Journal of Chemical Ecology, Vol. 17, No.

7, 1991

ANALYSIS OF CHARACTERISTIC ODORS FROM

H U M A N MALE AXILLAE

XIAO-NONG ZENG, I JAMES J. L E Y D E N , 2 HENRY J. L A W L E Y , !

KIYOHITO SAWANO, 3 ISAO NOHARA, 3 and GEORGE P R E T I 1'2'*

IMonell Chemieal Senses Center

3500 Market Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
2Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine
Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania
3400 Spruce Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
3Takasago International Corporation
3-19-22 Takanawa Minato-ku
Tokyo, Japan

(Received January 7, 1991; accepted March 22, 1991)

A b s t r a c t - - A number of studies concerning the analysis of axillary odors have

assumed that the characteristic odor produced in the axillae is due to volatile
steroids and isovaleric acid. Organoleptic evaluation of chromatographic
eluants from axillary extracts was employed to isolate the region in the chro-
matogram where the characteristic odor eluted. The odor of the dissolved
eluant was eliminated when it was treated with base, suggesting that acids
make up the characteristic axillary odor. Subsequent extraction of the pH-
adjusted axillary extract in conjunction with organoleptic evaluation of the
chromatographic eluant, preparative gas chromatography, and analysis by
GC-MS as well as GC-FTIR showed the presence of a number of C6 to C~
straight-chain, branched, and unsaturated acids as important contributors to
the axillary odor. The major odor component is (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid.
Three homologous series of minor components are also important odor con-
tributors; these consist of the terminally unsaturated acids, the 2-methyl-C6
to -C~0 acids and the 4-ethyl-C 5 to -Ct~ acids. These types of acids have not
been reported previously as components of the human axillary secretions and
have not been proposed previously as part of the principal odor components
in this area.

*To whom correspondence should be addressed.

1469

0098-0331/91/0700-1469506.50/0~) 1991 PlenumPuNishingCorporation

1470 ZENGET AL.

Key Words--Axillary odors, (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoicacid, androstenone,

human axillarysecretions,malodors, 7-octenoicacid.

INTRODUCTION

The human axillary region is a body area with unique odor-producing charac-
teristics. In the axillae, apocrine, sebaceous, eccrine, as well as the recently
described apoeccrine, glands (Sato et al., 1987), provide an excellent environ-
ment for a large permanent population of microorganisms (Leyden et al., 1981).
These microorganisms are believed to generate a variety of odoriferous com-
pounds that characterize our underarm region (Labows et al., 1982). Previous
analyses of both the apocrine secretion and the total axillary sweat have shown
the presence of a variety of both volatile and nonvolatile steroids (Brooksbank,
1970; Brooksbank et al., 1974; Claus and Alsing, 1976; Labows et al., 1979b;
Bird and Gower, 1980).
The apocrine secretion when freshly collected at the skin surface is odor-
less. (Hurley and Shelly, 1960; Shehadeh and Kligman, 1963). However, incu-
bation with the resident bacteria results in the production of a characteristic
odor, which appears to be unique to the organism used (Leyden et al., 1981).
The micrococci bacteria present in the axillae impart an acidic odor to the secre-
tion. The headspace above apocrine secretion incubated with micrococci has
been reported to contain isovaleric acid (Labows, 1979; Labows et al., 1982).
The diphtheroid bacteria give similar chromatographic headspace profiles with
isovaleric acid being present. However, the odor is more distinct and pungent,
suggesting the presence of other unidentified volatiles (Labows et al., 1982).
Analysis of freshly collected apocrine secretions in our laboratory have
demonstrated the presence of two androgen steroid sulfates: 17-oxo-5c~-andros-
tan-3c~-yl sulfate (androsterone sulfate) and 17-oxo-5a-androsten-3/3-yl sulfate
(dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate) (Labows et al., 1979b). Both dehydroepian-
drosterone sulfate and androsterone sulfate are present in high concentrations
(Labows et al., 1979b; Preti et al., 1987) and may serve as precursors for more
volatile, odoriferous steroids.
Studies recently completed in our laboratories employed axillary extracts
obtained from men and women to influence the menstrual cycle length and tim-
ing (Preti et al., 1986; Cutler et al., 1986). Another report from our laboratory
discussed the analysis of the extracts and the levels of several steroids present
in them. The extracts also contained a series of aliphatic acids ranging from
two to 18 carbons (Preti et al., 1987).
Investigators have collected the volatiles in the axillary area for chromato-
graphic analysis and evaluation of individual peaks for malodor (Dravnieks et
al., 1975). However, no structure elucidation was performed in these studies.
ODOR OF HUMAN MALE AXILLAE 1471

Two recent reviews (Labows, 1988; Gower, 1989), have suggested, but not
proven, that the characteristic odor in the axillae is due to the presence of vol-
atile steroids and isovaleric acid. The volatile steroids suggested as contributing
to the axillary odor are 5ot-androst-16-en-3c~-ol (androstenol), 5c~-androst-16-
en-3-one (androstenone), and 4,16-androstadien-3-one (androstadienone). These
steroids are formed, in part, by the action of cutaneous microorganisms
(Labows, 1988) and have low olfactory threshold (Amoore et al., 1977); how-
ever, there is approximately a 40-50 % anosmia to androstenone in the adult
United States population (Labows and Wysocki, 1984), which implies that this
odor is not recognized by half the population.
Since axillary secretion extracts contain a complex mixture of compounds
that are not well characterized, it is possible that secretion components (other
than those noted above) are important for both mediating the odor character and
physiological activity. We report here the isolation and identification of com-
pounds from a combined male axillary secretion extract that contains the char-
acteristic odors present in the axillae.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

