES. 10.5.1 Beach Scouring in Front of Coastal Revetrtient. 10.52 Local Scouring Around Breakwaters. PREDICTION OF BEACH DEFORMATION, 10.8.1 Empirical Prediction Techniques... 1062 Hyrule Model Experiment (artery, Movable Bed Mal Experiments). : 40.63 Prediction based on Numerical Simulatons.. CHAPTER 11 SUB-SOIL 44 12 113 METHOD OF DETERMINING GEOTECHNICAL CONDITION. 11.1.1 Principies. 11.4.2 Selection of Sol Investigation Methods. 14.1.8 Standard Penetration Tests. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 11.2.4 Unit Weight of Sol. 11.2.2 Classification of Soils 11.2.3 Coefficient of Permeabilty of So, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS 11.3.1 Elastic Constants. 182 12 184 190 193 202 202 202 202 203, 204 204 207 200 2M 2tt 212 218 218: 218 27 220 220 221 222 223 223 223 228 225 225co 14.32 Consolidation Properties : 228 11.33 Shesir Propertis 231 14.4 ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION BY N-VALUE 238 411.5 APPLICATION OF SOUNDING OTHER THAN SPT. 238, 41.6 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SOit. 284 11.6.1 Dynamic Modulus of Deformation 244 11.62 Dynamic Strength Properties 248 CHAPTER 12 LIQUEFACTION 12.1 GENERAL... os 245 422 PREDICTION OF LIQUEFACTION. 245 12.3 COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST LIQUEFACTION 1-252 CHAPTER 13. EARTH PRESSURE AND WATER PRESSURE 48.1 EARTH PRESSURE nnn 256 18.2 EARTH PRESSURE UNDER ORDINARY CONDITIONS «essen 254 18.2.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soil under Ordinary Condon... 264 18.22 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soll under Ordinary Conditions. 256 18.3 EARTH PRESSURE DURING EARTHQUAKE, 4193.1 Earth Pressure of Sandy Soll during Earthquake ws... 18.32 Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soll during Earthquake s..ovs0.0- 259 19.3.3 Apparent Seismic Coefficient. 18.4 WATER PRESSURE, 18.4.4 Residual Water Pressure : 18.42 Dynamic Water Pressure during Earthquake CHAPTER 14 EARTHQUAKE LOADS 44.1. GENERAL. 264 CHAPTER 15 LOADS 18.1 GENERAL. —— . 285 16.2 DEADWEIGHT AND SURCHARGE. 265 15.3 STATIC LOAD, : — 268 18.3.1 Static Load under Ordinary Conditions, 268 18.32 Static Load during Earthquake. : 267 15.3.3 Unevenly Distributed LOad non st 287 184 LIVE LOAD. ' 268 18.4.1 Vehicle Load. 268 16.4.2 Cargo Handling Equipment Load 268 1.4.3 Sidewalk Live Load os ne)CHAPTER 16 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION 16.1 GENERAL... 270 L CHAPTER 17 LOAD COMBINATIONS r l 7A GENERAL. ee) 17.2 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN. 7 se BT 47.3. SERVICE LOAD DESIGN. . 278 PART-II MATERIALS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL. i CHAPTER 2 STEEL / 21 GENERAL . zs : 22. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. 15 i 23. CORROSION CONTROL ne 215 231 oneal me 232. Coresion Rao of Sic toa. ze 288. Consion Gontol Methods an } 284 CathodioPretecion Method Nae | i 2.35 Coating Method.... cesonrnennnes seseenenensvnee BBQ - | CHAPTER 3 CONCRETE i i 34 GENERAL. 204 ie 344 Concrete Deck Framing sevens 284 i S12. Precact Cone Pls : oe i 62. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS oe) it | cuAPTER 4 TIMBER 5 it L 41 GENERAL nD | 22. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Ss } 25. PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT, m8 CHAPTER 5 OTHERWATERIALS 0 51 COMPOSITES... 28 | S41 Coneic and Ste ao) 286 5.1.2 Concrete and Fiberglass. 5.1.3. Plastic and Fiberglass “ee i5.14 Plastic and Steel, 52 ALUMINUM:. 53. PLASTICS. 54 DESIGN. PART-II PRECAST CONCRETE STUCTURES CHAPTER 1 BOX CAISSONS 4.1 GENERAL, os 1.2. DETERMINATION OF DIMENSIONS. 1.3 BUOYANT STABILITY. 1.4 DESIGN EXTERNAL FORCES. 1.44 ‘Temporary Loads: 1.42 Extemal Forces During Fabrication... 1.43 Extemal Forces During Launching and Floating 1.44 Extemal Forces During Towing 1.45 External Forces During Installation. 1.48 External Forces After Construction 1.5 DESIGN OF MEMBERS...... 1.5.1 Sidewalle 4.52. Parttion Walls 153 Bottom Slab. 154 Others 1.8 DESIGN OF HOOKS FOR SUSPENSION BY CRANE. CHAPTER 2 L-SHAPED BLOCKS 2.4. GENERAL 22 DETERMINATION OF DIMENSIONS 23. LOADS ACTING ON MEMBERS. 231 General 232 Earth Pressure Acting on Members. 2.3.3 Converted Loads for Design Calculation 24 DESIGN OF MEMBERS... 24.1 FrontWalls.. 242 Footing 243° Bottom Slab. 244 Butiress: — 248 Design of Hooks for Suspension 286 287 287 287 288. 288, 290 291 291 291 291 293 204 295 302 302 303 308 308 304 305 305 305, 307 307 307 309 210 310CHAPTER 3 CELLULAR BLOCKS 34 GENERAL. o 32 DETERMINATION OF DIMENSIONS 3.21 Shape of Cellular Blacks 3.22 Determination of Dimensions. . 33 LOADS ACTING ON CELLULAR BLOCKS: 33.1 General. 532 Earth Pressure of Filing and Residual Water Pressure 3.33 Converted Loads for Design Calculation 34. DESIGN OF MEMBERS 34.1. Rectangular Cellular Blocks 342 Other Types of Cellular Blocks. 3,8 DESIGN OF HOOKS FOR SUSPENSION BY CRANE PART-IV FOUNDATIONS. CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHAPTER 2 BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 24 GENERAL 22. BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATION ON SANDY GROUND. 23 BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATION ON CLAYEY GROUND 2.4 BEARING CAPACITY OF MULTILAYERED GROUND. 2.5 BEARING CAPACITY FOR ECCENTRIC AND INCLINED LOADS. CHAPTER 3 BEARING CAPACITY OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS 3.1 GENERAL 32 VERTICAL BEARING CAPACITY, 3.3. LATERAL BEARING CAPACITY CHAPTER 4 BEARING CAPACITY OF PILE FOUNDATIONS 4.4. ALLOWABLE AXIAL BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES. 444 General 442. Standard Allowable Axial Beering Capacty . 44.3 Utimate Axial Bearing Capacity of Single Piles 4.4.4 Estimation of Utimate Axial Bearing Capacity by Loading Tests. 44.8 Estimation of Uimate Aa Bearing Capacty by Static Bearing Capacty Formulas a BID nn B12 312 att att att att 314 34 314 318 317 318 ate 310 320 322 323 328 329 331 336 336 336 387 397 3384.4.6 Examination of Compressive Stross of Pile Materials 343 4.47 Decréase of Bearing Capaclly due to Joints 44.8 Deciease of Bearing Capacity due to Slendemess Ratto 4.1.9 Bearing Capacity of Pile Group. 4.1.10 Examination of Negative Skin Friction 4.1.11. Examination of Settiement of Piles, 4.2 ALLOWABLE PULL OUT CAPACITY OF PILES. 42.4 General 422 Standard Alowable Pull Out Capacity. 423 Maximum Pull Out Capacity of Single Pil. 4.2.4 Examination of Tensile Stress of Ple Material, 42.8 Considerations for Obtaining Allowable Pull Out Capacity of Pits. 365 4.3. ALLOWABLE LATERAL BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES. 356 43.1 General 385 4.3.2 Estimation of Allowable Lateral Bearing Capacity of Piles... 357 4.3.3 Estimation of Plle Behavior using Loading Tests....nen a 987 4.3.4 Estimation of Pile Behavior Using Analytical Methods 358 4.3.8 Consideration of Ple Group Action 4.3.6 Lateral Bearing Capacity of Coupled Pies. 44 PILE DESIGN IN GENERAL 44.1 Load Sharing. 442. Load Distibution... 4.43. Distance Between Centers of Pes. 4.44 Allowable Stresses for Pile Materia... 45. DETAILED DESIGN. 7 4.5.1 Examination of Loads During Construction 4.52. Design of Joints Between Piles and Structure. 4.53. Joints of Piles 4.54 Change of Pate Thickness or Materials of Stee! Pipa Pes, 4.55 Points of Caution in Design. CHAPTER § SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS 5.1 STRESS IN SOIL MASS. 381 52 _ IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT. 381 5.3. CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT, 381 54 LATERAL DISPLACEMENT... 385 55 DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTS., CHAPTER 6 STABILITY OF SLOPES 61 GENERAL62. STABILITY ANALYSIS. 387 62.1 Sfabilty Analysis Using Circular Sip Surface Method... 387 6.2.2 Stablity Analysis Assuming Slip Surfaces Other than Circular Arc Slip Surface : 391 PART-V NAVIGATION CHANNELS AND BASINS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL. 383 CHAPTER 2 NAVIGATION CHANNELS 24° GENERAL 304 2.2 LAYOUT OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL. 304 23. WIDTH OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL. 994 24 DEPTH OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL. : 305 2.5 LENGTH OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL AT HARBOR ENTRANCE... 395 2.6 CALMNESS OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL. : 396 CHAPTER 3 NAVIGATION CHANNELS OUTSIDE BREAKWATER 31 GENERAL 367 32. WIDTH OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL. ses 887 3.3 DEPTH OF NAVIGATION CHANNEL 397 | CHAPTER 4 BASINS 44 GENERAL. — seen so 988 42. LOCATION AND AREA OF BASIN... a vn 388 421 Location. 398 4.22 Area of Basin Used for Anchorage or Mooring vn 398 4.23 Area of Basin Used for Ship Maneuvering 400 43 DEPTHOF BASIN 401 44 CALMNESS OF BASIN. so 402 4.5 TIMBER SORTING POND — 403 CHAPTER 5 SMALL CRAFT BASINS. 404 PART-VI_” PROTECTIVE FACILITIES FOR HARBOR CHAPTER 1 GENERAL. ve vs 405“GHAPTER 2 BREAKWATERS 24 PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN. o os 408 l 22. LAYOUT OF BREAKWATERS.. 407 . 23. DETERMINATION OF DESIGN CONDITIONS. ren AOT f 24 SELECTION OF STRUCTURAL TYPE, 407 25 DETERMINATION OF CROSS SECTION... 408, 25.1 Uptight Breakwater cnncronon . 408 u 252 Compost Breakwater — 409 Fi 253. Sloping Breakwater 410 2.54 Caisson Type Breakwater Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks, ee, 2.6 EXTERNAL FORCES FOR STABILITY CALCULATION, 413 ' 28.1 General 413 r 262 Wave For028 non 413 lL 2.63 Hydrostatic Pressure, 413 264 Buoyancy. 413 [ 2.6.5. Deadweight and Weight of Armour Stones and Bock 413 ‘ 2.6.6 Stabiity during Earthquakes. 47 i 27 STABILITY CALCULATION nnn 47 J 2.74 Stabilty Calculation of Upright Section... 417 2.72. Stability Calculation of Sioping Section 418 27.3 Stabilty Calculation of Whole Section 419 2.7.4 Stabilty Calculation for Head and Comer of Breakwater... 419 q 28 DETAILS OF STRUCTURES. 419 J 2.8.1 Upright Breakwater. 419 282 Composite Breakwater... 20 { 283. Soping Breakwater... 422 2.84 Caisson Type Breakwater Covered with Wave-Dissipating fl Conorete Blocks : 423 J 29 DETAILED DESIGN OF UPRIGHT SECTION. 423 2.40 BREAKWATERS FOR TIMBER HANDLING FACILITIES 423 2.40.1 Breakwater for Timber Storage Ponds and Tinber Sorting Ponds 423 2.10.2 Fences for Preventing Timbers from Escape 428 CHAPTER 3 FACILITIES TO PREVENT SHOALING AND SILTATION 425 3.1 GENERAL. 25 32 JETTY, 32.1 Layout of Jety... 425 322 Details of Jety 428 33 GROUP OF GROINS. 42934 TRAINING JETTIES. : so sean AD \ 3.441 Layoitof Training Jeties. 429 | i 342 Welter Depth a Tip of Training Jetty. 420 ih 34.3. Structure of Training Jetty M380 p 35. FACILITIES TO TRAP LITTORAL TRANSPORT AND SEDIMENT | FLOWING OUT OF RIVERS. At ij 36 COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST WIND-BLOWN SAND, 1 482 i 381 Genera sen ABQ 32 Selecion of Countermeasures vv nvvsvvserevnnnnrnmneeA@f CHAPTER 4 REVETMENTS 441 PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN 4 42. DESIGN CONDITIONS. 434 Ni 43. STRUCTURAL STABILITY 434 hy 44 DETERMINATION OF CROSS SECTION ce 85 it 45 DETAILS ssssninsnnnn 450 i Nt |) PaRT—vi_MooRINe Facitimes CHAPTER 1 MOORING FACILTIES { 4 GENERAL. 490 (eee ore li 2.4 LENGTH AND WATER DEPTH OF BERTHS. arf F 2.2 CROWN HEIGHTS OF MOORING FACILITIES. A442 J ; 23. SHIP CLEARANCE FOR MOORING FACILITIES 42 i 24. DESIGN WATER DEPTH. oon a3 25 PROTECTION AGAINST SCOURING asd 28 ANCILLARY FACILITIES : ao | CHAPTER 3. STRUCTURAL TYPES OF MOORING FACILITIES. 3.4 GENERAL. ner) CHAPTER 4 GRAVITY TYPE QUAYWALLS 4.4 PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN. 48: 4.2. EXTERNAL FORCES AND LOADS ACTING ON WALLS. 448: 4.3. STABILITY CALCULATIONS ee) 43.1 tems to be Considered in Stability Calulations.. sone 4504a 45 46 432 Check for Stability Against Sliding of the Well a) 433. Chack for Bearing Capacity of Foundation... A541 434 Chat for Stabilty Against Overturing of the Wall 462 43.5. Check for Soft Foundation... : STABILITY CALCULATIONS OF CELLULAR CONCRETE BLOCKS....452 EFFECTS OF BACKFILL. o : A DETAILED DESIGN. : ASF CHAPTER § SHEET PILE QUAYWALLS, 5A 52 83 84 85 56 87 58 59 GENERAL. 458, EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON SHEET PILE WALL. 459 5.21 Extemal Forces to Be Considered 459 DESIGN OF SHEET PILE WALL. ABQ 53.1 Setting Level of Tie Rod. 482 5.32 Embedment Length of Sheet Plies. ABZ 5.33. Bending Moment of Sheet Piles and Reaction at Tie Rod Setting Point. 484 5.34 Gross Seston of Sheet Pies. 485 5.35 Consideration ofthe Effect of Section Rigity of Sheet Pies 465 DESIGN OF TIE RODS. 474 54.1 Tension of Tie Rod on vn TA 542 Cross Section of Tie Rod 478 DESIGN OF WALE: A753 CHECK FOR STABILITY AGAINST CIRCULAR SUP. 478 DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE WORK ns 476 5.7.4. Selection of Structural Type of Anchorage Work... 478 5.72 Location of Anchorage Work... : 416 5.7.3 Design of Anchorage Work 478 DETAILED DESIGN. ve BQ 58.1 Coping 482 5.82 Fiting of Tle Rods and Wale to Sheet Piles 482 583 Tie Rod sn 82 5.8.4 Fiting of Tie Rods to Anchorage Work. 453, NOTES FOR DESIGN OF SHEET PILE WALL ON SOFT GROUND....483 CHAPTER 6 SHEET PILE QUAYWALLS WITH RELIEVING PLATFORMS 64 62 63 ‘SCOPE OF APPLICATION... se 485 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN. 488 DETERMINATION OF HEIGHT AND WIDTH OF RELIEVING PLATFORM. 4886.44 EARTH PRESSURE AND RESIDUAL WATER PRESSURE ACTING ON . SHEET PILES sn ABT 6.5 ' DESIGN OF SHEET PILE WALL B88 8.5.1 Embedmont Length of Sheet Piles... 488 852 Cross Section of Shoot Pes 408 8.6 DESIGN OF RELIEVING PLATFORM AND RELIEVING PLATFORM. PILES.. : 40 f 6.6.1 External Forces Acting on Relieving Platfom 40! 6.62. Design of Relieving Platform 490 8.63. Design of Pies 491 67 CHECK FOR STABILITY AS GRAVITY TYPE WALL. AQ 8.8 CHECK FOR STABILITY AGAINST CIRCULAR SLIP.. 492 CHAPTER 7 STEEL SHEET PILE CELLULAR-BULKHEAD QUAYWALLS ; 1.4 PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN. oA 7.2 EXTERNAL, FORCES ACTING ON STEEL SHEET PILE CELLULAR- i BULKHEAD QUAYWALL.. 495 | i 7.8 CHECKING OF WALL WIDTH AGAINST SHEAR DEFORMATION ..498 > i 7.3.1 General . 48 7.32 Equivalent Width of Wall 498 ie 7.33 Calculation of Deformation Moment. 500 \ 7.34 Caloulation of Resisting Moment. 500 74 CHECK FOR STABILITY OF WALL BODY AS AWHOLE vcnnnnr508 5 TAA General : cone | ' 7.42 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction 508 7.43. Calculation of Subgrade Reaction and Wall Dislacement......807 7.5 CHECK FOR BEARING CAPACITY OF THE GROUND ia 7.6 CHECK FOR STABILITY AGAINST SLIDING OF WALL 514 1.7 GHECK FOR DISPLACEMENT OF TOP OF WALL 515 7.8 GHECK FOR STABILITY AGAINST CIRCULAR SUP, 516 7.9 LAYOUT OF CELLS AND ARCS.... a7 7.40 CALCULATION OF HOOP TENSION oun 817 741 DETAILED DESIGN . SB Z.44.1 Design of Pie to Support Coping. sia | TALZ Design of COPING cnn 518 CHAPTER 8 STEEL PLATE CELLULAR-BULKHEAD QUAYWALLS 4 8.1 SCOPE OF APPLICATION. 519 8.2. PLACEMENT-TYPE STEEL PLATE GELLULAR-BULKHEAD ‘QUAYWALLS. 518 82.1. Principle of Design 5882.2 Extemal Forces Acting on Stee! Plate Cellula- Bulkhead .....620 8.2.3 Check for Wall Width against Shear Deformation eat [ 824 Check for Stability of Wall Body as a Whole 522 82.5 Check for Bearing Capacty ofthe Ground... 524 8.2.8 Check or Stabilly Against Circular Sip... 525 [ 82.7 Determination of Thickness of Stel Plate of Coll Shel. 525 82.8. Layoutof Cells and Arcs sn 6B f 82.9. Detaled Design 528 8.3. EMBEDMENT-TYPE STEEL PLATE CELLULAR-BULKHEAD 4 ‘QUAYWALLS 7 : 528 u 83.1. Principle of Design 526 832 External Forces Acting on Embedment-Type Stool Pate Coluiar Bulkhead... . 8.3.3 Check for Wall Width Against Shear Deformation ve 828 7 8.3.4 Check for Stability of Wall Body as a Whole 528 83.5 Check for Bearing Capacity of the Ground. 528 4 83.6 Check for Stabilty Against Siding of Wall 529 8.3.7 Check for Displacement of Top of Wall... 529 . 8.38 Check for Stabilly Against Circular Slip... 529 f 839 Layout of Calls and AES... ses 528 u 8.3.10 Determination of Plato Thickness of Cell Shell and ‘Ate Section. 529 8.3.11 Joints and Stifeners, enn 580 8.3.12 Detalled Design. 530 CHAPTER 9 OPEN-TYPE WHARVES ON VERTICAL PILES 8.1 PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN., 531 92° LAYOUT AND DIMENSIONS... 504 9.21 Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles 594 U 9.2.2 Dimensions of SuperstrUctUR® nun 54 923 Arrangement of Fenders and Bollards... 534 93 EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON OPEN-TYPE WHARF. 535, - 93.4 Design Extemal Forces... 595, r 932 Calculation of Fender Reaction Fores... 837 L 94 ASSUMPTIONS CONCERNING SEA BOTTOM GROUND. 538 94.1. Determination of Slope incination... 538 942 Virtual Ground Surface. 539 9.5 DESIGN OF PILES 540 95.1 General... 540 9.52 Coefficient of Horizontal Subgrade Reaction. on SAT 8.5.3 Virtual Fixed Point, 7 Bat9.54 Member Forces Acting on Individual Pies 98.5 Cross-Sectional Stresses of Piles if 9.5.6 Check Embedment Length for Bearing Capacity. 9.5.7 Chack Embedment Length for Lateral Resistance. 8.5.8 Checking of Pie Joints 9.5.9 Change of Plate Thickness or Material of Steal Pipe Pie 96 DESIGN OF EARTH-RETAINING SECTION... 9.7 CHECK STABILITY AGAINST CIRCULAR SLIP 9.8 DETAILED DESIGN. 9.8.1 Loed Combinations for Superstructure Design 982 Design of Pile Head. FED CHAPTER 10 OPEN-TYPE WHARVES ON COUPLED BATTER PILES 10.1. PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN. 102 LAYOUT AND DIMENSIONS. 102.1 Size of Deck Block and Layout of Piles. 1022 Dimensions of Superstructure. 102.3 Arrangement of Fenders and Bollards... 40.3 EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON OPEN-TYPE WHARF ON COUPLED BATTER PILES... 103.1 Design External Forces. 10.3.2 Calculation of Fender Reaction Force. : t 410.4 ASSUMPTIONS CONCERNING SEA BOTTOM GROUND....nnn853 10.4.1 Determination of Slope Inctination..... 553 | 10.4.2 Virtual Ground Surface... 553 10.5 DETERMINATION OF FORCES ACTING ON PILES AND CROSS r ‘SECTIONS OF PILES. 553 10.5.1 Horizontal Force Tranemitied to Heads of Coupled Batter Piles 553. 40.5.2 Vertical Load Transmitted to Heads of Coupled Batter Pies, 10.5.3 Pushing-in and Puling-Out Forces of Coupled Batter Piles. 10.54 Cross-Sectional Stresses of| 10.6 EXAMINATION OF STRENGTH OF WHARF IN THE DIRECTION OF ITS FACE LINE 858 40.7 EMBEDDED LENGTH OF BATTER PILE. 558 10.8. DESIGN OF EARTH-RETAINING SECTION. 558 10.9 CHECK FOR STABILITY AGAINST CIRCULAR SLIP. 558 40.10DETAILED DESIGN... 8 CHAPTER 11 ROLL-ON/ ROLL-OFF (RO-RO) RAMP 41.4. DIMENSIONS OF RO-RO RAMP 559 11.2 CROWN HEIGHT... 559aoc PO GliaPTER 12 DOLPHINS "12.1. PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN, 122 LAYOUT. 12.3 EXTERNAL FORCES ACTING ON DOLPHINS 124 PILE TYPE DOLPHINS, os 12.5 STEEL CELLULAR-BULKHEAD TYPE DOLPHINS, 12.6 CAISSON TYPE DOLPHINS. CHAPTER 13 MOORING BUOYS 48.4 GENERAL, CHAPTER 14 ANCILLARY FACILITIES 144 GENERAL 14.2 MOORING EQUIPMENT. 14.3, MOORING POSTS, BOLLARDS AND MOORING RINGS 143.4 General... . 14.3.2 Arrangement of Mooring Posts, Bollards and Mooring Rings, 143.3 Tractive Force of Vessel 144 FENDER SYSTEM. 14.4.4 General 14.422 Arrangement of Fender... 144.3 Effective Berthing Energy of Vessel 14.5 SAFETY FACILITIES ee 14.5.1 Skint Guard 14.52 Fence and Rope. 14.53 Signs or Notices 14.54 Curbing : 14.5.5 Fire Fighting Equipment and Alarm Systems 146 COMMUNICATION FACILITIES os 14.8.1 Telephone System — 14.6.2 Electronics Security System... 14.6.3 Structure Cabling System... 14.6.4 Fire Detection and Alarms System 14.8.5 Public Address System 14.66 CATVMATV System. 14.67 Master Clock System 559 559 561 561 563, 563 565 688 1588 568 569 569 569 570 570 570 S71 srt ert srt srt srt 572 572 572 572 574 576 7B 583 584147 LIGHTING FACILITIES Ca 47.1 General 58 147.2 Stara rons of anaon : se [ 147.8 Selection of gt Source 8 14.74 Salecton of Licking Equipment. ef 147 Design of iting Sete. 98 148 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS eer 14311 Invodeton sr | 507 507 148.2 Purpose.. 14.8.3 Types of Navigational Aid... CHAPTER 18 APRONS 418.1. PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN. 598 182. TYPE OF APRON 598 162.1 Width 508 162.2 Gradient of Apron. 