General. [IH]NMR spectra for the (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid collected

by preparative gas chromatography from the axillary extract were recorded on
a Bruker AM-500 spectrometer, employing CDC13 as solvent with CHCI 3 as
reference; 21,000 scans were used to obtain sufficient data for structural deter-
mination. For the synthetic samples, [~H]NMR spectra were recorded on a Bru-
ker AM-400 spectrometer, employing CDC13 as solvent with TMS as reference.
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis. A Finnigan
4510 GC-MS data system equipped with a split-splitless injector, a fused silica
capillary column, and capabilities for operation in both electron impact and
chemical ionization modes was used for analysis. The columns employed were
a 30-m • 0.32-mm-ID fused silica column with a 0.25-#m coating of Stabilwax
(cross-bonded polyethylene glycol), or a 30-m • 0.32-mm-ID fused silica
RTX-1 column with a 0.25-/xm coating of cross-bonded methyl silicon (Restek,
Port Matilda, Pennsylvania). Analysis conditions for each column were as fol-
lows: Stabilwax, 60~ (4 min hold) to 220~ at 3~ hold for 45 min;
RTX-1, 60~ (4 min hold) to 300~ at 4~ hold for 15 min. The mass
spectrometer is interfaced to a Nova 4X computer, which utilizes the Super
Incos software for data acquisition, analysis, and quantitation. The mass range
employed during these analyses was m/z 40-450. This mass range was scanned
once each second and a typical run included 4000 scans. The data system also
included the NBS library of 42,000 compounds.
Identifications were based on interpretation of unknown spectra and their
1472 ZENG ET AL.

comparison with both the NBS library and mass spectra generated from syn-
thetic and/or commercially available standard compounds. In addition, the rel-
ative chromatographic retention times of unknowns and known standards were
compared. A mixture of fatty acid ethyl esters was used to determine the relative
retention times (van den Dool and Kratz, 1963) and generate an ethyl ester unit
for each compound.
Gas Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (GC-HRMS)
This was performed using a Carlo Erba Fractovap 4160 series gas chromato-
graph interfaced to a Kratos MS-50. High-resolution spectra of the eluting com-
ponents were obtained using a scan time of 5 sec for the decade 20-200 daltons,
an ionizing voltage of 70 eV, and an ionizing chamber temperature of 150~
Data were acquired, reduced, and exact masses calculated using the Kratos DS-
55 software.
Gas Chromatography-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectra. These were
obtained using a Hewlett-Packard 5890 gas chromatograph interfaced to a Hew-
lett-Packard 5965A infrared detector. Samples were analyzed using either a
30-m x 0.32-mm-ID fused silica column with a bonded 0.5-/zm coating of
Supelco Wax (60~ for 4 min then programmed to 220~ at 3~ or a
Hewlett-Packard 50-m x 0.32-mm-ID column with 0.5-/zm bonded coating of
methyl silicone. Spectra were obtained at 4 wave number resolution with 1.6
scan/sec or 8 wave number with 3 scans/sec.
Collection of Axillary Secretions. The axillary secretions used in this inves-
tigation were collected from six healthy male volunteer donors (ages 25-40).
Each donor had large numbers of lipophilic diphtheroids in his axillary region.
These microorganisms have been associated with production of the strongest
axillary odors (Labows et al., 1982; Leyden et al., 1981). The protocol fol-
lowed by donors and the methods used for the collection were described pre-
viously (Cutler et al., 1986; Preti et al., 1987).
Preparation of Axillary Secretion Extract. Extracts were prepared by
extracting 12 pads at a time with doubly distilled ethanol, as previously described
(Cutler et al., 1986; Preti et al., 1987). The ethanol-soaked pads were subse-
quently soaked with a mixture of 85 : 15 chloroform-methanol for 1 hr and then
squeezed (Nanograde Solvents from Mallinkrodt, St. Louis, Missouri; these
solvents contain little or no impurities by GC-MS analysis when 100-200 ml
are concentrated to < 5 0 #1) (15 ml/pad). Approximately 95% of the chloro-
form-methanol was recovered. The two extracts were combined, then concen-
trated to a volume of 50-100 tzl by a rotary evaporator, and subsequently stored
at - 6 0 ~ until analysis. Through the use of standards in model experiments,
we determined that 59 % of the 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acids and 85 % of the C7-
C9 acids were recovered from the pads.
Preparative Gas Chromatographic (PGC) Fractionation and Collection of
Axillary Secretion Extracts. PGC fractionation of axillary secretion extracts was
ODOR OF HUMAN MALE AXILLAE 1473

performed on a Perkin-Elmer 990 gas chromatograph equipped with hydrogen

flame-ionization detector, linear temperature programmer, and modified with a
capillary effluent splitter with a 10 : 1 split ratio as well as a thermal gradient
collector (Brownlee and Silverstein, 1968). Fractions were collected in 40-cm
x 1.8-mm-OD glass capillary tubes. Retrieval of the collected fraction was
accomplished by breaking the end of the tube, drawing one end to a point, and
rinsing the tube with small aliquots (about 20-30 /xl) of desired solvent. The
column used for separation was 30 m x 0.52 mm ID coated with Stabilwax;
the analysis conditions used for the separation were as follows: 60~ for 4 min
and then 3~ to 220~ with a hold for 48 min at the final temperature.
Isolation of Acidic Components From Axillary Secretion Extract. The con-
centrated axillary secretion extract (100 #1) was put into a centrifuge tube and
then cooled to 0~ Saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (2 ml) was added
into the tube. After shaking, the mixture was extracted with CHCI 3 (1 ml x
2). The resulting two layers were separated by centrifugation for 5 min. The
bottom organic layer, containing the basic and neutral components, was trans-
ferred to a 5-ml pear-shaped flask by using a thinly drawn pipet. This was stored
at - 1 0 ~ until analysis.
The aqueous layer remaining in the centrifuge tube was cooled to 0~
and acidified with 0.5 M HC1 to a pH of 2. The mixture was extracted with
CHC% (1 ml x 2). The organic layer was again separated as described above
and concentrated to 20/A.
A second procedure was performed for the isolation of acidic components.
This involved treatment of the cooled (0~ concentrated (without adding
NaHCO3, as above) axillary secretion extract with 0.5 M HC1, and extraction
with CHC13. The two layers formed were separated by the same procedures as
above. The organic layer was treated with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbon-
ate and separated. The basic aqueous layer produced from the last step was
acidified and extracted with CHC13. After separation of the two layers, the
organic layer that contains the acidic components was concentrated and ana-
lyzed. The procedure yielded the same array of compounds as was found when
the extract was first exposed to bicarbonate.
Synthesis of 7-Octenoic Acid. To a stirred mixture of 1,6-heptadiene (3.57
g, 0.039 mol) and toluene (5 ml), 8.2 ml (1/3 mol eq) of Al(i-butyl)2H was
added while maintaining the temperature below 40~ This mixture was then
stirred for 3 hr at 50-60~ After cooling this mixture to room temperature,
7.7 ml (1/3 mol eq) of n-butyl lithium was added. We then bubbled CO2 gas
into the mixture (at room temperature) and followed the formation of 7-octenoic
acid by gas chromatography. The addition of CO2 was ceased when no further
acid was found. The mixture was subsequently poured into a 10% HC1 solution
and extracted with 3 x 30 ml of ether. The ether layer then was extracted with
3 x 3 ml of 10% NaOH solution and the NaOH solution subsequently acidified
1474 ZENC ET AL.

with 2 M HC1 and extracted with 3 • 30 ml of diethylether. The ether layer

was dried and concentrated to give 2.5 g (45 %) of an oil which contained 77 %
of 7-octenoic acid. Pure quantities of the acid for subsequent experiments were
obtained by preparative gas chromatography as described above.
Preparation of Trimethylsilyl Derivatives. In order to form trimethylsilyl
(TMS) esters and/or ethers, 5/xl of the concentrated acid fraction was reacted
at 70~ for 30 min with 10/~1 N,O-bistrimethylsilyltrifluoroacetamide (BSTFA)
and 2 #1 trimethylsilyl chloride. The resulting reaction mixture was analyzed
by GC-MS using the non-polar RTX-1 column described above.
Organoleptic Evaluation of Chromatographically Separated Components
(Smell Chromatography). To determine which of the chromatographic eluants
had odors resembling the axillary extract, a panel of two to four judges were
assembled to perform the smell chromatography. Each panel member was able
to perceive the "urinous" odor of androstenone and the " m u s k y " odor of
androstenol (Amoore et al., 1977; Labows et al., 1982). Prior to smell chro-
matography, the entire mixture to be analyzed was evaluated after placing a
small (1-5 #1) aliquot on a filter paper strip and allowing the solvent to dry.
The odor of the entire mixture then was evaluated by the panel. The sample
was left in a fumehood within easy access should it be needed for reference.
Olfactory sampling began approximately 3 rain after injection. Each judge sam-
pled the chromatographic eluate every 30-40 sec on a rotating basis. They were
asked to record which portions of the eluate most resembled the original "bou-
quet" in terms of quality and intensity. Panelists were instructed not to com-
municate with each other during judging and to make sure that other panelists
could not see their records. Smell chromatography was performed with the flame
ionization detector off and olfactory sampling of the chromatographic eluent
occurring at each 30-sec interval by two or more observers. The analyses were
performed using the following conditions: Sil-8, 60~ (4 min) to 300~ at 4~
rain; Stabilwax, 60~ (4-min hold) to 220~ at 3~ The carrier gas (He)
flow rate in each analysis was 2 ml/min.
Hydrogenation of Collected Peak K. Into a 0.4 ml V-shaped reaction vial
were placed 10 mg of 10% palladium on charcoal catalyst, 50 /zl nanograde
methanol, and collected compound [K] (_<0.2 ~g in 10 #1 of CHCI3). A small
stream of hydrogen was introduced into the mixture at room temperature. After
5 min, the mixture was transferred to a 1-ml centrifuge tube and centrifuged at
top speed for 5 min. The clear reaction mixture was withdrawn into a small
pear-shaped vial and concentrated to about 5/xl using a Savant Speed Vac Con-
centrator (model SVC-100H) prior to analysis by GC-MS.
Structural Data for Synthetic (E)- and (Z)-Methyl-2-Hexenoic Acids. The
3-methyl-2-hexenoic acids were synthesized using the procedure of Wadsworth
and Emmons (1961) to condense triethylphosphonoacetate with 2-pentanone.
This procedure gives a 1 : 3 mixture of the Z and E isomers.
ODOR OF HUMAN MALE AXILLAE 1475