508 15.2.3 Type of pavernent. 599 48.3 LOAD CONDITIONS. 599 18.4. DESIGN OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT... -600 48.4.1 Dasign Conditions enn 600 48.4.2 Pavement Composition 600 184.3 Joints 602 1844 Tie Bar and Slip Bar 605 1845 End Protection. 605 "45.5. DESIGN OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT ... 60s 16.5.1 Design Conditions 605° | 155.2 Pavement Composition sn 1606 185. End Protection un. 609 48.6 DESIGN OF CONCRETE BLOCK PAVEMENT. eo [) 15.6.1 Design Conditions... eo | 18.6.2 Pavement Composition oo 156.3 Joint eit o2 | 15.7 DESIGN OF INTERLOCKING CONCRETE BLOCK PAVEMENT. 18.7.1 Dimension : er | 187.2 Thickness.. — sooneBt2 | 18.7.3. Chamfer or Radius. 812 18.7.4 Laying Patter. | 187.8 Compressive Strength... 613 CHAPTER 16 FOUNDATION FOR CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT | 16.1. PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN. o eommBt416.2. EXTERNAL FORCES ON FOUNDATION. 163 DESIGN OF FOUNDATION PILE 16.3.1 Concrete Beam 16.3.2 Bearing Capacity of Pile 164 DESIGN OF OTHER TYPE FOUNDATION. 164.1 Examination of Effects on Quaywall/ Whar 16.4.2 Concrete Beam 16.4.3 Ballast PART- Vill OTHER PORT FACILITIES CHAPTER 1 FACILITIES FOR PORT TRAFFIC 4.1 ROADS 144 General = 11.2 Roadways and Lanes. 1.1.3 Pavement. 1.1.4 Roadway Ancillary Provisions 1.2 PARKING LOTS veer CHAPTER 2 CARGO SORTING FACILITIES 24 GENERAL.. 22 CARGO SORTING AREAS. 23 QUAY SHEDS. : 24 CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT 28 TIMBER SORTING AREAS 2.6 MARINE PRODUCTS SORTING FAGILITIES..... 2.7 DANGEROUS CARGO SORTING FACILITIES. CHAPTER 3. STORAGE FACILITIES 34° GENERAL 32 WAREHOUSE. 33 OPEN STORAGE YARD. 34 TIMBER POND OR YARD. 3.5 YARDS FOR DANGEROUS CARGOES AND OIL STORAGE FACILITIES. CHAPTER 4 FACILITIES FOR SHIP SERVICES 41° GENERAL... 816 618 816 ats 618 615 616 616 817 817 ei7 619 623 624 628 628. 628 28 628 62942. WATER SUPPLY FACILITIES 629 CHAPTER § FACILITIES FOR PASSENGERS L 5.1. FACILITIES FOR PASSENGER BOARDING... BAA General nn 5.42 Structural Types 5.4.3. Ancillary Facies. 52 PASSENGER BUILDING. 521 Goneral 5.22 Design of Passenger Buildings. 523. Ancilary Facilites...PARTI DESIGN CONDITIONSCHAPTER 1 GENERAL H CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 1. In dosigning port and harbor facies, the design conditions shall be from the [ items listed below by taking into consideration the environmental servicing ‘and construction condition, characteristics of materials and social requirements forthe facies. (1) Ship dimensions { (2) Extemal forces produced by ships (3) Winds and wind pressure (4) Waves and wave forces. (6) Tidallevels (6) Currents and current forces (7) Estuarine hydraulics and littoral dit (8) Soll conditions (8) Earthquakes and seismic force (10) Earth pressure - (11) Water pressure (12) Dead weight (13) Surcharge r (14) Buoyancy (15) Other required design conditions 5 2. The design conditions should be determined carefuly, since they have great Influence on the safety, functions, and construction cost ofthe facies. They are generally determined according to the results of surveys and tests. Thus, ‘upon full understanding of the methods and results of such investigations and i tests, the design conditions shall be precisely determined. 3. In the design of port and harbor factities, the following matters should be taken into consideration. (@) Functions of the facilities Since faciiies do not always have only one function, care should be exercised so that all functions ofthe facilities will be exploited fully. (©) Importance of the facies ‘The degree of importance of the facilities should be considered in order to design the facities by taking appropriate account of safety and broad ‘economic implications. In determining the degree of importance of the {acilties, the folowing criteria should be taken into consideration,© © Repiaceabilty of the facities Construction cost ofthe facilities © Impact on life and property should the faclities were damaged. © Impact on other faciities should the facilties were damaged. (© Impact on society and its economy i the facilites were damaged, ) Lifetime Lifetime of the facilities should be taken into account in determining the structure and materials ofthe facilities and the necessity and extent of the improvement ofthe existing facies, Lifetime ofthe facilites should be determined by examining the following: © Function ofthe faciities © Economical view point of the facilities @ Physical property ofthe facilities When the lifetime is determined from the first two, the stricture and ‘materials suitable for that period should be chosen, but when the lifetime |s not determined from the first two tems, it will be determined by its physical ifetime, Particular, in design of a structure using steel and timber which tend to decrease the serviceability of the facilites due to corrosion, the lifetime: should be specified to ensure the safety ofthe facilities. (4) Environmental conditions © 0 @ Not only wave, seismic, topographic and soll conditions which have direct lnfluences on design of the quality, bottom material, animal and plant if ‘and atmospherie conditions should be taken Into consideration Load Materials Safety factor ‘The safety factor serves as an index representing the safe design of a structure. Presently, it is a very significant factor to make up for uncertainty in a design. In a stvict sense, the qualitative comparison of safety by the magnitude of the safety factor is meaningful only when the) 0 o structures 10 be compared are of the same conditions. In the case of structures under different conditions, comparison of the structural safely is diffeult. Such an empirical factor called a “safety facior” Is required since the elements concerned the estimation of the resistance t© a load ‘acting on the structure and the relations between such elements are rot yet fully and quantitatively clare, Other conditions being the same, the greater the variation ofthe value of the respective elements, the less the accuracy of the investigation or test, the less the accuracy of the design formula, the longer the lifetime of the structure, and the greater the value attached to the safety factors should be, ‘Strictly speaking, a safety factor should therefore be chosen according to ‘he conditions. But determining 2 unique safety factor for each case may lead to false judgment on dotermination and itis not efficient. Thus, in ‘his Standard, the values are shown which are considered to ‘be ‘ompircally safe under standard conditions, Under special conditions, such values may be reduced, but in such @ case, the value should be determined through careful examination and based upon reasonable ‘rOunds. The safety factor shall never be reduced carelessly. Construction method |i order to make a reasonable design, the construction methods has to be taken into consideration, Further, the design should be made so that the work can be executed with consideration to the effects on the surrounding environment. Work accuracy ‘Th design should be made so that it complies withthe reasonable work accuracy, ‘Construction period Where the construction period is specified, consideration should be made in the design as well as in method of construction, so that the work ean bbe completed within the specified period, The construction period is generally determined by the availability of the ‘materials, work equipment the degree of diffcuty ofthe work and natural conditions, 0DIMENSIONS OF VESSELS ‘The principal dimensions of the target vessel shall be set using the following methods: 1. Ifthe target vessel can be identified, the principal dimensions of the vessel | shall be used. . 2. I the target vessel cannot be identied, appropriate principal dimensions otermine by statistical methods shall be used, (1) When the target vessel cannat be indented in advance, the principal density of water (1.01~1.05 x 10° kg/m* for seawater) (@) Mean energy of wave per unt area of water surtace Bab 48, =tneit wan (0) Mean rate of energy transported in the direction of wave travel per ‘unit width of wave (Nninvs) W =CgB=nCB (4.2.8) nc (429) Where: Co: group velocity of waves (mvs) (4.2.10) (2) Characteristics of Deepwater Waves and Wavelength (@) Deepwater waves Waves in water depth greater than one-half the wavelength (#/1>1/2) are called the deepwater waves. Various characteristics ‘of deepwater waves may be obtained from the equations of small co— amplitude wave theory by letting 4/L 2. The wavelength La wave velocity ce and group velocity Ce for deepwater waves thus become ‘as below. The units of period Tare seconds (s). fo = 156P (m), G=1567(m/3) Ge= 0787 (m/s) " = 1827) ; 187 (lent) (42.41) ae ‘As expressed in Equation (4.2.11), the wavelength, wave velocity for ‘deepwater waves depend only on the period and are independent of the water depth, (©) Wavelength of long waves Waves with extremely long wavelength compared with the water depth (1/1 <1/25) are called the long waves. Various characteristics of long waves may be obtained from the equations of small amplitude ‘wave theory by taking 4/L to be extremely small, The wavelength, wave velocity, and group velocity for long waves thus become as follows: ‘Vahiom) C=Cq = aims) (4.2.42) (3) Consideration of Finite Amplitude Effects ‘The equations shown in (1) are not always accurate for general shallow ‘water waves having @ large height, and so itis sometimes necessary to Use equations for finite amplitude waves. When carrying out calculations using finite amplitude wave equations, one may refer to "Handbook of Hydraulic Formulas" published by the Japan Society of Ciull Engineers, ‘The amount of the errors in calculations arising from the use ofthe small ‘amplitude wave theory varies according to the wave steepness #//L and the ratio of water depth to wavelength /1/l. Nevertheless, the error in Wave parameters is usually no more than 20 ~ 30% with the exception of the horizontal water particleOne of the finite amplitude effects appears on the orest elevation se relative to the wave height; the ratio increases as the wave height Increases. The definition of the crest elevation ais shown at the top of Figure 4.2.4, This figure was drawn up based on wave profe records from the field. It shows the ratio ofthe highest crest elevation obtained from each observation record to the highest wave height Hexen that record as the function of relative wave height Ja/h. Figure 4.2.4 Rolationship between Maximum Elevation and Relative Wave Height (4) Types of Finite Amplitude Wave Theory The finite amplitude wave theories include the Stokes wave theory, Conical wave theory, and others. In the former, the wave steepness is assumed to be relatively low, and the wave profile is represented as a series of trigonometric functions. A number of researchers have proposed several approximate series solutions. In this theory, however, ‘convergence of the series becomes extremely poor as the water depth to wavelength ratio decreases. This means that the theory cannot be applied ifthe water depth to wavelength ratio is too small, On the other hand, the conical wave theory is obtained by perturbation expansion method with the water depth to wavelength ratio assumed to be extremely ‘small, meaning that i is valid when the water depth to wavelength rato is small. Errors become large, however, when the water depth to Wavelength ratio increases. In addition to these two theories, there are6 also the hyperbolic wave theory, in which the conical wave is approximated as an expansion of hyperbolic functions, and the soltary ‘wave theory, which Is the asymptotic case of the conical wave theory ‘hen the wavelength approach to infinity, With the exception of soltary ‘wave theory, the equations in all of these finite amplitude wave theories ‘are complicated, mesning the calculations are not easy. In particular, with the conical wave theory, the equations contain elliptic integrals, ‘making them very inconvenient to handle. if Dear’s stream function ‘method is adopted, then the wave profile and water particle velocity can bbe obtained with good accuracy right up to the point where the wave breaks. Application of Finite Amplitude Wave Theories to Structural Designs Nonlinear theories, which include finite amplitude wave theories, are applied to a wide variety of coastal engineering fields, However, there are stil large numbers of unknowns, and so, at present, they are only applied toa limited number ofthe fields such as those discussed below. (@) Maximum horizontal water particle velocity um at each elevation below the wave crest. ‘The information is vital in the estimation of the wave force on a vertical structural member. The equalions from the Stokes wave theory are used witen the water depth to wavelength rato Is large, and the equations from solitary wave theory are used when the water depth to wavelength ratio le emall. An approximate caleulation may be carried out using the folowing empirical equation. watt | (HY? (thy coshleete-+ iL] % moe ee) CG) Se 4) ‘here the coefficient ais given as listed in Table 4.2.4' s Table 424 > Coofficiont for Calculation of Maximum Horizontal Water Particle Velocity y i i y we @ Wi. S 0.08 780 oz [ 5 0.05 4150 03 5 0.07 143 05 r S 010 128 o7 L 2 04 07 (0) Wave shoating ‘Wave shoaling, which occurs as the water depth decreases, maybe | calculated using a long wave theory that includes nonlinear terms. e ‘Alternatively, the conical wave theory of hyperbolic wave theory may F 'be applied to this phenomenon (see 4.6.4 - Wave Shoaling). (©) Rise and drop of the mean water level A f ‘The mean water level gradually drops as waves approach the breaking point and then rises within the breaker zone toward the shoreline, as can be calculated from the theory of nonlinear interference between waves and currents, This mean water level ‘change is taken into account for the calculation of the wave height ‘ ‘change due to random wave breaking (see 4.6.5 - Wave Breaking). i y ge (0 Ar guy of ofthore secures [ ine doerniing th amour of ak gop of ofstoestuces sore ‘the still water level, it is advisable to consider the relative increase in [L » ‘the wave crest elevation due to the finite amplitude effect such as bee in Figure 421 [ 4.23 Statistical Proportios of Wave in the design of port and harbor facilities, it shall be standard to consider the Statistical properties of the waves with regard to wave heights and periods and to use the Rayleigh distribution for the wave heights of an iregular deepwater wave group.‘The assumption behind the theory of Rayleigh distribution is @ precondition that the wave energy Is concerned in an extremely narrow band around a certain frequency. Problems thus remain with regard to its applicability to ‘ocean waves for which the frequency band is broad. Nevertheless, it has ‘been pointed out that, so long as the waves are defined by the zero-up crossing method, the Rayleigh distribution can be applied to ocean waves as ‘an acceptable approximation, (1) Expression of Rayleigh Distribution ‘The Rayleigh distribution is given by the folowing equation: HiT a (8) 4219 ere: OHNE). ~ probability density function of wave heights iH mean wave height (m) ‘According to the Rayleigh distribution, the highest one-tenth wave height Haro, the significant wave height #2, and the mean wave height 7 are related to one another by the following equations: (6.2.8 Hhy3 = 1.600 t ? Hye aan} (On average, these relationships agree well with the results of wave ‘observations in situ ‘The highest wave height A: is dificult 1o determine precisely 2s will be discussed in (2) below, but in general, it may be fixed as in the folowing relationship: Flaw =(.6~2.0)Fhy3 (4.2.18) “The periods are related as follows: Tange =F = O11) (4247)4 at 5) 5) @ ‘As waves approach the coast, waves with the heights greater than the breaking limit begin to break and that ther heights are reduced, Thus itis ‘ot possible fo use the Rayleigh distribution for the wave heights within the breaker zone, Cccurrence Probability of the Highest Wave Height ‘The highest wave height mur is a statistical quantity that cannot be determined precisely; it is only possible to give Its occurrence probably. Ifthe wave height is assumed to follow a Rayleigh distribution, then the expected value Hmex Of Haay vinen a large number of samples each ‘composed of N waves are ensembled, is given as folows: Fan <4 ir 2572), crn It should be noted, however, that when HHaseis obtained for each of a large number of samples each containing N waves, there wil be a ‘considerable number of cases in Which Hmw exceeds Hex. Thus a simple use of Amex a8 the design wave might place structures on a risky side. One can thus envisage the method in which a wave height (Hiner). With 1 = 0.05 or 0.1 is used, where (aor) is Sat such thatthe probability Of the value of Hmexceeding (Hau), is 1 (i8., the significance level is 1). ‘The value of (Miner), for a given significance level x is given by the following equation: =) (6219) i Hnaxde ort area Table 4.22 lists the values obtained from this equation. Because Hinecis not a define value but rather a probabilistic variable, the value of Haar / ‘Ms vaties greatly with Wand j. However, considering the facts that the wave height only approximately follows a Rayleigh distribution and that the wave pressure formula has been derived while containing @ certain scatter of experimental data, itis appropriate to Use Hnar = (1.8 ~ 2.0) Hapa by neglecting the very small or large values inthe table oo oo oOTablo 4.22 | Rolationship between Highest Wave Height Hoo ul ‘and Significant Wave Height Hys aly [ Namber of | Mode 0% 10% B% Os waves | (Fia)en | significance | Mean | signieance | signifcarice ye N level (Fax) | level level { L | Cinados | Gtwsdna | Hasdos 30) Ta0 Fis | 146 Hie | 150 Aie | 1.76 Mim | 1.86 Pan fF 100 | 182Hi | 1.88H | 181M | 185Hie | 1.95 Hin | 200 | 163g | 168His | 1:72He | 194M | 2.08 Hin 5 500 | 176Mo | 18tHis | 186s | 206Mie | 2-14 Hin { 4000 | 186A | 191Ms | 194M | 214M | 222 hia “ie | 2000 -| 1.95 he | 200Hia | 202M | 22/0 | 2.90 Hie 0 | 5000 | 205Hia | 210M | 212M | 291Hia | 3.30Heo J [10.000 | 212M | 249Hia | 219Mim | 299M | 247 Hoo 4.24 Wave Spectrum In the design of port and harbor faclties, due consideration shall be given to the functional form of the wave spectrum and an appropriate expression shall be used. oa (1) General Form of Wave Spectrum co ‘The general form of the wave spectrum is usually represented as in the i : selowing exuston On su. = 86.8 220) i Wer: 4 fF > frequen u e azimuth from the principal direction of the wave S(E8) + directional spectrum y In the above, 5(7 is a function that represents the distribution ofthe weve Se energy with respect to frequency; itis called the “frequency spectrum GCE) a function that represents the distribution ofthe wave energy with respect to direction; it is called the “directional spreading function”9 @ ‘The functions expressed in the following equations may be used for 5) and (G8). The frequency spectrum of Equation (4.2.21) is called the Bretschneider-Mitsuyasu spectrum, while Equation (4.2.22) is called the Mitsuyasu type spreading function. SUP) = 025TH 3 Ty TEMPE LOT 3) (4.2.21) e costs S 4.23 Gacost® (4.2.22) o¢.6) Where @ Is a constant of proportionality that satisfies the following ‘normalization condition: (ie ov.eao-1 (229) Where Ga and Gin are respectively the maximum and minimum angles ‘of deviation from the principal direction, The term $ in Equation (4.2.22) is a parameter that represents the degree of directional spreading of wave energy. It is glven by the folowing formulas: (4.2.24) where fis the flequency at which the spectrum peak appears. It may be represented in terms of the significant wave period 7s asin the following equation: Jn =Q.O5T 3) (4.2.28) Value of Directional Spreading Parameter It ie standard to take a value of 10 for the maximum value Saux of the . Which the wave action is largest oF for which the effects on the structures y in question or facies in the