The NMR spectrum for the E isomer has been previously reported using a
100-MHz instrument (Smith et al., 1969). However, FT-IR data for the E as
well as 500-MHz NMR, FT-IR, and MS data for the Z compound are given
below:
(E)-3-Methyl-2-Hexenoic Acid. IR max (vapor) cm -l 3581, 2971, 1751,
1651, 1391, 1270, 1198, 1106, 858. Ethyl ester unit = 13.49.
(Z)-3-Methyl-2-Hexenoic Acid. [IH]NMR (CDCl3) 0.95 (3H, triplet, J =
7.3, C--6H), 1.15 (2H, sextuplet, J = 7.5, C--5H), 1.91 (3H, doublet, J =

1.3, C--7H), 2.62 (2H, triplet, J = 7.7, C--4H), 5.69 (1H, singlet, C--2H);
IRmax (vapor)cm -~ 3580, 2973, 1750, 1649, 1385, 1271, 1186, 1112, 1009,
860. Mass Spectrum: m/z(rel, int.)M + 128 (71), 113 (81), 111 (21), 100 (50),
95 (72), 87 (32), 83 (25), 82 (59), 72 (13), 71 (42), 69 (100), 67 (85), 57 (24),
56 (13), 55 (73), 53 (37), 45 (25), 43 (88), 42 (27), 41 (93); ethyl ester unit
= 13.05.

RESULTS

The suggestion that volatile steroids might be involved in the characteristic

axillary malodors initially prompted us to perform organoleptie evaluation of
the chromatographic eluant (henceforth, smell chromatography) with the con-
centrated axillary extracts using a nonpolar, methyl silicon column. We previ-
ously had established reliable retention times for the volatile steroids using this
type of column (Preti et al., 1987). The results of this experiment are illustrated
in Figure 1 (top). This shows that within the first 15 rain of the analysis, a
strong, characteristic axillary odor eluted. The urinous, musky odors charac-
teristic of the volatile steroids (such as androstenol, androstenone, 3,5-andros-
tadienone, and the pyrolysis products of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and
androsterone sulfate) elute in the area shown at about 40-45 rain. The identical
extract injected onto the more polar, Carbowax-type phase (Figure 1, bottom),
shows the characteristic axillary odor eluting at a retention time of 38-53 rain.
This is preceded by the sharp, acidic smells of short-chain aliphatic acids (such
as butyric and isovaleric acids). On this column, the volatile steroids eluted
after 65-70 min. These results suggested that a yet unidentified group of com-
pounds was responsible for the characteristic axillary odor.
Collection of the area where the characteristic axiltary odors elute was
performed using preparative gas chromatography. The collected eluant was dis-
solved in methylene chloride, divided in two, and treated with two aqueous
base solutions: (1) NaHCO3 (pH 9.9); and (2) Na2B407 (pH 10.8). Both treat-
ments resulted in an elimination of the characteristic axillary odor. This exper-
iment suggested to us that acidic components with C6 or greater carbons (based
on chromatographic retention times) carried the characteristic underarm odor.
1476 ZzNc ZT AL

NON-POLAR (METHYSILICON)
COLUMN

(Urine-Like, Musky~ FID

Steroid Odors Strong Axillary
Response
Urine-Cdik~Bprur~'gent)

I I I I I I
60 40 20
~-~ Time (Min)

POLAR COLUMN
(POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL)

Strong, axillary Odor Sharp, Short Chain

(Pungent,Burnt, UfinmLike) Acid Type Odor

FID
Response

I I I I I I
60 40 2O
Time (Min)
FIG. 1. Top: Flame ionization detector (FID) response and organoleptic evaluation of
compounds in the axillary secretion extract eluting from the bonded methyl silicone
column. Strong, characteristic axillary type odors elute with the first 10-18 rain. The
odor of the volatile steroids (such as androstenone and androstenol) as well as the py-
rolysis products of the steroid sulfates are found in the time frame shown. Bottom:
Results of the organoleptic evaluation of compounds in the axillary secretion extract
eluting from the bonded Carbowax-like (Stabilwax) column. The characteristic axillary
odors elute in the time frame shown. Steroids such as androstenone and androstenol
have long retention times on this column ( > 65 min).
O D O R OF H U M A N M A L E A X I L L A E 1477