hinterland ere most unfavorable are chosen e a the design waves. i y r ia WAVE HINDCASTING J Wave hindcasting should be made inthe folloning two steps: ; (@) Setting of the wind fla {b) Calculation of wave development and attenuation, [ a, The field where waves are generated and developed is called the fetch (or oy ‘wind field), and it is characterized by four parameters: wind velocity, wind l we direction, fetch length, and wind duration. Where the wind field is set, the m wave development and atfenuation should be calculated by using the most ‘appropriate hindcasting method forthe wind fold conditions, © i 14.1 Wave Hindcasting in Generating L For hindeasting of waves in the generating area, the spectrum methods and 4, | the significant wave methods are recommended as standard methods, The sd reliability ofthe results of the wave hindcast should be examined through the s ‘comparison with the wave measurement data. i” (1) Spectral Method e - (@) General ' « L Spectral methods can be classified into the spectral component methods hat have ben developed by essing hat he componente of the spectrum for each frequency and direction independenty until =. ‘some equilibrium state is reached, and the parametric methods that are based on the idea that the development decay of a wave ‘spectrum can be desctibed by a certain small number of parameters. With the former, the development waves that make up the spectrum ——_[ : ‘and the weak nonlinear interaction between component waves. Wh the latter, development of waves is treated as the overall resut of strong nonlinear effects and a kind of similarity mechanism is 2assumed with introduction of a few parameters, Calculations are carried out by formulating and solving the equations that govem the evelopment and transformation processes of waves. using the parameters, The accuracy of wave hindcasting by spectral methods has not been sufficiently investigated yet. However, since the accuracy of wave hindcasting depends greatly on the accuracy of estimating ocean winds, at present itis reasonable to believe that the accuracy of the spectral methods is comparable to that of significant wave methods. Nevertheless, It should be noted that even for the same wave hindcesting model, results can vary by 10~ 20% due to differences in the matters lke the calculation mesh, the boundary conditions or ‘empirical constants. Accordingly, itis necessary to investigate the validity and accuracy of hindcasted results by comparing them with observation values (examples of such comparisons are given in references). In particular, an equilibrium spectral form is assigned as, the limit of wave development in the current spectral methods. It is thought that the accuracy of the supposed equilibrium spectrum itself affects the results greatly, and s0 itis a good idea to investigate the accuracy with regard tothe functional forms of frequency spectrum or the directional spectrum. This is because tho significant wave height |s proportional fo the square root of the integral of the directional spectrum, meaning that the calculation is such that the_ significant ‘wave height does not change very much even if the spectral for itself changes somewhat, and so It is considered that the most Fgorous way of carrying out elevation isto examine the spectral form. ‘The spectral methods have the following advantages over the significant wave methods. © The effects ofthe variations of wind speed and direction on wave development are physically well described © Appropriate estimation results on wave heights and periods are obtained even when the wind field moves together with wave propagation. @ Wind waves and swell mixed sea conditions can be reproduced in ‘one caloulationAccordingly, if the results of hindcasting using a significant wave s tod sm dio th get dectormmeheconitg eee f tahg eoecil mete neoraty spect noose oe [ feerchad an Gewloped wile anny fxs on Seopa ate islet nfo cra aes = olen [ ne ts ecg mts yma fw po Sen ve by Japanese researchers include Inoue's model, Isozaki and Uj's: . " MRI model, and Yamaguchi and Tsuchiya's model. The basis of ia these models is the following energy balance equation: m , [ in BLP it) = Cg IVPEL O19) + LU) + BU UDB Bat fats (4.4.1) - Pe Tie) + erry dent ofa oda we wim he (60) + near ampli¥ing factor in Philips resonance theory [ fe con [esotaroa Comets sant eer ay Bi RU fonscraceas a oenraars val iw energy loss due to internal friction during wave ~ =f peepee ; > & RN Vicor coisas tent eraser > Ea soon verso res he x position vector f in + oupeoesty veo [ Cease \iferential operator(2) SMB method © ‘The SM-B method is used when the field is stationary. The height and period of deepwater significant waves are estimated from the wind velocity and wind duration in the fetch and the fetch length using Figure 4.4.1. Of the wave height obtained {rom the wind velecity and that from the wind duration, the lower ‘one Is adopted as the hindcasted value; kewise for the period. Figure 4.4.1 has been drawn based on the relationships by Equations (4.4.2), (4.4.3) and (4.4.4) which were rewitten by ‘Wison in 1965. (2) Significant Wave Methods | 1 significant wave height (mn) Tus + significant wave period (s) : U5 ind velocity at 10 m above sea surface q F + fete length (m) | @ acceleration of gravity (mis?)(=9.81 mis") 0 ‘minimum duration (he)2) 3) 4) Figure 4.4.4 Wave Forecasting Diagram by S-N-B Method TAPTT si if HH © Handling ofthe effective fetch longth When the fetch width is small relative to the fetch length (For ‘example, in a long bay), the fetch longth is determined by the distance to the opposite shore. If the distance to the opposite shore varies greatly when the direction is changed only slightly, it is advisable to use the effective length defined by in Equation (4.4.5) when hindcasting is made. (4.4.5) Where: For * effective fetch length (km) i+ distance to opposite shore in the #th drecton (km) 6: angle between the direction of A and predominant wind direction= ooo (b) Wilson's method Wilson's method is an extension of the S-M-B method. It includes improvements that can be applied even to @ moving fetch, for example in the case of a typhoon. Using the Hyet-F-Tya graph shown in Figure 4.4.2, the propagation of waves is traced in the F-T plane, while the development of the significant wave height and Period are traced in the Hiyart plane and Tis-t plane respectively ‘This figure has been obtained by calculation based on Equations (4.4.2), (4.4.3) and (4.4.4). (©) Hindcasting for shallow water waves Methods that consider the influence of the water depth on wave development (Le, the energy loss due to friction with the sea bottom) include the Sakamoto. ima method. Itis known from experience that the significant wave period and the significant wave height satisfy the folowing relationship. (Note however that this applies only for wind waves within the fetch area) 86 Tia (4.46) Tine Where: Fin > significant wave height (mn) Tiys + significant wave period (8) Figure 4.4.2 Hyp =t-F Tye Graph (from Wilson’s equations (1965)™ at ’ 6 In the Sakamoto-lima method, the ideas In Wilson's method for deep water have been incorporated into the case for shallow water waves, resulting in an Hyart-Ce graph such as shown in Figure 44.3, With use of such a graph it possible to cary out the hindcasting of shallow water waves in a variable fetch, Figure 4.4.3 Fip~ P~ Ce, Graph for Shallow Water Waves. 3 (Sakamoto-ljima Mothod) 4.42 Swoll Hindeasting Swell hindeasting methods include the Bretschneider method, the P-N-J metho, and specie methods, Wh the Brelscneier method the wave hheight and period of swoll are hindcasted from the parameters of the significant wave. With the P-N-J method, the swell parameters are obtained by estimating the effects ofthe velocity dispersion and directional spreading of spectral components. With spectral methods as mentioned above, numerical calculations are used; generally, no distinction is made between waves and ‘swell in the generating area, with calculations for the component waves at all ofthe diferent frequencies being carried out simultaneously, and the resulis being the significant wave parameters for the combination of wind waves and swell. Ifa significant wave method Is used in the hindcasting of waves in the ‘generating area, itis necessary to hindcast swell, in which case i fs standard to use the Bretschneider method, which is relatively simple and easy to use.Note however that the amount of reliable observation data that has been ‘obtained for swell is insufficient, and so the hindcasting accuracy is lower that that for waves in the generating area. Accordingly, itis necessary to treat swell hindcast values as representing no more than approximate values, and itis advieable to use them only after carrying out a comparative investigation with actual measurement data, In the Bretschneider method, swell hindcasting is carried out by using Figure 444. Figuro 4.4.4 ‘Swell Hindcasting Diagram TH | HH | i ‘The term Fras in the diagram is the minimum fetch length, is the decay distance of the swell, Hand Tr are the height and period of the signfican ‘wave at the end of the fetch respectively, and Hpand Tp are the height anc period of the significant wave at the swell hindcasting point respectively. If the Significant wave height and period are determined by the wind velocity anc the fetch length in the S-M-B method, the minimum fetch length Fag is equa to the actual fetch length. If the wave development is governed by the wine duration, then Fanis the fateh length corresponding to that wind duration anc ‘wind velecty‘al lime £ required for waves to propagate over the decay distance D is Pajeulated trom the following equation: D _ 4D Gey group velocity corresponding to To (mvs) "STATISTICAL PROCESSING OF WAVE OBSERVATION AND INDCASTED DATA, Wave characteristics shall be expressed as joint distribution of wave height and period by wave direction using the monthly, seasonal, and annual wave data * Storm wave data shall be sorted by the pesks-over-threshold method so as to yield the data set of extreme wave heights for extreme statistical ‘analysis, and the extreme wave heights shall be expressed in terms of the retum perio. ‘The wave distribution characteristics for ordinary conditions are expressed ‘separately for each wave direction as a joint distribution of wave helght and period. Observation data are often available for the wave height and the Period, and so itis standard to use such data. If observation data are not available, then hindcast data may be used. Since waves in ordinary conditions are often affected by the local wind, it is necessary to gain a sufficient understanding ofthe local wind characteristics. There is generally ‘not much observation data available for the wave direction, and so it is Standard to use hindcasting. It is necessary to give sufficient consideration to the effects of swell Its standard to represent the height of waves used in the design of protective facilities as the “tetum wave height” for the return period of the “peak waves" Using data over a long time period (atleast 30 years as a general rule). Since there are only few places at which observation data extending over such a prolonged time duration are avaliable, generally hindcast data must be used, Saas (447)—) i The peak waves, basic data for estimating the retuin wave height, are the wave (generally the significant wave) at the time for which the wave helght becomes largest during the process of wave development and decay under @ ‘certain meteorological concition. Iti thought that sampled peak waves are ‘mutually independent in statistical sense. When estimating the return wave height, itis possible to use the time series of data for which the peak waves ‘exceed certain threshold value during the period in question. Alternatively, it is possible to obtain the maximum value of the "peak waves” for each year, ‘and then use the deta as the annual maximum wave. In either case, the ‘theoretical distribution function ofthe return wave height is not known, and so fone should try to fit several distribution functions such as the those of the Gumbel distribution and the Welbull distribution, find the functional form that best fits the data, and then extrapolate it in order to estimate the retumn wave heights for a number of different return periods (say 60 years, 100 years, etc.). The accuracy of the resulting estimated values depends largely on the reliability of the data used rather than on the statistical processing method. ‘When drawing up the data set of peak waves using wave hindcasting, it is thus necessary fo take due care in appropriately selecting the hindcasting ‘method and to ciosely inspect the hindcasted results. With regard to the wave period corresponding to the return wave height, the relationship between the wave height and the wave period is plotted for the data of peak waves (which have been used in estimating the retum wave height) and then the wave period is determined appropriately based on the correlation between the two. (1) Estimation of Return Wave Height During statistical processing, the wave height is rearranged in the ‘descending order, and the probabilty of each value of wave height not being exceeded is calculated. If there are data and the mh largest wave height is denoted with ex then the probabilty P that the wave height does not exceed xis calculated using the following equation (45.4)vot st 1) Table 4.54 Parameters Used in Calculating the Probability not Exceeding a Certain Wave Height [ Distibution Function [a | # (Gumbel distribution oad | 0.12 | Weibull distribution 054 | 064 Lc =0.85)| 051 | 058 048 | 053 1.10) 0.46 | 0.60 | = (= 128) 044 | 047 * (= 450 042 | 042 : “[tk=200)) 038 | a7 The values used for a and fin this equation depend on the distribution function. Specifically, values such as those in Table 4.5.1 are used. The values used for the Gumbel distribution were determined by Gringorten in such a way as to minimize the effects of staistcal scatter in data, The values used for the Weibull distribution were determined by Petruascas ‘and Aagaard using the same principe, It is commented that the Thomas plot often used in hydrology corresponds to the case « = 0, = 1, and the Hazen plot corresponds to the case a=05, P= ‘The dlistbution functions used in hydrology include the Gumbel distribution (double exponental distribution), the logarithmic extreme value distribution, and the normal distribution (in the last case, the data must first be transformed appropriatoly). Since the data on peak wave heights have not been accumulated over a prolonged period of time, its ‘not well known which distribution function is most suitable, Following Petruaskas and Aagaard, we thus introduce the method whereby one tries fitting eight distribution functions, namely the Gumbel istibution function (see Equation (4.8.2)) and the Weibull distrbution function (see Equation (4.6.3)) with k= 0.75, 0.85, 1.0, 1.1, 1.25, 1.5 and 2.0; the distribution function that best fits the data on any particular data sets then selected as the extreme distribution for that data set. [ [ : [i vute)-1-00-(F52)}—qwebasorotiny 9 In order to fit the data to the distribution function, the "non-exceedance probability’ (probabilily not exceeding a certain wave height) P is transformed into the variable r+ (=(x-8)/A) using Equation (4.8.4) or (455) ny = nf ine se]} (Gumbel distribution) (4.5.4) = (anf Ptarsst!* (Werout cistrbuion) (45.5) Ifthe data fit Equations (4.6.2) or (4.6.3) perfectly, then there will be @ linear relationship between x and s. Accordingly, the data are assumed to follow the linear relationship shown in Equation (4.5.6). The parameters 4 and 2 are determined using the method of least squares, ‘thus giving an equation for estimating the retum wave height sednsB (456) where A and D are the estimated values of the parameters A and Bin Equations (4.6.2) or (4.5.3), respectively. The retum period A, of the wave height 1/ is related to the non- exceedance probably P(x) asin the folowing =X. ey PS)n number of years during the period for which analysis was. carried out Number of data of peak waves Goda has proposed the following method, which is a revised version of the method introduced above. (@) Addition of the Fisher-Tippett type ll distribution to the candidate distributions, ‘The Fisher-Tippett type ll distribution is given by the following equation PH sx) = expl-{1+ (x— BRAS] (45.8) ‘The folowing nine functions are employed as the candidate functions to be tied for fiting: the Gumbel distribution function (see Equation (4.52), the Weibull distrbution function (see Equation (4.8.3) with & = 075, 1.0, 1.4 and 2.0 (four preset values), and the Fisher-Tippett type Il distribution function with k= 2.5,3.93, 6.0 and 10.0 (four preset values) In place of the values listed in Table 4.5.1, the following equations are used for «and fin Equation (4.6.1) For the Gumbel distribution, a= 044, 6= 012 (459) For the Weibull distribution 02050208 ua (45.10) p=020+028F Forth Fsher-Tippt ype I atbuton, a= 044-0520 ast f=0.12-040k a4g4 (©) Selection ofthe best function through introduction of rejection criteria Inappropriate functions are rejected by means of two sets of eriterion. The first is the REC criterion. For the residual of the correlation coefficient for each distribution function, the 95% non-exceédance probabilty level is determined in advance. If the residual of the correlation coefficient exceeds this threshold value for a distribution function when the extreme value data is fitted to that distribution function, the function in question is rejected as being inappropriate. The second is the DOL criterion. The maximum valve in the data is made dimensionless using the mean and standard deviation for the Whole data. If this value is below the 5% or above the 95% level of the cumulative distribution of dimensionless deviation of the distribution function being fited, that function is rejected as being Inappropriate. Next, the best function is selected not simply according to the value of the correlaion coefficient, but rather according to the MIR criterion. This criterion takes into account the fact thatthe mean of the residual ofthe correlation coefficient relative to 1.0 wil vary according to the distribution function. The function for Which the ratio of the residual of the correlation coefficient of the ‘sample to mean residual forthe fitted distribution is lowest is judged to be the best fiting function, ‘TRANSFORMATIONS OF WAVES ‘As a general rule, the waves to be considered to exert actions on port and harbor facilties shall be the waves that are mast unfavorable in terms of the structure stablity oF the. usage of the port and harbor facilities. In this ‘consideration, appropriate attention shall be given to wave transformations during the propagation of waves from deepwater toward the shore, which Include refraction, difraction, shoaling, breaking, and others. Wave Refraction ‘The phenomenon of wave refraction occurs in intermediate depth to shallow waters. This is due to the change in local wave velocity caused in water depth. The changes in wave height and wave direction due to refraction shat! bbe considered,(1) Refraction Phenomenon and Caloulations for Regular Waves lt waves (see Figure 4.6.1) are obliquely incident on a straight boundary Where the water depth changes fiom A to Az , waves are refracted at the ‘boundary due to the change in wave velocity caused by the change in water depth. Suppose that the distance between wave rays changes {to dz as a result. Ifthe change in the wave ray width is not go large, it can be assumed that no wave energy flux cuts across the wave ray and flows ‘out. If other sources of energy loss such as the fiction along the sea bottom are ignored, then the continuity in the flux of energy transport results in the change ofthe wave height #; at water depth to the wave height 42 at water depth he as given by the following equation: (46.1) Gn, Gx + group velocities at water depths ’s and fn, respectively (mis) bujby + distances between wave