We subsequently isolated the acidic components from a combined (six male

donors) concentrated male axiUary extract. The extract containing the acid com-
ponents was concentrated to 20 ~1 by rotary evaporation. This acidic concen-
trate had a characteristic axillary malodor--identical to that of the entire extract.
The neutral and basic part of the extract had little or no odor. A second pro-
cedure employing initial acidification of the extract gave identical results (see
Methods and Materials).
Smell chromatography of the acidic fraction using the polar (Stabilwax
column), showed a series of components with burnt, urinous, and axillaryqike
qualities eluting from times 37-54 min. Therefore, a number of the compounds
eluting in this time frame carried a significant portion of the axillary odor. How-
ever, the major component, found at ethyl ester unit (EEU) of approximately
13.50 (peak K in Figure 3) appeared to be a major contributor to the axillary
odor.
The reconstructed ion chromatogram (RIC) obtained from separation and
analysis of the combined acid fraction from the male donors is shown in Figure
2. The area outlined in Figure 2 is expanded in Figure 3 (bottom). The shaded
areas indicate where important odors elute. Correlation of the data from smell
chromatography with the GC-MS data is carried out by matching the relative
retention times (based on ethyl ester indices; van den Dool and Kratz, 1963)
on both the chromatograph where the smell chromatography was performed and
on the GC-MS system.
Figure 3 also shows a plot (mass chromatogram, top) of m/z 60. This
"McLafferty rearrangement" ion is characteristic of aliphatic acids (with an
available 7-hydrogen and an unsubstituted c~-carbon) (Budzikiewicz et at.,
1967). In this figure, m/z 60 is particularly large for the normal, straight-chain
acids.
In addition to the mass spectral and relative retention time data, further
analysis of the acidic extract was performed by combined gas chromatography-
Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (GC-FTIR). All of the compounds
identified in this mixture are listed with their corresponding ethyl ester units in
Table 1. Those compounds thought to be important contributors to the odor are
marked with an asterisk.
Characterization of (E)- and (Z)-3-Methyl-2-Hexenoic Acid. Mass spectra
obtained by combined GC-MS using both polar and nonpolar columns showed
that the major component (peak K) had the mass spectrum shown in Figure 4.
A molecular ion at m/z 128, as well as losses of 15, 17, and 28 from the molec-
ular ion are seen. Also noted was a small component eluting at approximately
13.00 EEU (peak G in Figure 3), which had an identical mass spectrum, sug-
gesting the presence of a stereoisomer. A high-resolution mass spectrum of peak
K showed its molecular ion to have an elemental composition ofCTH1202 (exact
mass = 128.0837; found = 128.0820).
 • ~ ,~ :2-J'-t .,,,,;.,
i88.0 i "-,4
O0

Oodecanoic
Acid
)

~t
i
RIC

' ' ' I ' ' )

N
Z
Fio. 2. The computer reconstructed chromatogram generated by the analysis of the total acid portion of the axillary extract. The outIined
area is the part of the chromatogram where the characteristic axillary odors are found, as shown in Figure 3. The major component seen >
at approximately 3590 scans is nonodorous normal dodecanoic acid. U'
 19e,e-

6e 60.018
* 0.500

_ LL_ ,._ _ O
851.6- 642948.

RIC

G
.,Tu . y Ee
A B CD I ~LM N QI'S I I w 9 Aa,~ /Dd ,Ff
~_ _L.~:._~ ; __-_ko- : ~ L J ~ .
I ' I ' I I
~,4goz,,#, I
2~ 2480 26ee 2~ ~ ~ 34N
~ l 4e 4e: 00 43:29 46i 4e ~ i ee 53:29 56, 48 TIME

F[o. 3. The outlined portion of the chromatogram from Figure 2 is expanded here. In addition the top part of the figure shows a plot of
m/z 60 ("mass chromatogram") in this region. This ion is characteristic of aliphatic acids with an available c~-carbon as discussed in the
text. This ion is particularly large for the normal, straight-chain acids. The shaded areas represent portions of tile chromatogram where ...j

characteristic axillary-type odors eluted. The identity of all the labeled peaks in the chromatogram may be found in Table 1. Those
compounds in the shaded areas are marked with an asterisk in Table 1.
1480 ZENG ET AL.

TABLE l ."

Molecular Retention time

Peak weight (ethyl ester unit)

A n-hexanoic acid c'G 116 12.20"

B 2-methylhexanoic acid C 130 12.39
C 3-methylhexanoic acid C 130 12.55"
D dimethylsulfoneG (C~H6SO2) 94 12.63
E ~-Cs-lactone G^ 142 12.79
F 4-ethylpentanoic acid G 130 12.97"
G (Z)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid G 128 13.10"
H 2-ethylhexanoic acid G 144 13.13
I n-heptanoic acidc ' ~ 130 13.22"
J 2-methylheptanoic acid "r'G 144 13.36"
K (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid c'G 128 13.50"
L phenol 94 13.65
M 3,-Cg-lactoneG 156 13.91
N n-octanoic acid cG 144 14.28"
O 2-rnethyloctanoic acid ~ 158 14.41
P 4-ethy lheptanoic acid G 158 14.81 *
Q 7-octenoic acid ~ 142 14.95"
R 3,-C~0-1actone 70 15.01
S n-tetradecanol 214 15.21
T n-nananoic acid c'G 158 15.28
U 2-methylnonanoic acidT'G 172 15.38
V 4-ethyloctanoic acidC ( " g o a t 172 15.64"
acid" )
W unsaturated C9 acid "r 172 16.04"
X n-decanoic acid c'C 156 16.28
Y 2-methyldecanoic acid T'G 186 16.36
Z unsaturated C 10 acidV 170 16.46"
Aa 4-ethylnonanoic acid T 186 16.69"
Bb 9-decenoic acid6 170 16.90"
Cc n-hexadecanol 242 17.24
Dd n-undecanoic acid c'G 186 17.29
Ee 4-ethyldecanoic acid r' c 200 17.66
Ff unsaturated C t ~ acid'r (10- 184 17.76
undecenoic acid?)

"The following symbols are used in this table: T = tentatively assigned by mass spectral data. C
= FTIR spectrum corresponds to assigned structure; G = correspondence of mass spectrum and
relative chromatographic retention times with commercially available or synthetic sample. *In-
dicates compound thought to be a contributor to axillary odor. ^ C5-C7 7-1actones also present,
ODOR OF HUMAN MALE AXILLAE 1481

-6
(4

I i i i

t"q

,s 7,

t-

7.-,

E
o

9
E
--~ u
,D
~q

t I
C~
1482 ZEN6 ET AL.

Two analyses of the acid mixture were performed using GC-FTIR. The
compound of interest showed identical vapor phase IR spectra on both polar
and nonpolar columns (Figure 5). A search of a compilation of IR vapor-phase
spectra suggested an a,/3-unsaturated acid (personal communication from Mr.
Michael Boruta, Sadtler Research Laboratories, after searching unknown spec-
tra against Sadtler's IR-Vapor Phase Data Base). In addition, the EEU of peak
K and the MS data also suggested a branched, unsaturated C 7 acid. We isolated
a small amount ( < 0 . 2 #g) of the unknown acid and performed a microhydro-
genation. GC-MS analysis of the resultant reaction mixture showed a mass
spectrum that was consistent with the structure of 3-methylhexanoic acid.
From the above data, the most probable structure was postulated to be
3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid. This compound was synthesized using the procedure
of Wadsworth and Emmons (1961) to condense triethyl phosphonoacetate with
2-pentanone. This procedure gave a 1 : 3 mixture of the Z- and E isomers; each
was isolated using PGC. The MS, EEU, FTIR and [IH]NMR spectra for each
isomer were obtained, allowing assignment of the E structure to peak K; the Z
isomer was the minor component, peak G.
As further confirmation of our structural assignments, PGC using a wide-
bore (0.53 ram) bonded capillary column was employed to collect sufficient
amounts of the proposed E isomer from a concentrated extract. This extract was
obtained from a collection of 20 pads worn by one donor (with the strongest
axillary extract odor) across a 20-day period. Approximately 4.6/zg of the pro-
posed E isomer were collected and used to obtain the FT-[~H]NMR spectrum.
This quantity yielded sufficient data to confirm that the collected compound was
the (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid.
Characterization of Other Axillary Odor Compounds. Figure 6 shows the
FTIR spectra of peaks A, N, T, and X, which correspond to the C 6, C s, C9,
and Clo straight-chain acids. In contrast to solution-phase IR spectra, the vapor-
phase spectra show very sharp absorption at 3577 cm-~ for the carboxyl OH
stretching.
In addition to the (Z)- and (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acids, several other
unsaturated compounds appear to be present, including compounds with ter-
minal double bonds. The Cs unsaturated acid, 7-octenoic acid, is a minor com-
ponent of the mixture but appears to have a high odor impact. The mass spectrum
of 7-octenoic acid as well as that of a synthetic sample are shown in Figure 7.
In addition to the correspondence of the mass spectra, the relative retention
times of the naturally occurring and synthetic 7-octenoic acids are identical.
Several other terminally unsaturated compounds are also present (Table 1). Since
retention times and mass spectra suggested these compounds might be homol-
ogous to 7-octenoic acid, we obtained 8-nonenoic acid from Takasago Inter-
national Corp. (Tokyo, Japan), 9-decenoic acid from Tokyo Kasei Kogyo Co.,
Ltd. and 10-undecenoic acid from Sigma Chemical Co. Although both the EEU
 o
©

3.0
w

>
t"

x
t"
>

D
02
E w

•I CdEJ~.~ 3 ~,D,D 2. D O 0 1 I~ID;D

NRVENUMBER (cm-!)
Ffc. 5. Vapor-phase IR spectrum obtained from peak K in Figure 3. Note the sharp absorption at 3581 crn -~ due to the carboxyl-OH
function, in contrast to the broad absorption seen in solution-phase IR spectra of acids.
T~
L,O
1484 ZENG ET AL.

n-C 6

n C8

n-C 9

L_f'
g

n-Clo
HFIVENUMBER (cm-I)

FIG. 6. Shows four overlapping FTIR spectra from normal hexanoic, octanoic, nona-
noic, and decanoic acids. Note the sharp adsorption at 3577 c m - ~ for the carboxyl OH
stretching.
 ODOR OF HUMAN MALE AX1LLAE 1485

7-OCTENOIC ACID
O

82

G~ 9~

67

Li i ;' I

I I ~ ~ ~

i'i..'.~ ~,@ 6E: ~ :-~, :.22. :>:;-

50,~,

p~rl

124

FIG. 7. Mass spectrum of synthetic 7-octenoic acid (top) compared with that of the
proposed 7-octenoic acid found in the axillary extract centered at scan 2915 (bottom).
1486 ZENC ET AL.