rays at water depths fn and ‘i, respectively (m) Figure 4.6.1 ‘Schematic Diagram of Wave Refraction [uh, In the equation, 475; represents the change in wave height due to retraction, white {CG;/Cop represents the change in wave height due to change in water depth. Using the shoalng cosfcent (see 46.4 - Wave Shoaling), YCG/Cea can be represented as \Cailar = Ka! Ky, Where fz and Ka are the shoaling coefcients at water depths fy and fy, respective. ‘Suppose that the wave ray width, which is by for deepwater waves, changes to b due to the refraction phenomenon. The rato of the wave height after the change to the original wave height in this case is called the “telraction coetiicient’. The refraction coefficient A: is given by the following equation: K, = Viib (48.2) Refraction calculation methods for regular waves include the wave ray ‘methods in which calculations using a computer are made possible, and the numerical wave propagation analysis methods in which surface wave equations are solved by computers using finite diference schemes. An ‘appropriate calculation method is chosen in accordance with the situation Note however that for @ coastine for which the depth contours are straight and parallel to one another, the change in the wave direction and the refraction coefficient can be calculated using the following equations: nage k (453) (46.4) Here, J, a and ay denote the wavelength at water depth J, the angle of incidence of the wave at water depth J, and the angle of incidence of the wave deep water, respectively. Figures 4.6.2 and 4.6.3 shows the refraction coefficient and the wave direction, as calculated using Equations (4.6.4) and (4.6.3), respectively. tFigure 4.6.2 Refraction Coefficient of Regular Waves at Coast with ‘Straight, Parallel Dopth Contours a of Li 7 Co TT Graph Showing the Change in the Wave Direction of Regular Waves ‘at Coast with Straight, Parallol Depth Contours(2) Range of Application of Refraction Calculations Using Regular Waves Based on the principles behind calculations for regular waves, such calculations are applicable for waves for which there is litte directional ‘spreading and the frequency band is narrow; for example, swel-type ‘waves and tsunamis. For waves like wind waves for which there is much 1.0) for Son 78 Petod ito Diftaction eoeticientera) SenneFigure 4.8.7 (e) Diffraction Diagram by S (8/L= 2.0) for Period eto finite Breakwaters =25 coe a roFigur Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters (G/=2.0) for Sue = 75, eth ete Ditacton couseFigure 4.8.7 (a) Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters (/."4.0) for Sour = 10 TTss Figure 4.6.7 (h) Diffraction Diagram by Sermi-infinite Breakwators. (GL 40) for Som = 25 Period eno ithacton coticent evo ato itracon cosetFigure 4.6.7 (i) Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters (BL 4.) for Spc = 75, m1— Figure 46.7 () Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infinite Breakwaters. (G/L 8.0) for Suu = 10 rl io Diftaction coetcenFigure 4.6.7 (k) Diffraction Diagram by Semi-infnite Breakwaters (W/L 8.) f0F Sac = 25Figure 45.7 ( Diffraction Diagram by Soml-infinite Breakwaters (B= 8.0) for Suu = 75 Period ato Ditton cet iat T BN | fd / I baaabaeesabedesleatalWhen waves are obliquely incident to @ breakwater that contains an ‘opening, itis advisable to obtain the difraction diagram by means of a ‘numerical calculation. When this is not possible, or when the difracton diagram is only required as a rough guideline, the following approximate method may be used instead. When waves are obliquely incident to a breakwater that contains an ‘opening, the direction 2" of the axis of the diffracted waves (ese Figure 4.8.8) varies slightly from the direction of ineWdence @ Tables 4.6.1 (a)~(¢) list the direction of the axis of the ditracted waves as a function of the aperture ratio 3/1 and the direction of incidence. ‘These tables are used to obtain the direction 8'of the axis ofthe difacted waves, and then the virtual aperture ratio 2/L corresponds to 6! is obtained from the folowing equation: BIL» (BIDsine (465) Table 4.6.1 Anglo of Axis of Difracted Wave 6” (2) Snsi= 10 —— — ‘Angle between breakwater and incident wave direction @ ner a 15° 30° 45° 60° Cn 20 | 4e7@t) | sa%as) | err) | 70°(10% 40 | asr@e) | aatey | core) | 70°%10%) (0) Spar= 25 ‘Angle between breakwater and incident wave direction @ 7 is ae eo TO | away Sree) | erie) | TOTO} 20 | as%aey | arcr7) | sr9z%y [40 aera) | a2%i2 | 54%0) [ [ [ 7 L [= (©) Spx ® 75 ‘Angle between breakwater and incident wave drealion yh ie 30° ae oo 10 Ta RET Fa) | BRIO] — BRR 20 | aerery) | arty) | exam | cana, 40 sors) | see) | 40%) | 62924) Note: Angle in the parentheses isthe angle of deflection to the angk of incidence Out of the diffraction diagrams of normal incidence in Figure 4.6. {(8)-(@), the difraction diagram that has an aperture ratio nearly equa to the virtual aperture ratio is selected, Thie diffraction diagram i: ext rotated until the direction of ineidenoe matches the direction 0 the axis ofthe diffracted waves as determined from Table 4.8:1, The alffraction diagram is then copied and taken to be the diffraction diagram for obliquely incident waves. The errors in this approximate ‘method are largest around the opening in the breakwater; in terms of the diffraction coefficient, the maximum error may amount to around 0.4 in the absolute value, Figure 4.6.8 Virtual Aperture B' and Anglo of Axis of Diffracted Wave 6” PecadoF (@) Method for Determining Difraction Coafficient in a Harbor ‘The diffraction coefficient within @ complex shape of harbor is generally festimated by numerical computation with a computer. Diffraction calculation methods include Takayama's method, which involves linear super position of analytical solutions for detached breakwaters, and calculation methods that use the Green functions, (@) Directional Spreading Method Wen he ah of an endo th wet fhe ean fy is at frelon tins he wvlong of elder wove, etl ot boa lage fence boweon he wave hotesinte eect dacion citation and ts ciate ng be amount of deco ere enrgy tht ares dos athe poe rested te land on bap the teri ald be decion spreading mead, Howevee fe pont [ ot reat shot boing an lao or Reeder eat of heard ete ce ens Be aon speagehod cetbe copied (8) Studies Using Hydraulic Model Experiments Thanks to improvements mulieconal random wave geneang Jove, ti ony pce wave et have dwcfonlweeacng tho inbrstery noedaye, mearing Wat efachon experts san bo cavid out ltr ech Whar caring aut 2 nose enprte, on Sponing we harbor motel sl up nse ecre mn nang ono, ond the weve hog fs omutaneousy ected tbe o poms win fe herr The facto cof oan! by Geng the Sica wave ht a he hb entenessvegod ver at east fen cbecuan po f Wave Reflection It is necessary to take note of the fact that waves reflected from port and harbor facies can exercise @ large influence on the navigation of vessels ‘and cargo handling. For example, waves reflected from vertical breakwaters ‘can cause disturbances in navigation channels, and mulipleveflected waves from quaywalis can cause agitatons within harbors.(1) Composition of Reflected Waves and Incident Waves ‘The wave height #4, when incident waves and waves reflected from @ ‘number of reflective boundaries coexist (a train of incident waves and ‘those of reflected waves fom reflective boundaries are termed the ‘wave ‘groups’ can be calculated using the following equation: aR eaR ea (4827) “He significant wave height when all of the wave groups ‘are taken together HBcoHa + significant wave height of wave groups "Note however that, if the wave action varies with the wave direction, the differences in the wave directions of various wave groups must be Considered. The calculated wave height is valid for places that are at least about 0.7 wavelengths away from a reflecting boundary. Regarding the difraction andlor refraction of waves for which wave irection is an important factor, the significant wave height is determined ‘separately for each wave group by carrying out whatever calculation 16 ecessary for that wave group, when the wave directions of various wave groups differ. Then the composite wave height is calculated by putting ‘these significant wave heights into Equation (46.7). An acceptable alternative is to determine the spectrum for each wave group, add these ‘spectra together in order to calculate the spectral from when the wave ‘groups coexist, and then perform direct diffraction andlor refraction calculations using this spectrum, (2) Composition of Periods ‘The significant wave height to be used in calculating the wave force when | two wave groups of different periods are superimposed may be Setermined by the energy composition method (see Equation (4.8.7). ‘The significant wave period Tye may be determined using the folowing ‘equation: Baye pth Ulan oe) Hy ia +h so iad eee7 at whe 0 e 0-4 a(Rq/t 2210) (46.9) 0.08(nR,)? ~0.5InRy (4.6.10) ' l _ (06924 0a64inkp +02 u{te praee es wea 13.97 +4.33inRy = 0.15 Ry < 0.4) . Ry = Bysh My sda e1)- if Be Girsdiush (45.14) where: (ys) Gah + Significant wave heights of wave groups 1 and 11 before superimposition, respectively (m) Gish!iysx + sioniticant wave periods of wave groups 1 and 11 before superimposition respectively (6) Note that, in the above equations 1 fs assigned fo the wave group with the shorter period and 11 to that withthe longer period. (9) Reflection Coefficient (1) Approximate Values for Reflection Coefficient Itis desirable to evaluate the value of reflection coefficient by means of field observations. However, when it is diffeult to cary out ‘observation or when the structure in question has not yet been constructed, it is standard to estimate reflection coefficient by referring to the results of hydraulic model experiments, In this case, it is desirable to use irregular waves as the test waves. The method by Goda et al. may be used for the analysis of regular wave test data. c [ cam — i oo m The folowing is a list of approximate values for the reflection coefficients of several types of stuctures. Upright watt 2 07~10 (0.7 for low crown wth overtopping) ‘Submerged upright breakwater 08~07 Rubble mound 03-08 Precast wave-dissipating concrete blocks 03~05 Upright wave-absorbing structures 03~06 "Natural beach 0.05 ~0.2 With the exception of the upright wall, the lower limits in the above ranges of reflection coeticient correspond to the case of steep waves, ‘and the upper limits to waves with ow steepness. It should be noted, ‘however, that wth the upright wave-absorbing structure, the reflection coefficient varies with the wavelength, and the shape and dimensions of the structure. 484 Wave Shoaling ‘Shoaling is one of the Important factors that lead to changing of the wave height in coastal waters. It exemplifies the fact that the wave height in shallow waters is also governed by the water depth and the wave period. Figure 4.6.9 has been drawn up based on Shuto's nonlinear long wave theory. It inclides the linearized solution by the small amplitude wave theory and enables the estimation ofthe shoaling coefficient from deep to shallow waters In the diagram, Ais the shoaling coefficient, Ho" is the equivalent deepwater Wave height, is the wave height at water depth 4, and Leis the wavelength in deepwater. 48.5 Wave Breaking ‘At places where the water depth Is no'more than about three times the equivalent deepwater wave height decreases rapidly of the wave height due to wave breaking shall be considered. It shall be standard to consider the lrregulaity of waves when calculating the change in the wave height due to wave breaking,certain water depth and the wave height decreases rapidly. This EoFphenomenon is called the wave breaking. It is an important factor to be fricconsidered when determining the wave condtions exercising on martime ‘structures, For regular waves, the place at which waves break is lways the, ; © same; this is refered to as the “wave breaking point’. For rregular waves, waves, and wave breaking thus occurs over a certain distance: this area is roforred to as the “breaker zone’. Figure 4.6.8 Graph for Evaluation of Shosling Coefficient or ois a2 ag oa ane om isi tam es ans 8 ae am om ka a Lana (1) Change in Wave Height Duo to Wave Breaking The change in wave height due to wave breaking may be determined Using Figure.4.6.10 (a) ~ (e) or Figure 4.8.11 (a) ~ (e), These figures show the change in wave height for iregular waves as calcuated by Goda using a theoretical model of wave breaking. For the region to the Tight of the dash-dot line on each graph, the change in wave height is calculated using the shoaling coefficient (see 4.6.4 - Wave Shoaling), For the region to the left of this dash-dot line, the change in wave height due to wave breaking dominates, and so the wave height must be ‘determined using this graph. As for the bottom slope, its appropriate to use the mean bottom slope over the region where the water depth to equivalent deepwater wave height ratio 4/H0"s in the range of 1.5 t0 2.5. 2 ‘Scope of Application of Graphs of Wave Height Change ‘At places where the water depth is no more than about one half of the ‘equivalent deepwater wave height, a major portion of wave energy is ‘converted to the energy of oscillating flows rather than to that of water evel undulation. Therefore, when calculating the wave force acting on a structure in a very shallow water, itis desirable to use the wave height at the place where the water depth is one half of the equivalent deepwater Wave helght, ifthe facilities in question are highly importantour 48:0(0 Figure 48:00 Egan ot sites ne Hoga ne Diagram of Sian se Haight inthe ved ial Tan tor Gatton Sop 10 ‘taser Son forBston Spee 0 A res ‘ by 1 the i tis ®) gt be i vo { to B the ter a : 1a Pt [ = Four 4830 (6 Fours 483010, ter ‘tam of sgt Wate aightin the agra of Sign ae Hegtin te - ‘tater Sane tor otos See ‘sian ter Baton Stops a 10Figure 45:10(0) Figure 45:14 (0) Diagram of igifeant Wave Helght nthe Diagram of Highest Wave Heightin the reser Zone for Boom Slope 1100 Breaker Zonefor Beton Slope of #6 wensioe neo {TTT Figure 4 Fours 46:14 (0) Diagram of Highest Wave Heightin the Dagram of gest ave Height the Brother Zone for Bottom Slope of 120 ‘Brother Zane for Beto Sloge of 130 Besos 3738fester Zone or Betton Slope of 20 Ban se 1/50 Four 48.1119 ure 484 (9 Diagram of Highest are Height nthe i Beton 1/00 by Approximate Calculation Formulas for Breaking Wave Height Calculation ‘of wave height changes based on a theoretical model for wave breaking generally requires use of a computer. However, ‘considering the variabilty ofthe phenomenon and the overall accuracy, it is acceptable to calculate wave height changes using the following simple formula: Kee hjly 202 n= (int + 600 poate.’ afi con 8A) Where Bo .028(Ho'/Lo)-***exp [20(tan#)**] bs 1.52 exp[4.2tan6) (4.6.16) Prax = max (0.92032(Hy'/)-°2em [2Atand)} e L— “ ‘The shoaling coefficient x; is determined using Figure 4.6.9, the ‘operators min and max {} take the minimum and maximum value ofthe ‘multiple quantities within the braces, respectively, and tand is the botton slope. ‘Similarly, an approximate calcuiation formula for the highest wave heigh Hai given as follows: [20K hy 202 Ld «Ce 6m rt 1.8K!) sh/ly <02 4847, where: A = 0.052(H,'/ 1a) expl20(.0.0)*5] Bh = 0.63exp[3 81200} (4.6.18) Boag = max 65,0529) exp2Atan0} Graph for Calculating Breaking Wave Height 'f the maximum value (/tya)pax of the significant wave height in the ‘breaker zone is taken as representative of the breaking wave height, then the breaker index curve becomes as shown in Figure 4.6.12. Ifthe water depth (hva)oat at which the significant wave height isa maximum is taken 4 representative of the breaker depth, then the graph for calculating the breaker depth becomes as shown in Figure 4.6.13. Figure 4.6.12 Diagram of Maximum Value of the Significantht 7) 18) Figure 4.8.13 Diagram of Water Depth at which the Maximum Value ‘of the Significant Wave Height Occurs ooo (6) Breaking Wave Height Criterion for Regular Waves Figure 4.6.14 shows the breaking wave height criterion for regular waves, This figure can be used to calculate the breaking wave height criterion in hydraulic model experiments using regular waves, The curves in the graph can be approximated with the following equation: Hyp ai, «sgl Fa caft-e|-1sMotsent6 act oan ise i “en where: ‘and denotes the bottom slope, Figure 46.14 shows the limiting wave height at the point of frst wave breaking, At places where the water is shallow, the water depth increases ‘owing to the wave setup caused by wave breaking. When estimating the limiting wave height in the breaker zone, it is necessary to consider this Increase in water level - l aoFigure 4.6.14 Breaking Wave Height Criterion for Regular Waves (6) Change in Wave Height at Reef Coasts ‘At eet coasts where shallow water and a flat sea bottom continue over prolonged distance, the change in wave height cannot be calculate irectly using Figure 46.10 and 4.6.11, Instead, the following empiric equation may be used: %, l_ f= A sel 4 Where: Ho! + equivalent deepwater wave height He 2 significant wave height ata distance x from the tp ofthe (4.6.21 reef + water dopth over the reef a {increase in the mean water level ata place sufficiently distant from the tip ofthe reef ‘The coefficient 4 and « are 0.05 and 0.33, respectively, according to th results of hydraulic model experiments. Howover, itis advisable to us the following values that have been obtained from the data of fiek observations. 