and mass spectra of 9-decenoic acid were identical to that of the unknown in
the extract, the 8-nonenoic had an EEU of 15.86 (unknown = 16.04, Table 1).
In addition, the mass spectrum of the unknown showed a larger proposed
molecular ion and a different overall fragmentation pattern than that of the
standard sample. The EEU of standard 10-undecenoic acid was 17.84 (unknown
= 17.76); however, the mass spectrum of the unknown appeared to be
" m i x e d , " since it appears to elute with another compound. Consequently, it is
difficult to conclude if 10-undecenoic acid is present since the mass spectra
could not be compared directly in this sample.
Branched-Chain, Saturated Acids. The GC-MS data also showed two series
of branched-chain acids. One homologous series consisted of 2-methyl acids
beginning with 2-methyl hexanoic acid (peaks B, J, O, U, and Y). The mass
spectra of the 2-methyl acids are characterized by ions at both m/z 74
("McLafferty rearrangement" ion in c~-methyl substituted acids), and m/z 87.
Although these are the same ions that are present in the low mass end of methyl
ester mass spectra, neither their relative retention times nor the molecular ion
regions of their mass spectra correspond to methyl esters.
A second homologous series of acids possessed an ethyl group on the
4-position in the chain (peaks F, P, V, Aa, and Ee in Figure 3). The 4-ethyl-
octanoic acid in the series (peak V) has a "goatlike" smell and has been pre-
viously isolated from sebaceous gland secretions of mature male goats
(Sugiyama et al., 1981). In addition, this compound has been studied because
of its low odor threshold (Boelens et al., 1983). This series of acids appears to
be characterized by ions at M§ and M+-59, which in 4-ethyloctanoic acid
("goat acid") are seen at m/z 143 and 113, respectively (Figure 8).
"y-Lactones. Trace quantities of a series of C5--C Io 3,-lactones were found
from scan numbers 1500-3000 by examining the mass chromatogram ofm/z 85
(Labows et al., 1979a). Except for Cs ,y-lactone, all the other 3,-lactones show
a base peak at m/z 85, which is the characteristic peak of 3,-lactone. This series
of compounds has been reported previously to be formed by Pityospirum ovale
isolated from the scalp (Labows et al., 1979a).
Analysis Using a Nonpolar Column. To further examine the axillary odor
components, we chromatographed the mixture on a nonpolar column with and
without derivatization. The analysis without derivatization did not reveal any
new components but did show that (Z)- and (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acids as
well as many of the other C6--C~t acids shown in Table 1 elute within the first
15-18 min. This would explain the presence of the strong axillary odors shown
eluting in the smell chromatogram of the nonpolar column in Figure 1 (top). In
addition, this analysis also showed the presence of both the volatile steroids
(androstenone and androstenol) and the pyrolysis products of the two steroid
sulfates (androsterone sulfate and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate) described in
0E.0- 5"?,0 : . ~ . : ++

"Goat Acid"

M.W.- 172

!
113.1

125.0 143.1

+~,~ ~':'-~ c 2 ~ . 7 , z. 2:3,~

M/Z

lm O F 34112,

gig

L+III!
I!1T-L
+
113

E 1 t~ 143
i -I ~, . . . . . . . . 'T ~.,!!m9
....... , ........ if ~I t.+ ~+7 t+-r+
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1~ ~+ i
M/2 ~1 1N t~ I4@ 1++ I.?B 2•P

FIG. 8. Mass spectrum of commercially available 4-ethyloctanoic acid ("goat acid";

top) compared with that of the proposed 4-ethyloctanoic acid found in the axillary extract
centered at scan 3062 (bottom).
1488 ZENGET AL.

previous studies from our laboratory (Labows et al., 1979b). These eluted at
the predicted retention times, as shown in Figure 1.
Analysis of the trimethylsilyl derivatives revealed a variety of components
not seen in the earlier analysis; however, a majority of the compounds are not
contributors to the odors since they are higher-molecular-weight (CjE--C)8),
straight-chain saturated, branched, and unsaturated acids. Several aromatic
acidic compounds were identified including benzoic, phenylacetic, o-methyl-
benzoic and phenylpropanoic acids, and p-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The largest
of these components appears to be p-hydroxybenzaldehyde; however, it is rel-
atively odorless and only phenylacetic acid appears to lend some odor quality
to the axillary odor.

DISCUSSION

The results obtained from this study suggest that volatile C 6 - C II straight-
chain, branched, and unsatur~ited acids are the major contributors to underarm
odor. Previous investigations of axillary secretions have not reported such a
complex mixture of acids nor have these compounds been suggested as impor-
tant axillary odorants (Labows, 1988; Gower, 1989). Those compounds with
branching or unsaturation seem to have a high odor impact. A major contributor
to the axillary odor is (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid; it is both unsaturated and
branched. The Z isomer, which is present at one-tenth the concentration of the
E isomer, also has a high odor impact. However, its odor quality is more like
aliphatic acid.
(E)-3-Methyl-2-hexenoic acid was once thought to be the odor that char-
acterized patients suffering from schizophrenia (Smith et al., 1969). Further
studies later showed the compound to be present in normal patients also (Gor-
don et al., 1973). These previous studies employed whole-body sweat collected
from patients placed in plastic bags between two electric blankets; conse-
quently, the specific body site(s) for production of this malodorous compound
could not have been correctly determined. Further, the Z isomer was not reported
in these past studies of whole body sweat.
Mass spectrometric evidence for the presence of the volatile steroids in the
acidic fraction was seen using the nonpolar methyl silicone column. However,
in view of the relatively large odor impact of the acids (smell chromatography
experiment), the high prevalence of a specific anosmia to one of the steroids
(androstenone) and the relatively (to the steroids) high concentration of the acid
compounds, we do not feel that the steroids are important malodor contributors.
Further, their retention times, as noted above, do not suggest that they elute at
the time when the strongest axillary odors elute.
Labows (1988) recently suggested that organoleptic descriptions of the
ODOR OF H U M A N MALE AXILLAE 1489