25 gos +e qn {024m > He 2) “Yo.33¢tiq'= 4m) A= 0089. (46.21 0020) he “The coefficient 8 corresponds to the bottom slope at the font of the reef Using Figure 4.6.10, itis obtained ftom the significant wave height Hs atwater depth h as folows. (4.6.22) ‘The term (h-+ij.,)/ Ho! is given by equine fleee) (45.23) where = 0.56. From the continuity of the mean water level atthe tp of ), Cols given by (46.24) 0 represents the rise in the mean water level at water depth J, which is controlled by the bottom slope in front of the reef. Its thus not possible to apply the method when the water is deep and wave breaking does not occur. Considering the breaking wave height criterion of a soltary wave, the highest wave height Hine sat the distance x from the tip ofthe reef may’ be obtained as follows, Flex rin(0.14h +7, ).8H,) (46.25) ‘where min fa} is the smaller value of a or & and fy is the rise in the ‘mean water level atthe distance » and is given by the following equation (4.6.28) c4.7 WAVE RUN-UP, OVERTOPPING, AND TRANSMISSION 474 Wave Run-Up The phenomenon of wave run-up is dependent upon a whole variety of factors, such as the wave characteristics, the configuration and location ofthe seawall, and the sea bottom topography; thus the run-up height varies in a ‘complex way. There are calculation diagrams and equations based on the results of past researches that may be used, although they are applicable only under certain limited conditions. When the seawall and sea botiom are ‘complex in form, its advisable to determine wave run-up heights by carrying ‘ut hydraulic model experiments. When designing seawalls of gently sloping {ype and the like, itis advisable to set the crown elevation of the seawall to be higher than the run-up height for regular waves. However, fo regular waves, depending on the wave height, overfiow can occur, and so ultimately the ‘crown elevation and the form of the seawall are determined eo as to make the: quantity of overtopping (see 4.7.2 - Wave Overtopping) no more than a certain permissible value, £ The following is the description of methods for calculating the run-up height over smooth impermeable slopes: (1) Simple Cross Section "A simple cross section” refers to the case in which a seawall (including ‘an upright wal) having a front slope of an uniform gradient ais located at certain place (of water depth 1) on the sea bottom with an almost uniform gradient & (8) Region of standing waves ‘Takada has proposed the following equation for determining the run- up height when the water depth / at the foot of the levee is in the range where standing waves exist (ie, deeper that the depth at the breaker line). He dealt with two cases separately; ie, the case where ‘wave breaking does not occur on the front slope and the case where such; wave breaking does occur. Firstly, according to Miche's equation, the minimum angle of inclination of the slope a for which wave breaking does not occur ie found as that satisfying the following condition:aht ing at ast [Bacsinta _ He! Ve sh (47.4) ‘Accordingly, when the angle of inclination ofthe slope Is greater than ‘zcwavo breaking does not occur over the slope, in which case the run-up height is given by the folowing condo: z (fz Jn } (24)%a))k,se>a, Be Vis oeem ee (a2) ‘where e's the equivalent deepwater wave helght, Ais the shoaling coefcent, isthe wave height at the water depth atthe foot ofthe slope, isthe crest elevation and isthe run-up height ‘Takada used the following equation for 7, / Hs which assumes that there is good agreement between the value from Miche's standing ‘wave theory and experimental dat. h seater zag L 4sinh? ki 4cosh? kh) nl (47.3) When the angle of inctination of the slope is smaller than ae, wave breaking does occur on the front slope. In this case, itis assumed that the run-up. height is proportional to tana, leading. to the following equation: snofE(eae(eyece ara ‘When the water depth is such that standing waves exist, the run-up height can be calculated as above. The maximum run-up height ‘occurs when a= ac, with the run-up height decreasing bath when the slope is more steeply inclined that this and when it is mere gently inclined, 109= (©) Region where the water is shallower than the breaker depth ‘Takada has given the run-up height for regions where the water is sufficiently shallow for vaave breaking to occurs as follows: UH (Ba! Hal oe Rol He (475) ‘Where Rois the run-up height on the levee body at the shoreline (= 0. Based on the experimental results of Toyoshima et al, Ra/Ho"is given a follows: (018(Hy'/le)-? + Bottom Slope 1/10 R/tts! =30.075(lig'/l)"? + Bottom Slope 1/20 (47.5) 0.046(H%'/Lg)" + Bottom Slope 1/30 ‘The term hein Equation (4.7.8) is the water depth at the foot of the levee for which the run-up height becomes largest. It is estimated Using Figure 4.7.1, which shows the run-up height for a vertical wal, ‘The term Le in the figure is the wavelength at water depth A, while Rearis the maximum run-up height for the region where the water dept is such that standing waves exist (Le., the run-up height when b= he (2) Complex Cross Section ‘A “complex cross section’ refers to the case where the sea bottom topography and the configuration and location of the seawall (on the whole) are as shown in Figure 4.7.2. {(@) When the cross section can be considered to be complex, the run-up height of the seawall is obtained as follows (refer to Figure 4.7.2).18) be Figure 4.7.4 Graph for Estimating he for a Vertical Wall determined from the deepwater wave © The wave breaking point characteristic. ® Noxt, the run-up height is assumed and the point A is set the ‘maximum tun-up point. Then, the points A and B are joined by a straight line, and the gradient of this line yields the virtual gradient cota. © The run-up height for this virtual gradient is calculated using Figure 4.73, and the calculated height is compared with the inially ‘assumed run-up-height. If the two do not agree, then a new run-up height is assumed, and the estimation are repeated (ie. the new run-up height is used to give a new virtual gradient and so on). This iterative process is repeated until convergence is achieved. © The value so obtained le taken to be the run-up height for the ‘complex cross section question (©) When the results obtained from this method are compared with actual experimental resuts for a complex cross section, its generally found that there is good agreement between the two, with the error usually 19 RO more than 10%. However, Ifthe bottom slope is too gentle, the agreement between the two becomes poor, and so this method ‘should only be used when the bottom slope is steeper than 1/30, 0 = 4SoO (©) Figure 4.7.4 shows experimental resuits abtained for a botter slop of 1/70, This figure provides a useful roference when estimating th ‘run-up height fora complex cross section with a gentle bottom slope, Figure 4.7.2 Complex Cross Section and Virtual Gradient asin xp psi Figure 47.3 Runup Height on a Slope 2289288 8 4ope the 4 Figure 4.7.4 Run-Up Height on a Seawall Located Closer to the ‘Land than the Wave Breaking Point Bs vt s 1EALe eae Tes aE (9) Oblique Wave Incidence Figure 4,7.5 shows the relationship between the incident angle coefficient ‘Kyand the angle A. Here fis the angle between the wave crest fine of the incident waves and the centerine of the seawall, and the incident angle coefficient Apis the ratio of the runup height for angle # to the run-up height when the waves are normally incident (Le., whon = 0). This figure can be used to estimate the effect of wave incident angle on the run-up hight (4) Effects of Wave-Absorbing Work ‘The run-up height can be significantly reduced when the front face of a seawall is completely covered with wave-dissipating conorete blocks, Figure 4.7.8 shows an example. However, the effect of the concrete blocks varies greatly according to the way in which they are laid, and so in general itis edvisable to determine the run-up height by means of hydraulic model experiments 0 C 0(6) Estimation Errors itis important to note that the curves for deteminng the run-up eight | have been chained by averaging experimental dala tal shows 8 lage nl seat, should alo be noted tat acl wave rurup Wl fequenty teed the design cronn Heght because of wave ireguaty wen tho crown height ef soewals destned apie the significa waves, even the suator ofthe experimental data no considered in fac. exer ea coves a many ae about hal of the waves may exceed the height Al fecordngl the crown height fa seawall shoud ol be decided based oo purely onthe runap hoght of wave rather, Ts neceseary to ghe i Consieraton to the quantly of overtopping (seo 47.2 ~ Wave Overtopping). = Figure 47.5 Relationship betwoon Wave Incident Anglo and Run-Up Height (Full Lines: Experimental Values by Public Works Research Instituto, Ministry of Construction of Japan)Be: Figure 4.7.6 Reduction in Run-Up Height Due to Wave-Absorbing Work ‘The “quantity of overtopping” Is the total volume of overtopped water. The fate of overtopping’, on the ther hand, is the’ average volume of water ‘overtopping in a unt ime; itis obtained by dividing the quantity of overtopping by the ime duration of measurement. The quantity of overtopping and the rate ‘of overtopping are generally expressed per unit width, If the quantiy of overtopping is large, then not only there will be damage to ‘the seawall body itself, but also damage by flooding to the roads, houses and/or port and harbor faciltios behind the levee or seawall, despite the leveo ‘seawall is intended to protect them. There is further afisk to users of water frontage amenity facilities that they may be drowned or injured. During design, itis necessary to make the quantty of overtopping no more than a certain permissible value that has been determined in line with the characteristics of structures and the situation with regard to their usage. Furthermore, when estimating the quanti of overtopping by means of experiments, itis desirable to consider changes in tidal water level, ie., to camry out experiments for different water lavelsSeat oo (1) Diagrams for Calculating the Rate of Overtopping For an upright or wave-absorbing seawall that has a simple form (Lo, thet {does not have anything tke a toe protection mound or a crown parapet), the rate of overtopping may be estimated using Figures 4.7.7 = 47.10 ‘Those graphs have been drawn up based on experiments employing irregular waves. From the results of a comparison between the ‘experiments and eld observations, its thought thatthe accuracy of the curves giving the rate of overtopping is within the range ited in Table 4471, The rate of overtopping for the wave-absotbing seawall has been ‘btained under the condition thatthe lower armar layer at the crown consists of2 rows of wave-2 Figure 52.3Figure 6.2.3 shows the distibution of ax. It attains the maximum value of 1 when d/iris 0.4 and Sy/Zis 0.12. The impulsive breaking ave pressure coefficient as takes values between 0 and 2; the larger the value as, the larger the impulsive breaking wave force is. When calculating the wave force using Goda’s formula, one should use ay i place of az (see Equation (5.2.6) if ais larger than az, Note that Equation (6.2.43) for a; has been derived for the case of 4/h being equal to 0.60 or greater, based on the resulis of sliding experiments. This cooffcient ax may be used when examining the sliding of an Upright wall against the waves of relatively large height. (b.) Effect ofthe crown height of the upright wall ‘The higher the crown height, the greater the risk of an impulsive breaking wave force being generated. This is because the steep front of a breaking Wave often takes a neariy vertical ctf of water above the stil water level, and if there is an upright wall at this place, the Impact of the wave front resuits in the generation of an impulsive force. For example, Mizuno et al, have pointed out the tendency that, when the crown is high, an impulsive breaking wave force is generated even when the mound is relatively low. (c) Effect of the water direction ‘According to the results of the siding experiments of Tanimoto et al, even if conditions are such that a large impulsive pressure is ‘generated when the wave angle fis 0°, there is a rapid drop in the magnitude of the wave force as f increase to 30° or 45°. By ‘considering the fluctuation in the wave direction, tis reasonable to assume that the condition for the generation of an impulsive wave force is that fs less than 20° (€)) Dynamic response of the upright section to an impulsive force and the siding of upright section When an impulsive pressure due to breaking waves acts on an Upright section, the instantaneous local pressure can rise up to several tens of times the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the ‘wave height, though the duration time of the impulsive pressure is very short. The impulsive peak pressures fluctuate significantly, but the fluctuations in the impulse are not large, It is necessary toevaluate the contribution of the impulsive breaking wave force ‘Siding in terms of the dynamic response, considering deformation the mound and the subsoil, Goda as well as Takahashi a Shimosako, have carried out calculations of the shear force at 1 bottom of an upright section using dynamic models. Judging by t results of these calculations and the results of vatious sid experiments, it would seem reasonable to take the mean intensity the wave pressure equivalent to the sliding shear force to be (2.5 3.0)pagtt The impulsive breaking wave pressure coefficient aa hy been introduced, based on the results of sliding with consideration ‘such dynamic response effects, 52.8 Wave Force on Upright Wall Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concret Blocks I the front face of an upright wall is covered with a mound of wave-dissipatin Precast concrete blocks, the features of wave force acting on the wall ar changed, The extent of this change depends on the characteristics of inider ‘waves, along withthe crown height and width ofthe wave-absorbing work, th ‘pe of wave-dissipating concrete block used, and the composition of th \wave-absorbing work. In general, when non-breaking waves act on an uprigh ‘wal, the change in wave force upon the upright wall covered with wraw Cissipating blocks is not large. However, when a large impulsive breaking wave force acts, the wave force can be reduced significant by covering the upright wall with a mound of wave-dissipating blocks. Nevertheless, such e ‘eduction in the wave foree is only achieved when the wave-absorbing work ‘has @ sufficient width and crown height; in particular, it should be noted that f {he top ofthe wave-absorbing work is below the design water level, the wave- absorbing work often invites an increase in the wave force, (1) Wave Force Calculation Formula for Upright Wall Suffciently Covered with Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks ‘The wave force acting on an upright wall cavered with a mound of wave- cissipating concrete biocks varies depending on the composition of the wave-absorbing work, and therefore it should be evaluated using the results of model experiments corresponding to the design conditions. | sufficiently stable against the wave actions, the wave force acting on the right wall may be calculated using the extended Goda formula, In this ee 138method with the standard formula given in 5.2.2 - Wave Forces of ‘Standing and Broaking Waves, the values 1, ps, and py given by Equations (6.2.1), (6.2.2), and (6.2.8) are used respectively, but it Is necessary to assign appropriate values fo the wave pressure modification factors A; keand 7g in accordance with the design conditions Modification Factors for the Extended Goda Formula ‘The method using the extended Goda formula can be applied by assigning appropriate values to the modification factors 2s, 2a and 2s. Studies have been carried out by Tanimoto et al, Takahashi et al, SSekino and Kakuno, and Tanaka and Abe amongst others and have revealed the folowing: 1a, Wave-dissipating concrete blocks cause a considerable reduction in the breaking wave pressure, and so itis generally acceptable to set, the breaking wave pressure modification factor lato zero, ', The larger the wave height, the smaller the modification factor 2s for standing wave type pressure and the modification factor 2s for uplift pressure become, «The larger the ratio of the block mound width to the wavelength, the ‘smaller the modification factors As and 23 become. 4d. tf even a small portion of the upper part ofthe upright section i left uncovered, there is a risk of the wave force here becoming an impulsive breaking force Based on such experimental results, Takahashi et al. have summarized that in general, when the upright wall is sufficiently covered with wave-dissipating concrete blocks, the wave pressure reduction factor 22 may be taken to be zero, while the values of A: and ds depend primarily on the wave height # (the highest wave height) They have thus proposed the following equations: 1.0 Hh s03 dA = ]12- @/3)(H/A) : 03(H Jas 0.6 (6.2.15) oe HfhyO6 aa (5.2.16) UL (6.2.47)——_). Inthe breaker zone, where breakwaters covered with wave- 1.0 Ks limit value of the height increase coefficient for breaking limit waves; Ka= 14our hat ay the ty del we the ght ihe 18) ‘wave height used in the wave force calculation when the effects ofthe shape of breakwater alignment are not ‘considered (m) y+ breaking wave height atthe offshore locaton with the cistance of 5 times the significant eight of progressive waves ‘rom the upright wall (m) ‘The height increase coefficient in Equation (6.2.18) is generally exoressed as in Equation (6.2.19). It should be appropriately determined based on the incident wave height (m) Ke + reflection coefficient for the breakwater in question If the waves are treated as being of regular trains, then the coefficient for ‘ave height inctease varies considerably along the breakwater. Moreover, the height increase coefficient is very sensitive to the period of the incident waves and the direction of incidence. itis thus reasonable to consider the irregularity of the period of and the direction of incident waves. It is thus reasonable to Consider the irregularity of the period and direction of incident wave. It should be noted that the value of obtained inthis way varies along the break water ‘and that there may be regions where K-« 1.0. However, the wave height to be Used in design must not be less than the orginal incident wave height. The limit value Xs of the height increase coefficient for breaking waves has ‘ot been clarified in details. Nevertheless, it may be considered to be about 1.4 based on experimental results up tothe present time.oe 327 528 Effect of Abrupt Change in Water Depth on Wave Force For an upright wall located in a place where the water depth changes abruptly ‘owing to the presence of reefs and others, itis desirable to calculate the wave force acting on the upright wall based on hydraulic model experiments, by taking the rapid transformation of waves into consideration. Ito et al have carried out experiments on the wave force acting on an upright Wal located on or behind 2 reef where the water depth Is more-oress uniform, withthe offshore slope of the shoal having a gradient of about 4/10, Wave Force on Upright Wall near Shoreline or on Shore (1) Wave Force at the Seaward Side of Shoreline ‘A number of different wave force formulas have been proposed for Upright walls near the shoreline and on shore. It is necessary t0 carry out fan appropriate wave force calculation inline with the design conditions \Very roughly speaking, the standard formula in 5.2.2 - Wave Forces of Standing and Breaking Waves are applicable in the regions where the seabed slope is gentle and the water relatively deep. The formula of ‘Tominaga and Kutsumi is applicable in the regions near the shoreline. “The formula of Hom-me, Horikawa and Hase is applicable in the regions where the seabed slope is steep and the water is of intermediate depth, ‘When applying the standard wave pressure formula to the places where the water depth is less than one half the equivalent deepwater wave height, it may be appropriate to use the values for the wavelength and wave height et the water depth equal to one half the equivalent deepwater wave height in the calculation (2) Wave Force at the Landward Side of Shoreline For an upright wall situated on the landward side of the shoreline, the formula by US Army Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) is available. Moreover, one may refer to the research that has been carried out by Tominaga and Kutsuri on the Wave force acting on an upright wall situated on the landward side ofthe shoreline52.9, Wave Force on Upright Wave-Absorbing Caisson ‘The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing caisson (perforated-wall 7 * Fe ccasom ec) mioe'n's sales way, Spear nena eae | “ b- charactorits, the waar lel, tho wator Gop, he topography of sea baton and the shape of the mound as with the case of a normal upright wall, but it { ais vais wth the stucture ofthe waveabsoring compart is hus oe aiuto designate a general calculation method thal can be vsed ina x cases. Consequenty the clelation method that issue celle for | : the structure in queston has not been proposed, kis necessary o cary out sluts using hydraule model experiments matched. to the indval conctons, ts nacessar to sufcetyinvesigate nt only the wave fore fo be used in the stably invesigaon but sao the wave force acing on srucural members. Moreover, shoul be noted tht the wave force varies w Sinica according fo whether or not the fop of wave chamber f covered & wath a ely sa, ns. (©) Wave Force without a Ceiling Sib inthe Wave Chamber the ‘The wave force acting on an upright wave-absorbing caisson varies of depending on the stuctutal “condiions of the wave-bsoring ——[ ne. compartment, and so it is not possible to calculate this wave force for all . ans general cases involved, Nevertheless; for the normal case where there is. { no celing sab in the wave chamber, one can we the extended Goda formula ocala the wave force, provided necessary medications ere, ore made, Takahashi et al. have carried out experiments on a vertical slit wall ave ‘caisson, and have presented @ method for calculating the wave pressure ~ inal ‘acting on the sit and rear walls forfour representative phases, whereby ‘ent the wave pressure given by the extended Goda formula is multiplied by @ Imecfteaton factor A forthe vorcalslt wal caisson: they give spcio values for the modification factor forthe stand rear walls foreach phase. [ This method canbe wed to give not only the wave force that eoverst the in terms of the sliding or overturning of the caisson, but also the wave [ 0 ‘ore thats severest in tes of the design ofthe eloment or each wal ted 2) Wve Force wih a Ceti Seb ne Wave Chander ‘When the top ofthe wave chamber is closed off wth provision of a celing slab, an impulsive pressure is generated at the instant when the airlayer = In the upper part of the wave chamber is trapped in by the rise of water surface, It is thus necessary to give consideration to this impulsiveoe pressure in particular with regard to the wave pressure used in design 0 structural elements, This impulsive pressure can be reduced by providing, ‘suitable air holes. However, it should be noted that if these air holes are too large, the rising water surface wil dectly hit the ceiling slab withou air cushion, meaning hat the wave force may actually increase, 5.3 MASS OF ARMOR STONES AND CONCRETE BLOCKS. 5.3.4. Armor Units on Slope {t shall be standard to calculate the mass of rubble stones or conerete blocke Necessary to cover the front slope of a sloping structure that is subject tc wave forces, by means of appropriate hydraulic model experiments of the following equation: we MRC 33 Were M minimum mass of rubble stones or concrete blocks (t) pr + dens of rubble stones or concrete blocks (Um?) H wave height used in the stability calculation (m) Me Stat pumbor 5 {pect gravy of rubble stones or conrete blocks Toatve oe water ‘The amor layer forth slope of a bbe mound breakwater protects the rubble stones inthe aise, and ois necessary to ensure thal ah amr nt has a mass sufcent to be stable agaist wave actons so tat does nak Seater ise The mass requied fo produco such stably can be cad Using & stable ealelaton formula. For example, forthe armor uns on te lope ofa rubble mound breakwater, the required mats was calculated in the past by Hudson's formula with an appropiate coofilert (Ko va) but teoent I has become common to uve Hudser'sferula with 8 ataity number. Th later is more general in thats can ago he epped to other cases, such a the er unison the mound of compost resaleof lng are out say ity 7 Hudson formuia with a stabity.number (this is also refered to a8 the {generalized Hudson formula) (see Equation (6.3.1), 3°" Stability Number and Nominal Diameter The stability number directly corresponds to the necessary size (nominal diameter) of the armor stones or concrete blocks for a given wave height. In other words, by introducing the nominal diameter Dy= (1/2)? and the term = 5-2 and substituting them into Equation (6.3.1), the following relatively simple equation is obtained (6.3.2) HD.) It can be seen that the nominal diameter is proportional to the wave height with the constant of proportionally being 1/ A. Design Wave Height ‘The Hudson formula was proposed based on the results of experiments that used regular waves. When applying It to the action of actual waves (which are Irregular), there is thus a problem of which defirition of wave heights should be used. However, with structures that are made of rubble stones or concrete blocks, there is a tendency for damage to occur not when one single wave having the maximum height among an irregular wave train attacks the armor layer, but rather for damage to progress gradually under the continuous faction of waves of various heights. Considering this fact and past lexperionces, it has been decided to make it standard to use the significant wave height of incident waves at the place where the slope Is located as the ‘wave height 1/in Equation (6.3.1), because the significant wave height is. representative ofthe overall scale of an iegular wave train, Consequently, it is also standard to use the significant wave height when using the generalized Hudson formula. For places where the water depth is less than one hal the equivalent deepwater wave height, the significant wave height at the water ‘depth equal to one haif the equivalent deepwater wave height should be used.5.3.4.4 Parameters Affecting the Stability Numbor 2s shown in Equation (6.3.1), tho required mass of armor stones or conctel Pooks varies with the wave height andthe density ofthe armor unt, ard ae ihe ftabilly number Az The A valve is @ cootcient that represents ty 4 (@) Characteristics ofthe structure ‘©. Type of stuctue (ubbie mound breakwater, breskwater covered wit \wave-dissipating concrete blocks, composite breakwater, ete.) : Gradient of the armored slope Me Position of armor units (breakwater head, breakwater trunk, poston EA {lative to stil water level, front face and top of slope, back face, ; beim, ete) ‘Crown height and width, and shape of superstructure {nner layer (its cosficient of permeabilty, thickness, and degree of surface roughness) (©) Charactesistics ofthe armor units ‘© Shape of armor units (shape of armor or conecete blocks, for amor stones, their diameter distribution) Placement of armor units (numberof layers, regular laying or random Placement ete) ‘Strength of armor material o (©) Wave Characteristics ©” Number of waves acting on armor layers ® Wave steepness, © Form of sea batiom (botom slope, existence of ref, etc) ‘°” Ratio of wave helght to water depth (a8 Indices of non-breakng or breaking wave condition, breaker type, etc.) © Wave direction, wave spectrum, wave grouping characteristicsete so the we hat sith Consequently, the design .W, value must be determined appropriately based on hydraulic model experiments in line with the respective design ‘conditions. By comparing the results of regular waves to be significant height of itegular waves that gave the same damage ratio (within the feor of 10%) varied in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 (depending on the conditions). In other words, there was @ tendency for the iregular wave action to be more destructive than the action of regular waves. It is thus better to employ iregular waves in experiments, Stability numbor Neand Xovalue In 1959, Hudson published the so-called Hudson formula, replacing the previous Irbarten-Hudson formula. Hudson developed Equation (6.3.1) by himself using Kocota instead of Ns... Ni=K,cota 6.3.3) Where: & = angle ofthe slope from the horizontal line (*) Xe = constant determined primarily by the shape ofthe armor units and the damage ratio ‘The Hudson formula was based on the results of a wide range of model experiments and has proved itself well in usage in the prototype design. In the past, this formula (1¢,, the one using the As value) has thus been used in the Calculation of required mass of armor units on a slope, However, the generalized Hudson formula that uses the stability number (see Equation (6.3.1)) has been used for quite a while for calculating the required mass of armor units on the mound of a composite breakwater (to be discussed later), and is also used for the armor units of other structures such ‘as submerged breakwaters. It is thus now more commonly used than the old formula with the Ko value, and so the generalized Hudson formula with the number can be considered as being the standard equation for Calculating the required mass on armor units on a slope.5346 The stability number 1, can be derived from the Kp value and the angle @ of the slope from the horizontal ne using Equation (6.3.3). There is no problem with this process if the Ap value is an established one and the slope angle is within a range of normal design. However, most of the Xi values obtained up to the present time have not sufficiently incorporated various factors like the characteristics of the structure and the waves. Thus, this method of dotermining the stabilty number Nfrorn the Ko value cannot be guaranteed to yleld economical design always. In order to calculate more reasonable values for the required mass, it is thus desirable to use the results of experiments ‘matched to the conditions in question, or else to use calculation formulas (calculation diagrams) that include the various relevant factors as described below. Van dor Meer's Formulas for Armor Stones In 1987, van der Meer carried out systematic experiments concerning the armor stones on the slope of a rubble mound breakwater with a high crown, He proposed the following calculation formula forthe stability number, which considers not only the slope gradient, but also the wave steepness, the number of waves, and the damage level. For easier calculation, the van der Meor's original formuia has been slighty altered. For example, the wave hight fou for which the probability of exceedance is 2% has been replaced by Hi, 1M, =maxWWy Nor} 634) Ng = 62CyPP28(S92IN6%) [5-05 638) Nyy = CyP*%(S2/N%Ycota)17 638) Where Nai + stabilty number for plunging breakers Nex + stability number for surging breakers + Iibarren number (tana/Soq)(aisocaled the sur similarity parameter) San: Wave steepness (Ha/Le) Te: deepwater wavelength (Lo= gtiys?/2m, 110/54)ich the er 34) 35) 36) ‘ty significant wave period Gz + modification factor due to wave breaking [=1.4/(Hs20H)] (1.0 in the region where wave breaking does not occu) i significant wave height Hoe + highest one-twenticth wave height (eee Figure 6.3.1) ‘a= angle of slope from the horizontal line (") ‘Paso nominal diameter of armor stone (=(iMa/2) 3) ‘Meg + 50% value of the mass distribution curve of an armor stone: (required mass of an armor stone) P = permeabilty coefficient ofthe inner layer (see Figure 6.3.2) S + deformation evel (S=A/D.se) (see Table 5.3.1) A + erosion area of cross section (see Figure 53.3) number of waves (is storm duration) ‘The wave height /i,a0in Figure 5.3.1 is for a point at a distance Sys from the breakwater, and Ho' fs the equivalent deepwater wave height. ‘The deformation evel Sis an index that represents the amount of deformation of the armor stones, and itis kind of damage rato, It is defined as the result of the area 4 eroded by waves (soo Figure 5.3.3) being divided by the equare of the nominal diameter D.soof the armor stones, As shown in Table 5.3.1, three stages are defined with regard to the deformation level of the armor stones: intial damage, intermediate damage, and faliure. With the standard design, i is commen to use the deformation level for intial damage for N=1000 waves, However, with design where @ cettain amount of deformation is permitted, usage of the value for intermediate damage can also be envisaged Table 5.3.4 Deformation Level § for Each Failure Stage for a Two-Layered Armor Stope | samage_|\“aamege’| Faure TS 2 | 3-5 | 8 2 4-6 3 2 6-9 2 3 Ear 7 3 Ba 12 7 [5.3.1.7 Stability Number for Armor Concrote Units of Rubble Mound Breakwator ff \Van der Meer has carried out model experiments on several kinds of precast t conerete blocks, and proposed the formulas for calculating the stabilty number Ns. In addon, other investigators such as done by Burchath and Liu are conducting research to establish formula, However, i should be noted that these are based on the results of experiments for a rubble mound breakwater i with a high crown. ‘Stability Number of Concrete Units ‘of the Wave-Dissipating Block Mound in Front of Upright Walls (horizontally-composite breakwater) The wave-dissipating concrete block mound of a horizontally.composite breakwater may have various cross-sectional forms. In particular, when all the front face Is covered by wave-cissipating concrete biocks, the stabiity is higher than for the normal case of armor concrete units covering a rubble mound breakwater because the permeability is high. Takahashi et al. have proposed the following equation for wave-dissipating concrete blocks that are randomly placed in the mound covering the whole of upright wall f Figure 5.3.1 Ratio of Hiato Mia (Higa Values are at a Distance SHi2 from the Breakwater)Figure 5.3.2 Permeability Coefficiont P Figure 6.3.3 Erosion Area A /A_(sees of rep 5} (63.7) relative damage (a kind of damage ratio that represents the extent of damage: it is defined as the number of concrete biocks that have moved within a width Dyin the diction of the breakwater alignment, where Dy is the nominal diameter of the concrete blocks: Dy= (M/p,)!2, where M's the mass of a concrete block) ‘modification factor due to wave breaking: Giy= 1.4 (Hiyz0/ His Vin the region where wave breaking does not occur, Hav / His™ 1.4, and 50 Gi= 1.0) Coefficients that depend on the shape of the concrete blocks and the slope angle (for concrete blocks with the Xo value of 8.3, 22.32 and b=1.93, f cot a=4/3; a=2.32 and b=1.42, If cot a=1.5)— Takahashi et al. have further presented a method for calculating th ‘cumulative relative damage (the expected relative damage) over the ifetin Of breakwater. In the future, reliability design methods that consider th expected relative damage will become important in the advanced desig ‘methodology. In the region where breaking does not occur, if the number of waves is 100 fand the relative damage Ny = 0.3, the design mass as calculated usin ‘Takahashi et al. is more or ess the same as that calculated using Ko value | the past. The value of Np = 0.3 corresponds to the conventionally-use damage ratio of 1% 53.4.9 Breakwater Head Waves attack the head of a breakwater from a whole angle of directions, am there is a greater risk ofthe armor units on the top of the slope falling not : ‘much forward but rather toward the rear side. Stones or concrete blocks tobe Used at the head of a breakwater must thus have a mass greater then the value given by Equation (6.3.1). Hudson suggested to raise the mass by 10 in the case of stones and 30% in the case of concrete blocks. However, tk thought to be insufficient It would be desirable to use the mass at least 14 times the value given by Equation (5.3.1) for both stones and concrete blocks. 5.3.1.10 Submerged Armor Units Since the action of waves on a rubble mound breakwater is weaker midwate) than around the waterline, stones or concrete blocks of reduced mass may be sed at depths more than 1.5/4, below the still water level 5.3.1.11. Effect of Wave Direction ‘The extent to which the incident wave angle affects the stability If the armor stones has not been investigated sufficiently, Nevertheless, according to the results of experiments carried out by van de Kreske in which the wave angk was changed between 0° (ie., direction of incidence is perpendicular to th breakwater alignment), 30°, 45°, 60" and 90", the damage ratio for a wa direction of 45° or smaller is more oF less the same as that when the wa direction is 0°; when the wave direction Is more than 60°, the damage rat ‘drops. Based on these results, it is considered that when the wave angle (see 6:2.2(1) - Wave Force under Wave Crest) is 45° or less, the minim ‘mass should not be corrected for wave direction. Moreover, Christensen etthe fn 300 ing ved and be 0% tis 15 ete der be have shown that the stablity increases when the directional spreading of random waves is large. has a mass sufficient to be stable against the design waves, but also to ‘confirm that the block itself has sufficiont structural strength, ‘Armor Unite in Roof Area in general, a reef rises up at a steep slope from the relatively deep sea, and "forms a relatively flat and shallow sea bottom, Consequently, when a large wave arrives at such a reef, t breaks around the tip of the reef, and then the regenerated waves propagate over the reef in the form of surge, The characteristics of waves over a reef are strongly dependent on not only the Incident wave conditions but also the water depth over the reef and the distance from the tip of the reef. The stablity of wave-dssipating concrete blocks situated on a reef also varies greatly for the same reasons, making the situation more complicated than that in general cases. The stablity of wave: dissipating concrete blocks situated on a reef must thus be investigated based either on model experiments matching the concitions in question or on field ‘experiences for sites having similar conditions, ‘Armor Units of Low Crest Breakwater For a rubble mound breakwater with @ low crown, tis necessary to note that the concrete blocks around its crown (in particular on the shoreward side) are easily damaged. For example, for detached breakwater composed of wave- dissipating concrete blocks, unlike a calsson breakwater covered with wave- dissipating concrete blocks, there is no supporting wall atthe back and the ‘crown is not high. This means that the concrete blocks near the crown (in particular at the rear) are easily damaged, and indeed euch cases of block damage have been reported, Effect of Steep Slope Bed When the bottom slope is steep and waves break in plunging form, @ large Wave force may act on concrete blocks, subject to thelr shapes. itis thus Necessary to cary out appropriate investigations while considering the possibilty of large wave force (see Takeda et a.)i) 53.116 S3AAT 534.18 High-density Blocks ‘The minimum mass of blocks that are made of high-density aggregate may also be determined using the Hudson formula with the stabilty number (see Equation (6.2.1). As shown by the equation, high density blocks have a high stabily, so a stable armor layer can be made using relatively small blocks of high density. Effect of Placement The stabilty of wave-dissipating concrete blocks also varies with the method of placement (random placement or regular placement etc). According to the results of experiments carried out to compare the random placement over the Whole cross section and that of regular two-layer placement upon a stone ‘core, the stabilty ofthe regular placement with wel-interiocking was markedly improved for most ofthe tested cases. Moreover, the stabil is also affected by the crown height and width of the mound of wave-dissipating concrete blocks. According fo the results of a number of experiments, for example, there is a tendency of greater stably when the crown is high and wide. ‘Standard Method of Hydraulic Model Experiments ‘The stabilty of concrete block is influenced by a very large number of factors, and 60 It has still not been sufficiently elucidated. This means that It Is necessary to carry out studies using model experiments for the design of prototype breakwaters, and it is needed to progressively accumulate the results of such experiments. The following points should be noted when ccamying out studies using model experiments. (@) Itie standard to cary out experiments using iregular waves. (©) For each particular set of conditions, the experiment should be repeated at least tree times (\e., with three diferent wave trains). However, when experiments are carried out by systematically varying the mass and other factors and a large amount of deta can be acquired, one run for each test condition wil surfce. (c) tis standard to study the action of 1000 waves in total of three runs for each wave height level. Even for the systematic experiments, it is desirable to apply more than 500 waves or so.