axillary odors implied the presence of not only isovaleric acid but also medium-
chain acids, such as 4-ethyloctanoic acid. The latter is present (see Table 1) in
the acidic axillary extract and has a very low olfactory threshold (Boelens
et al., 1983). No data are available concerning the olfactory threshold for
(E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid or many of the other acids identified in our study.
As noted in the results, the neutral and basic fractions possessed very little
odor. An organoleptic panel (four persons) that evaluated the concentrated
extract as well as its acid, base, and neutral fractions found that all the char-
acteristic axillary odor was in the acid fraction.
Recent applications of the technique of smell chromatography to malodor
problems in the food industry (Sevenants and Sanders, 1984; McGorrin et al.,
1987) and odor threshold measurements (Marin et al., 1988) suggested it would
be an ideal way to pursue the chromatographic retention times of the charac-
teristic axillary odors. This proved to be correct. Its application here showed
that several of the compounds present at relatively low concentrations (such as
the terminally unsaturated acids) were important contributors to the odor. Since
the smell chromatography experiment suggested that the region where 7-octen-
oic acid eluted contained an important odor, we carefully investigated each of
the minor chromatographic components in the area to determine which might
possess an axillary-like odor. The result was the identification of 7-octenoic
acid and subsequently the other terminally unsaturated homologs noted in Table
1.
We noted that one of us (H.J.L.) could not perceive either of the 3-methyl-
2-hexenoic acids. Consequently, we are currently examining how extensive this
specific anosmia might be. When asked to describe the odor, people tested who
can smell these acids gave as their most frequent replies: urinous, sweaty, burnt,
woody, acrid, musty, and musky. Many of these descriptors also have been
attached to the odor of volatile steroids (Ohloff et al., 1983).
In the study reported here, the axillary secretion extracts were combined
from six male donors. We are currently collecting and evaluating data from
individuals. It is believed that there will be quantitative differences in the com-
position of axillary from each donor. Therefore, a different group of the com-
bined male donor axillary secretion extracts may give a different ratio of the
characteristic odor components.
The low levels of 3,-lactones seen in the analyses (Table 1) may be due to
the metabolism of Pityrosporum ovale. These yeast organisms are found on
human skin areas that contain large numbers of sebaceous glands and may be
part of the normal resident axillary flora. These yeasts previously have been
shown to produce 3,-lactones in the presence of human sebum. The lactones
have a pleasant odor (Labows et al., 1979a).
The research of Hurley and Shelly (1960) as well as Shehadeh and Kligman
(1963) demonstrated that freshly produced apocrine secretion is odorless and
1490 ZENG ET AL.

that the axillary odor arises from the action of cutaneous microorganisms upon
apocrine secretion. Consequently, the precursors for the odor are contained
within the apocrine secretion. Previous analyses of the secretion have shown
that it contains steroid sulfates, cholesterol, lipids, and about 10% protein
(Labows et al., 1979b, 1982). In addition, considerable speculation has focused
on the formation of the volatile steroids from apocrine secretion precursors
(Labows, 1988; Gower, 1989). However, since the compounds reported here
were not known to be important malodor constituents, no speculation has
appeared concerning their precursors. The structure of the characteristic odors
suggests that the precursors for these compounds would almost certainly not be
amino acid-like in composition due to the chain length and branching of the
acids involved. In addition, since the odor is formed very quickly in both in
vivo and in vitro experiments, it would suggest a simple bond cleavage to form
the odor and not a complex bacterial catabolism from higher molecular com-
ponents. Consequently, the apocrine secretion may contain the characteristic
odor compounds esterified to higher-molecular-weight lipid components or per-
haps even bound to the proteins in some fashion.
Acknowledgments--The authors wish to acknowledge the help of Mr. Steve Huhn of Nabisco
Brands, Inc. (Schaeberle Technology Center, East Hanover, New Jersey) and Mr. Walter O. Ledig
of International Flavors and Fragrances (Union Beach, New Jersey) for obtaining the FTIR spectra.
We also thank: Mr. Michael Boruta of Sadtler Research Laboratories (a division of Bio-Rad Lab-
oratories) for employing their PC-IR Search Software to compare our FTIR data to their IR-Vapor
Phase Data Base; Mr. Ken McGinley of the Duhring Laboratories, Department of Dermatology,
University of Pennsylvania, for screening axillary secretion donors for the correct microflora and
odor production; and Mrs. Janice Blescia for typing this manuscript. NMR spectra of the chro-
matographically collected compounds were obtained with the help of Dr. George Furst, Director
of the Analytical NMR Facility in the Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania. This
work was supported in part by a postdoctoral fellowship awarded to the Monell Chemical Senses
Center by Takasago International Corporation.

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