= (@) For the description of the extent of damage, in adsition to the damage ratio which has been commonly used the past, the deformation level or ay the degree of damage may also be used. The deformation level is ee suitable when it is dificult to count the number of armor stones or gh concrete blocks that have moved, while the degree of damage is suitable of | ‘when one wishes to represent the damage to wave-diesipating concrete blocks. The damage ratio is the rato of the number of damaged armor tunits in an inspection area to the total number of armor units in the same Inspection area. The inspection area is taken from the elevation of wave z runup to the depth of 1.54 below the stil water level or to the bottom is elevation of the armor layer (take a shallower depth), where the wave I height 7's inversely derived from the Hudson formula with the mass of ‘ armor units as the input. However, for the deformation level and the ¥ degree of damage, there Is no need to define the inspection area, For By ‘evaluating the damage ratio, an armor unit is judged to be damage if & ray hhas moved over a distance of more than about 1 to 1.0 tes its height. ‘Armor Units on Foundation Mound of Composite Breakwater The required mass for an armor unit covering the foundation mound of @ Composite breakwater varies according to the wave characteristic, the water depth, the shape of the mound (thickness, berm width, slope angle, ete), and the type of armor unit, its placement method, and its position (breakwater hhead, breakwater trunk, etc). In particular, the effecis of the wave characteristics and the mound shape are more pronounced than those in the cease of the armor units covering the surface of sloped breakwater in 6.3.4 = Armor Units on Slope. It's necessary to appropriately determine the mass, Considering the results of past studies, research, and actual experience in the field, and carrying out mode! experiments if necessary. Moreover, it is necessary to take sufficient heed of the effects of wave irregularity. It shall be cy standard to calculate the mass of armor stones or concrete blocks for the ” {foundation mound of a composite breakwater by means of appropriate * hydraulic model experiments or the following equation: st Mato (6.3.1) * mS, -) iWhere: ‘44 + minimum mass ofubble stones or concrste blocks () + density of rubble stones or concrete blocks (tin) 41 + wave height used inthe staity calculation (n) Ns 2 stability number ‘S¢ specific gravity of rubble stones or conerete blocks ‘lative to sea water (1) Generalized Hudson's Formula for Caleulating the Required Mass Srnilarty with the stable mass of armor units on a slope, the require {mass of armor units covering the foundation mound of a compost preakwater can be calculated using the generalized Hudson formula (tm Hudson formula with the stabiity number), Le, Equation (6.3.1), Eve Since Brebner and Donnelly used it as the basic equation for calouatin {he required mass ofthe amor stones ofthe rubble mound for an uprigh Wall Ue generalized Hudson formula has been used Widely, and in Japor Kis also known as the Brebner-Donnelly formula, Because is hae certain degree of validity even from a theoretical standpoint the Generalized Hudson formula may also be used as the basic formula for calculating the minimum mass of armor units forthe breakwater mound, Note however thatthe stability number As varies not only with the water Gepth, the wave characteristics, the shape of the mound, and the characteristics of the armor units, but also with their position of the Placement (breakwater trunk, breakwater head ete). itis thus necessary {© assign the stabiliy umber Ws. appropriately though the model ‘experiments corresponding to the design condltions. Moreover, the wave height used in the design calculation is generally the signiant wave height, and the waves used inthe model experiments shouldbe inreguiar, 2) Stability Number of Armor Stones ‘The stably number Nz can be determined using the method of inagaki and Katayama, which is based upon the work of Brebner and Donnelly ‘and past experience of damage. However, the folowing formulss by Tanimoto et al. are based on the flow velocity near the mound and allon the Incorporation of a varity of conditions, and they have been extonded by Takahashi, Kimura, and Tanimoto to include the effects of wave direction. The extended Tanimoto formulas have thus been made the standard formulas,aki ally a. Extended Tanimoto formulas enenfis ZG saen[ sg areas (28) le 39) so Aa (63.10) Sen) (K)y = maxfagsin? Bos 2xtcosB/L'),c0s" Psin*(2ateosp/1)} (6.3.41) Where: 75 4 water depth on top of rubble mound foundation (excluding the armor layer)(m)(see Figure 5.3.4) Inthe case of normal wave incidence, the berm wicth Bde) In this case of oblique wave incidence, either Byor 8 whichever gives the larger value of (X2)s (see Figure 6.3.4) ‘wavelength corresponding to the design significant wave Period at the water depth “(m) ‘cortection factor for when the armor layer is. horizontal (045) incident wave angle (see Figure 6.3.8) design significant wave height (m) ‘The validity of above formulas have been verified forthe breakwater trunk for oblique wave incidence with a angle of incidence of up to aaa Figure 5.3.4 Standard Cross Section of a Composite Breakwater and Notationsnl b. Stabilty Number When a Certain Amount of Damage is Permitted ‘Sudo et al. have carried out stabilty experiments for the special case such that the mound is low and no wave breaking occurs, They investigated the relationship between the number of waves Vand the damage ratio, and proposed the following equation that gives the stabilty number N¢ for any given number of waves Wand any given damage ratio DM%) Ny" = WlDy fexp(0.301-S00/))]"* (6.3.12) Where Nsis the stability number given by the Tanimoto formula when |= 500 and the damage ratio is 1%. In design its necessary to take N= 1000 considering the progress of damage, while the damage ratio 3% to 5% can be allowed for a 2-layer armoring. IfV= 1000 and Dy = 5%, then Nj* = 1.44 Ws. This means that the required mass decreases to about 1/3 of that required for = 600 and Dy= 1%, (3) Stability Number for Concrete Units ) ‘The stability number Nsfor concrete blocks varies according to the shape of the block and the method of placement. Its thus desirable to evaluate the stabllty number by means of hydraulic model experiments, itis best to employ iregular waves. Conditions for Applying the Stabilly Number for Armor Stones on Foundation Mound When the water above the armor units covering @ mound is shallow, wave breaking offen causes the armor stones to become unstable. It is thus ‘appropriate to use the stability number for armor stones on a mound only when 11/HysLwhen 4//Ho«, itis better to use the stabilty number for armor stones on a slope of mound breakwater. The validity of the stability number for armor stones in the Tanimoto formulas has not been verified ‘experimentally for when 4/Hs is small: when 4//Hs about 1 or less, it is thus desirable to examine the validly using hydraulic model experiments.he | he 12) ke oe nd see y weg it el Figuro 5.3.5, ‘Shape of the Breakwator Alignment and Effects of Wave Direction ‘Armor Layer Thickness Itis standard to use two layers of armor stones, However, it is acceptable to use only one layer, provided that consideration is given to past experiences of breakwaters. In this case, one could think of ‘compensating the use of one layer only by eeting the damage ratio in the aforementioned Equation (6.9.12) to a low value of Dy = 1% for N= 1000 acting waves. For concrete armor blocks, it is rather standard to use one layer, although two layers may be laid if the shape of the blocks is favorable for two layer placement and the design wave conditions are ‘Armor Units for Breakwater Head At the head of a breakwater, strong currents occur locally near the ‘corners at the edge of the upright section, meaning that the armor units become fable to move. It is thus necessary to verify the extent to which the mass of armor units should be increased at the breakwater head by ‘carrying out hydraulic model experiments. If hydraulic model experiments are not carried out, itis standard to increase the mass to at least 1.5, times that atthe breakwater trunk,0 = — AA ‘The mass of the armor stones at the breakwater head can also be calculated using the extended Tanimoto formula. Speciticaly, for the breakwater head, the flow velocily parameter X in Equation (5.3.9) should be rewriten as follows: KK (63.13) (K)r=022 (6.3.14) If the calculated mass turns out to be less than 1.5 times that for the breakwater trunk, it is advisable to set it to 1.5 tmes that for the breakwater trunk. 5.4 WAVE FORCES ACTING ON CYLINDRICAL MEMBERS AND LARGE ISOLATED STRUCTURES ‘5.41 Wave Force on Cylindrical Members ‘Structural members such as plies that have a small diameter relative to the wavelength hardly disturb the propagation of waves, The wave force acting on such members can be obtained using the Morison equation, in. which the: wave force Is expressed as the sum of a drag force that is proportional to the square of the velocity of the water particles and an inertia force that is proportional to the acceleration. Note however that with the Morison equation, itis necessary to assign accurate values to the water particle velocity and ‘acceleration of the waves, as well as fo the wave surface elevation. It is also necessary to appropriately evaluate the dag coefficient and the inertia coeficient by means of model experiments or field measurement results. It should further be noted that the Impact of the wave front may generate an impulsive force if the member is located near to the stil water level or if breaking waves hit the member, and that a lift force may act upon it, depending on the shape and position ofthe member. (1) Morison's Equation “The wave force acting on a structural member is calculated based on the following equation: CopaliiliigDAS + Copy &y ARS 641) 100° } @ force that acts on a small length AS (m) in the axial direction of the member , where the direction ofthis force lies in the plane containing the member axis and the direction of motion of the water parties and is erpendicuiar to the member axis (KN) Jx®q components of the water particle velocity (mis) and acceleration (m/s’), respectively, in the direction perpendicular to the member axis that lies within the plane containing the member ax’s and the direction of motion of the water partcies (ie, the same direction as 7,)(these components are for incident waves that are not disturbed by the presence of member) lig] + absolute value off, (m/s) Gy: drag coefficient Gv + inertia cosffcient D+ width of the member in the direction perpencicular to the member axis 2s viewed from the direction of (mm) A: cross-sectional area. of the member in the direction perpendicular to the member xis (m Po + density of seawater (normally 1.03 tim’) Equation (5.4.1) is a generalized from the equation presented by Morison etal, to give the wave force acting on a section of a very emall length aS ‘of @ member otiented in any given direction. The arrows on top of symbols indicate that the force, velocity and acceleration are the ‘Components in the ditection perpendicular to the member. The fist term (on the right-hand side represents the drag force, while the second term represents the inertia force. The water particle velocity and acceleration components in the equation both vary in tee and space. I s necessary to take sufficient need of these variations, and to investigate the clstrbution of the wave force that is severest to the member or structure in question ‘Water Particle Velocity and Acceleration Components ‘The components of water particle velocity and acceleration ji, and &, in Equation (6.4.1) represents those of the water particle motion at the center of the member. These components are in the direction perpendicular to the member axis, and are evaluated under assumption that waves are not disturbed by the presence of the structure in question,ee et See ® | When caleuiating the wave force, it ig necessary to estimate thy oF theoretical prosat®* Poste, based on eter enperirenal e or neonatal Prediction. Ia pause we particle velo ta aren tr Rte to the wate fore wth te sosend Power, mean shat when the wave height is large, wn ‘approximation using sn Sree Wave theory becomes insuficlat Yield reliable estime worsen, wen the member extends ators the nec water level, i necessary {0 Give sucient consideraten te te range over which 1 Wine force a8 i. the elevation of mane Geet Wane evaluating the weave theey tan 2 values, tis deshable to use re tone ampiits pando tas 28'S Vth the charectoneies ef ne design wave arian ncaa, Fundamental Properion of Wavea ie necessary recs O12 resus th regard to the wave height a aeretianaae ate 80 force caluutes ana te study the wa Set achat Sr severet tothe eon ch non pn sbucture Heee chouls eet He highest wave height are ie signiticant war Period shoul be Used inthe analysis fort chon ire Drag Coeficient caer ie 0 cn Steady flow can be used as the dre the member es 8. Tho dog coeticant vac i a shape Separation deen ™@°® ghee, the Reynolds somes tear Kealogan Cans 82 nighring menor Klee eee ona Keulegan Carpenter number (KG umber) because the flow is =88ary to consider these conditions whe tandurd ton 8 Cetin Fra cesar enna member, ti fay ovabates git hte amp pester ot he ee ey gieketes Foran unmanned sincure aoe ee may be used ceatene reat rots of model onvervente renee een (aon eatnatng 8 €88, however, cy shoad rot be set hoon cation fet. water patce velocty by moore onan, approxin: ; ‘© @ value forthe drag coefiient that ha “*sesimaton erorin the water particle veloty.Inertia Coefficient ‘The calculated value by the small amplitude wave theory may be used for the inertia coefficient Gy. The inertia coefficient varies with the shape of the member and other factors such as the Reynolds number, the KC number, the surface roughness, and the separation distance between neighboring members. Its thus necessary to set the value of the inertia. coefficient appropriately In line with the given conditions. For a circular cylindrical member, Cx = 2.0 may be used as a standard value, provided the diameter of the member is no more than 1/10 ofthe wavelength, in Foree In addition tothe drag and inertia forces of Equation (6.4.1), the lit force facts on an underwater member in the direction perpendicular tothe plane containing the member axis and the direction of the water particle motion. In general, itis acceptable to ignore this lit force, but itis necessary to ‘take heed of the fact that the lift foros may become a problem for horizontal members that are placed near to the seabed. Moreover, for Jong and thin members, itis necessary to take heed ofthe fact thatthe lt {orcs may induce vibrations, Standard Value for Drag Coefficient ‘When the water particle velocity can be calculated accurately, the value ‘of drag coefficient for steady flow such as those lsted in Chapter 7, 7.2 = Current Forces Acting on Submerged Members and Structures may be used. ‘Standard Value for Inertia Coefficient ‘When the diameter of the object in question is no more than 1/10 of the ‘wavelength, it is standard to use the value listed in Table 8.4.1 for the inertia cootfcient Gz. However, when estimating the water particle ‘acceleration by means of an approximated equation, it is necessary to adjust the value of Gy for the error in the estimate of water particle acceleration. The value of inertia coefficient shown here is mostly from the study by Stelson and Mavis. According to the experiments of Hamada ‘and et al, the Inertia coefficient for a cube under waves isin the range of 141023 o om oo omTable 5.4.1 Inertia Costficient Shape Reference volume | Inia coefficient ee eee ee ee i — i Smagined ___ [ff] | pe 219) i ae Ie joe ETE» | ve t bed wm —Ol] ¥ | 5 ' m= E]E | () Experimental Values for Drag Coefficient and Inertia of Cireular Gylinder ‘There are many experimental values for the drag coefficient and inertia. coefficient of a vertical citular cylinder; for example, those of Keulagan and Carpenter, Sarpkaya, Goda, Yamaguchi, Nakamura, Chakrabarti i and Koderayama and Tashiro. There are much variations between these values. However, there Is not sufficient data in the region of high Reynolds number, which is experienced in actual design. Goda has produced a summary of these researches which may be referred to, 6.4.2 Wave Force on Large Isolated Structure ( The wave force acting on a large isolated structure whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength can be caiculated using the velocity potential, because it fs generally possible to ignore the drag foree. In particular, for : structures of @ simple shape, analycal soluions obtained by means o! diffraction theory are availabe. However, it is necessary to calculate the i breaking wave force by means of hydraulic model experiments if there is @ i possibiiy of breaking wave force exerted on structure.(1) Diffraction Theory MacCamy and Fuchs have determined the velocity potential of waves ‘around an upright circular cylinder of large diameter using diffraction theory, and calculated the wave force from the water pressure distribution, at the surface of cylinder. Goda and Yoshimura have applied diffraction ‘theory to an upright eliptic cylinder, and presented their results in terms. of the inertia coefficient Cx Yamaguchi has investigated the effect of the ‘wave nonlinearity on the wave force acting on an upright circular cylinder of large diameter by means of nonlinear diffraction theory, and pointed ‘out that It Is necessary to consider these effects when the water is shallow, @ Isolated Structure of Arbitrary Shape For a structure that is complex in shape, itis dificult to obtain the wave force anaivicaly, and so it is necessary to cary out a numerical calculation. Variation methods are available, euch as integral equation ‘methods, WAVE FORCE ACTING ON STRUCTURE LOCATED NEAR THE STILL WATER LEVEL, Uplift Acting on Horizontal Plate near the Stil Wator Level For a horizontal plate located near the stil water level, an impact wave force ‘may act on the bottom face of the plate (his wave force is hereafter referred to as the pif), depending on the wave conditions and the structural form of the plate. When there exists such a risk, the impulsive uplit shall be evaluated by means of an appropriate method including hydraulic model ‘experiments etc. (1) Characteritis of Impulsive Uplift If the bottom face of the plate Is flat, the Impulsive uplift acting on a horizontal plate near the still water level varies with the impact (uprising) velocity of the wave surface and the angle between the wave surface and the plate. As shown in Figure 5.51 (a), when there is an angle between the wave surface and the plate, the wave surface runs along the bottom face of the plate and the wave pressure distribution becomes as shown—_—_ there. ‘The distinct feature of the wave pressure in this case Is ts rap tise in ime. On the other hand, when the angle between the wave fre and the plate is close to 0° as shown in Figure 8.5.4 (b), a layer of air ‘rapped between the wave surface and the plate, and compression of th layer of air results in the almost uniform wave pressure distibition. 7} distinct feature of the wave pressure in this case is its oscilation in ti, With having a short period and damping, Figure 5.5.1 Impact between Wave Front and Horizontal Plate er co L In case of a pier with a deck plate supported by horizontal beams, Wave surface is disturbed by the beams, and the uplit becomes 1 Complex nature. With beams, a layer of trapped air is often formed and this layer of air is compressed by the uprising wave surface. tt is thu ‘necessary to give consideration to the change in the uplit with respect the shape of the bottom face of the horizontal plat. The shape of the impacting wave surface varies greatly according to te ‘condition whether the wave is progressive or standing in nature. Wi} standing waves, the shape of the impacting wave front varies witht distance between the position of wave reflection and the horizontal plate Itis thus necessary to consider such diferences} Uplit Acting on Horizontal Plate with Fiat Bottom Face (with standing 5 aves) arising from the sudden change in the upward momentum of wave surface by its colision with the plate. Using von Karman's theory, he " ‘oblained the folowing formulas for calculating the uplift from standing waves acting on a horizontal plate. (65.4) (652) P+ total uplift (kN) {5 correction factor po density of seawater (1.03 tm*) gravitational acceleration (9.61 mis?) wave height of progressive waves (m) (generally the highest wave height Hau) wavelength of progressive waves (rm) cedtension width of plate perpendicular to wave incidence (m) water depth (m) clearance ofthe plate above the stil water level m) "clearance of the plate above the level corresponding tothe rmiddie of the wave crest and trough (m) we Se the + of and hus It should be noted thatthe uplift n the above equations does not depend to (on the length of the horizontal plate ‘The impact force has the magnitude given by the above equations and the é ‘takes the form of a pulse that lasts fora time < from the moment of the vith : Impact, that ie given as follows: (65.3) [‘where 7's the wave period and ¢ is the length of the horizontal play, Provided the length of the horizontal plate is sufcienty small compared with the wavelength Z and the bottom face of the horizontal plate is fe, Equation (6.6.1) wel represents the features ofthe uplift well (despite the fact that the equation is simple). Comparing calculated values’ with z= 1.0 to experimental values, agreement is relatively good provided H/s' ‘no more than 2. (@) Uplift Acting on Open-type Whar (with standing waves) ‘The peak value of the uplift varied considerably from wave to wave wih r the mean of these peak values is given approximately by the following [ uation f P= pug( 8 ~458) (54 1 where: : P+ mean poak value of the intensity of uti kN) 0 Po: denaly of seawater (1.03 tin’) 3: gravitational acceleration (2.81 mis!) 4 1 incident wave belght (Hox) u s Distance from the water level to the underside of access bridge (m) ‘The peak value ofthe intensiy ofthe uplift given by Equation (6.5.4) acs only for an extremely short time, and that the phase ofthis uplift varies {rom place to place. Weis ee 108therhindcasted values of astronomical tides and meteorological tides, along jth abnormal water lavels caused by tsunamis and others, However, for port 16 harbor facilities on lakes or rivers for which the effects of tides are not Barge, the water level shall be determined appropriately based on the water evel records or the tke. )BEFINTIONS AND TERMINOLOGY F Astronomical tide is the periodic rise and fall of sea level in response to the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon as modified by the earth's ‘Station. The essential parameters to characterize the tide are: a. Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the average of the sea water surface for al stages ofthe tide over 2 19-year period . Mean Low Water (MLW) is the average height of the lower water over a ‘19-year period. ‘& Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) is the average height of the lower low waters over a 19-year period 4, Mean High Water (MHW) is the average height ofthe high waters over a ‘9-year period €. Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) is the average height ofthe higher high ‘water over a 19-year period. Storm Surge is abnormal rise of the sea level that occurs when a typhoon passes by. This rise above normal level on this open coast is due to ‘atmosphere pressure reduction as well as that due to wind stress. Tsunamis are wave with an extremely long period that mainly occur when there is a sudden large scale sea floor movements usually associated severe, shallow focus earthquake, Seiche is @ phenomenon involving abnormal oscilations of the water level with a period of approximately a few minutes to @ few tens of minutes. It ‘occurs when smal fluctuations of the water level are generated by micro scale variations of the atmospheric pressure by an air front or a low pressureca {) t 63 64 in the outer sea, and the components of those oscillations whose perlod isthe same a 2 natural period of the harbor are amplified through resonance, Depending on the topography, the amplitude of these of these fluctuations ‘may be anything from a few tens of centimeters lip to around 2 meters, ASTRONOMICAL TIDE ‘The construction of structures requires the establishment of some virtua reference plane, it is most important that the chart and survey datum are rolated, to the changes in water level as per definiton in 6.2 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY. Such parametere shall be determined from the tide records over a period about 19 years or at least one year. Tide can be predicted along coastal areas if records or tidal harmonic constituents are known at given location using harmonic method or numerical simulation, ‘STORM SURGE ‘The phenomenon of storm surge is analyzed using numerical computations. With this method the size of sea surface caused by a depression in ‘atmospheric pressure along with the tangential sess at the sea surface due {o the wind and tangential strese at the sea botiom due to viscosity are given a external forces. The storm surge can be estimated using the following conditions: 1) Wind Setup When a strong wind continues to blow for a prolonged tine in a shallow bay, seawater is dragged by the wind, if the wind Is onshore, seawaler ‘accumulates in the littoral zone, resulting in a rise in the sea level. If the angle between the wind direction and the line perpendicular to the shoreline is a, the sea level rise 72 (em) at the shoreline is given by the following equation: F, 2 FE veesay (eat)F + fetch length (ken) U + constant wind velocity (ale) 2: mean water depth (m) The term k is @ coefficient that varies depending on the bay characteristics. Colding has obtained a value of k= 4.8 x 10 from the observation data in the Baltic Sea. 2) Stalic water level rise caused by depression in the atmospheric IF the atmospheric pressure drops slowly by AP (hPa), the water lovel in the sea area where the atmospheric pressure has dropped rises relative to the surrounding areas where the atmospheric pressure has not dropped, because of the pressure difference. The rise in water level ¢ (em) Is given by the folowing equation: t=099.4P (6.4.2) Where: ‘AP = pressure diference (hPa) 5 =rlse in water lovel (em) 3) Simplified estimation of storm surge Equation (6.4.3) may be used to estimate the maximum amount of storm tide. This equation incorporates. the factors suction caused by a ‘depression inthe atmospheric pressure and wind setup, tor 1, =@(\010- P)+bU" cosd+e (6.4.3) where: maximum amount of storm tide (em) lowest atmospheric pressure (nPa) maximum wind velocity (rvs) angle between the predominant wind direction that causes the highest storm tide and the wind direction at the time of ‘maximum wind speed UC) eate ;65 ‘The coefficient 2, b and c ara determined by the relationship between the storm fide, the atmospheric pressure, and the wind data that have boce ‘observed at the place in question 4) Design Water Level forthe Facies for Protection against Storm Surge ‘The following four methods exist for determining the design water level for storm surge protection facilities. Use the highest water level observed in the past, or else this plus a litle extra allowance, Use the elevation above the mean-monthy highest water level by the ‘amount of either the highest storm tide observed in the past or the storm tide predicted for a model typhoon, © Obtain the occurrence probability curve for past storm surge levels, and then use the water level that is expected fo be exceeded only once | within a certain retum period (say 50 years or 100 years) (this water level is obtained by extrapolating the probability curve), 9 Determining the design water level based on economic factors, Considering the occurrence probability of various storm surge levels, {and the damage to the hinteriand for each water level, along with the ‘ost of constructing storm surge protection facies 5) The rise in mean water level due to waves can be estimated using Figures 48.1 & 4.8.2, Chapter 4, 4.8.1 - Wave Setup, Near to the shoreline, this rise is 10% or mote of the deepwater significant wave height, and thus it cannot be ignored when waves are high, TSUNAMI 4s a tsunami approaches the coast, the wave height rises rapidly owing to the ‘healing and the concentration effect of the sea bottom topography, meaning {hat tsunami often causes a result of overflowing a tsunami barrier, but also {he possibilities of losing smell vessels that have been moored in a harbor but ate carried away by strong currents of tsunami, scouring of seated at the penings of breakwaters, and siding or overtuning of breakwaters,wave height of a tsunami in the outer sea is generally extremely small, it can nevertheless be detected by means of continuous observations ided by a wave gauge out at sea. AS tsunami enters a bay, the wave Sight greally Increases, Since the increase in wave height depends on the Numerical simulations of tsunamis correspond to the case where the F rneteorological disturbance term (which represents a forcing extemal force) ie Jemoved from the numerical computation scheme for storm surge. The Incident wave profile is assigned in advance, or itis essumed that the inital ‘variation in the water level is equal tothe displacement of the sea flor in the E earthquake fault model. The simulation makes it possible to investigate the ffectiveness of breakwaters designed to protect harbors and coastal zones {against tsunamis and the effect of topographic changes (land reclamation etc.) on a tsunan In tsunami simulations that use hydraulic model experiments, a tsunami wave profile that has previously been reproduced by a numerical simulation is ‘enerated at the model boundary to investigate the effectiveness of breakwaters and the effect ofthe topography of reclaimed land. ‘The method of Iwasaki and Mano may be used to obtain the run-up height ‘over the land in @ numerical computation of tsunami. When the water level exceeds. the crown. elevation of a breakwater or levee in the calculation region, the quantity of overtopping per unit width may be calculated using Hom-ma's formula ‘When estimating the effectiveness of tsunami mitigation facili, the loss in {tsunami momentum is an important factor. With regard to the momentum loss that is proportional to the mean flow velocity, consideration is given to friction ‘along the sea bottom, which may be evaluated using say Manning's roughness formula, and the aperture loss, which takes place when there is a sudden constriction or widening of the cross section at the opening between breakwaters oo6s SEICHE Seiche is particularly lable to occur in an arfcally excavated harbor, which is long and narrow in shape and surrounded by quaywalls. Its thus desirable investigate the effects of seiche when drawing up a harbor plan. This can be done using say a numerical calculation, whereby incident waves with the period from a few minutes up to around one hour are inputted, and then the amplification factor for these waves in the harbor is calculated. Small long waves in the outer sea may have an amplitude of the order of a few centimeters. itis desirable to avold such the shape of a harbor that the amplitude of long waves may be amplified by ten times or more within the harbor. (1) Natural Periods “The natural periods of @ bay that has a long, narrow rectangular shape ae shown in Figure 6.6.4 (a) are given approximately asin the folowing equation: 4 Guan ler (6A) Figure 6.6.4 Bay Shape Models = : A dora 1 rn 4 @ ® T + natural period (s) 2+ length of bay (m) zm: number of nodes inthe bay (01, b & mean water depth in the bay (m) ‘gravitational acceleration (mis)E in an actual bay, not only does the seawater within the bay oscillate In a periodic fashion, but the water of the open sea around the bay entrance * Glso oseilate somewhat, It is thus necessary to make a correction to the natural periad with Equation (6.6.2) of the following cae (692) Where: mean water depth in the bay (m) @ ay entrance correction factor, as obtained ftom the following equation why? =e (683) 9228 ina) (6.6.3) Winere: £5 length of bay (m) width of bay (m) My Table 6.6.1 Liste the values of the bay entrance correction factor a calculate for diferent values of b/2 Table 6.6.1 Bay Entrance Correction Factor welt | @_| 1.320 | 1.261 we | % | ws | 10 | 128 1247 | 4487 | 4.163 | 1.108 | 1.064 | ‘The natural periods of a rectangular harbor that has a narrow entrance as shown in Figure 6.6.1 (6) may be calculated approximately with the following equation: (664)Where: 5 + width of harbor (m} mm: number of nodes in the harbor in the length diction (0.1.2...) 7 number of nodes in the harbor in the width direction (0.12...) Solche is the phenomenon whereby long-period waves penetrates into a harbor from the entrance, repeats perfect reflection within the harbor, and increases its amplitude. in order to hold down the ampitude of seiche, i Is thus necessary to make the reflection imperfect around the inner perimeter of the harbor, or increase the energy loss within the harbor, For this reason, it is not advisable to build solid quaywalls around the whole perimeter of a harbor. if a permeable rubble-mound breakwater with a gentle slope Is used, wave reflection can be reduced to some extent, and Im adaition one can expect a certain energy loss within the core of breakwater. Furthermore, by installing an inner breakwater close to the Position of @ node of the seiche in a harbor, the amplitude of the soiche can be somewhat reduced. Regarding the shape of the harbor, it is ‘thought that an iregular shape is better than a geometrically regular shape,For the structures that are located in a place where there is strong current P’kich as a tidal currents or river flow, its necessary to carry out investigations r'8n the forces produced by the currents with the largest velocity from the most favorable direction. Depending on the type of structures or mombore, it ay also be necessary to consider the vertical distribution of the current @ velocity. When waves coexist with currents, it is necessary to use the current Joelty and direction in the state of coexistence, Types of currents in the sea ‘area Include ocean currents, tidal currents, and wind drift currents, which are ‘described belove: © (1) Ocean Currents ‘Ocean currents are the phenomenon invohing the circulation of seawater ‘round the ocean as a whole. They are the result of combination of the {following currents: a) density currents that are based on local dferences in the density of seawater, b) wind-driven drift currents that are caused by the wind, and c) gradient currents that accompany spatial Inequalities in the atmospheric pressure, along with d) compensation currents (upweling ‘currents and or sinking currents) that supplement the aforementioned currents. Ocean currents maintain the almost steady direction and strength over prolonged periods of time. (2) Tidai Currents ‘The nature and strength of tidal currents. vary with the, gecgraphical conditions of the sea area in question and the celestial movements. In order to analyze the harmonic components of tidal currents, it is necessary to carry out continuous observation for at least 25 hours or advisably for ful 15 days. In particular, if the topography of place is going to be changed considerably, for example when carrying out large-scale land reclamation in shallow coastal waters, itis desirable to examine the resultant changes in tidal currents atthe planning stage. ‘The tidal currents are the flow of seawater in the horizontal direction that ‘accompanies a tidal variation’of sea level, This variation consists of the tidal components (diurnal tide, semi-diurnal tide, etc) of the water level and is thus periodic. rfa 72 (8) Wind-Driven Currents When a wind blows over the sea surface, the fiction on the boundary between the air and the sea surface produces a shear stress that causes to induce a flow on the sea surface. As this flow develops, the turbulent eddy viscosity of the seawater causes the lower layers to start to be pulled along by the upper layers. Ifthe wind velocity and direction remain, constant for @ prolonged period of time, a steady state of currents is ‘eventually reached. Such the currents are referred to as the wind-driven currents, 4 Near shore Currents In the surf zone, there exist special currents called the near shore currents induced by waves. Because the near shore currents are induced within the surf zone, they transport suspended sediments and cause topographical change of beaches. Consequently, an understanding of the pattem of near shore currents leads to a deeper perception of topographical change, CURRENT FORCES ACTING ON SUBMERGED MEMBERS AND ‘STRUCTURES, It shall be standard to calculate the drag and lit forces caused by currents ‘acting on a member or a structure that is submerged or near the water surface using the folowing equations: (01g Fece foe bear as where: Fo drag force acting on the object in the direction of the current (kN) G+ drag coefficient po density of water (Um!) ‘A: projected area of the object inthe direction ofthe current (mn) UW = flow velocity (rns)Lit Force A= SCip0Ail™ 7.2.2) where: [ Fi lif force acting on the object in the direction perpendicular to l the current (kN) , Gi + it coefficient i Ai + projected area of the object in the direction perpendicular to the current (m®) Drag Coefficient “The drag to a submerged object due to currents is expressed as the sum ofthe surface resistance due to friction and the form drag due to pressure difference around the object. The drag coefiicient varies according to the shape of the object, the roughness, the direction of the current, and the Reynolds number, and thus the value appropriate t© the conditions in question must be used. \When the Reynolds number is greater than about 10°, the values listed in ‘Table 7.2.1 may be used as standsrd values for the drag coefficient Note that fora circular cylinder or sphere with a smooth surface, there is @ phenomenon whereby the value of the drag coefficient drops suddenly when the Reynolds number is around 10°, However, for @ circular cylinder with @ rough surface, this drop in drag coefficient is. not patticularly large, and the drag coefficient settles down to @ constant value that depends on the relative roughness, For the values of the drag coefficient when a prism or L-shaped member Js ofiented diagonally relative to the current, search for references. The ata for the cube have been obtained from wave force experiments carried out by Hamada, Mitsuyasu and Hase.Table Shape Pred as 724 Drag Coefficients be ae (4) Lit Coefficient ‘object, the direction of the curren ‘on Cylindrical Members and Large the pressure on the coping due to the Coefficient. They have also pointed the lit coefficient is not well understo velocity in the breakwater opening i large, ‘surface gradient causes the coefficient values to incroace As wit the drag coeficint, the lft coefficient varies withthe shape ofthe i, and the Reynolds number. However, 0d (See 6.4 ~ Wave Forces Acting Isolated Structures). (6) Current Force Acting on Submerged Breakwater As forthe force acting on the coping of the submerged section at the Seering oF tsunami protection breakwater, Iwasaki et al. have meaeured ‘currents. They obtained the values OF 0.94 for the drag coefficient and 0.48 for the lit force coefnciont ‘ Tanimoto et al. have carried out similar me Values 1.0 to 1.6 for the drag coefficient jeasurements, obtaining the | and 0.5 to 0.8 for the ft Out, however, that when the flow the presence of the waterthe wed Fete.) on a rubble mound to be stable against currents by means of either ‘appropriate hydraulic model experiments or else the following equation a (48) 9°7°(S, — 1)*(cosd = sind)> 73.1) [M+ minimum mass of armor stones and blocks () e+ density of armor stones and blocks (um) 1: current velocity above armor stones and blocks (mis) G_: gravitational acceleration (= 2.81 mis") ¥ + Isbash’s constant 9 (1,20 for embedded stones; 0.88 for exposed stones) 5S. + speci gravity of armor stones and blocks relative to water ©: slope angle inthe axial direction ofthe channel bed () With regard to the mass of rubble stone that is stable against currents, the US ‘Army Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERO) has presented Equation (7.3.1) for the mass that a rubble stone must have in order to prevent scouring by tidal currents Equation (7.3.4) has been derived by considering the balance between the ‘drag caused by a flow acting on a spherical object on a sloped surface and the frictional resistance of the object. The coefficient y is termed Isbash's Constant. It would appear that the values of 1.20 and 0.86 for embedded stones and exposed stones, respectively, were determined by Isbash, but the details were not documented. Since Equation (7.3.1) has been obtained by Considering the balance of forces for steady flow, for places where it is anticipated that strong vortices will be generated, itis necessary to use rubble stones of larger mass.