Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358

DOI 10.1007/s10661-007-9934-5

Evaluation of drinking water treatment and quality

in Takua Pa, Thailand
Carlo Collivignarelli & Prapin Tharnpoopasiam &
Mentore Vaccari & Valentina De Felice &
Veronica Di Bella & Suwalee Worakhunpiset

Received: 14 March 2007 / Accepted: 28 August 2007 / Published online: 16 September 2007
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract After 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, which
hit and devastated several Countries in Southeast
Asia, University of Brescia and Mahidol University
started a project on water monitoring and treatment
for drinking purposes in Takua Pa district (Thailand),
the most damaged by the tsunami. In particular, this
paper presents the results of a study conducted to
evaluate the effectiveness of Takua Pa drinking water
treatment plant and to identify actions that could be
adopted to improve its performances. The results
show that, even if the effluent usually meets Thai
guide values, except for pH which is already too acid
in the influent, the plant needs several structural and
managerial improvements, such as filtration and sedi-
mentation upgrade, coagulation/flocculation and final
C. Collivignarelli : M. Vaccari (*) : V. De Felice : V. Di Bella
CeTAmb, Documentation and research centre
on appropriate technologies for environment management
in developing Countries, Department DICATA,
University of Brescia,
Brescia, Italy
e-mail: vaccari@ing.unibs.it
P. Tharnpoopasiam : S. Worakhunpiset
Department of Social and Environmental Medicine,
Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University,
Bangkok, Thailand
Present address:
M. Vaccari
Via Branze 43,
25123 Brescia, Italy
disinfection re-organization, use of proper registers to
better plan and control employees activities. More-
over, it was determined that water quality in the
distribution network is characterized by turbidity and
organic matter values higher than those evaluated in
the plant effluent.
Keywords Drinking water . Monitoring .
Treatment plant . Tsunami
Introduction
2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, which devastated several
Countries in south-east Asia, caused more than
300,000 victims (Stone 2005) and modified water
quality and ecosystems of the affected areas (Goffredo
et al. 2007; Luluraj et al. 2007). After the tsunami,
University of Brescia and Mahidol University started
a project on water monitoring and treatment for
drinking purposes in Takua Pa district (Thailand),
that had been hit by that cataclysm. In fact, a survey
conducted a few weeks after that event highlighted
that well water in this area was characterised by high
salinity, organic content and microbiological contam-
ination (Tharnpoophasiam et al. 2006); therefore, well
water use in households (that is still usual despite the
situation) should take place after a complex treatment
train, including advanced processes such as reverse
osmosis for salinity removal. It is evident that this
solution is not convenient; the production and distri-
346
bution of good quality water to a greater part of
population should take place by the development of
‘collective’ infrastructures, for example through the
upgrade of existing water treatment plants and supply
networks and the construction of new ones.
Furthermore, it has to be underlined that water
treatment and distribution systems, if not properly
operated and maintained, can be a source of disease
outbreak affecting population; therefore, the monitor-
ing and surveillance of quality of raw water sources as
well as treated water need to be enhanced (Hamzah et
al. 1997; Jurdi et al. 2002; Batarseh 2006; Djuikom et
al. 2006; Singh et al. 2006; Özcan et al. 2007).
This paper presents the results of a study con-
ducted to both assess the effectiveness of the principal
drinking water treatment plant placed in TaKua Pa
district and identify upgrading actions that could be
adopted to improve its performances. Specific tests
were also conducted to evaluate tanks hydrodynamic
behaviour, by dosing lithium as tracer.
Materials and methods
Description of Takua Pa water treatment plant
The plant analysed during this activity, built in 1992,
provides water to about 3,000 households among the
Al2(SO4)3
Floc1 Floc2 Rest tank
Incoming
Water
IN Floc1 Floc2 Rest tank
Legend: IN = influent monitoring point;
Floc1 = first flocculation tank;
Floc2 = second flocculation tank;
Sed = sedimentation tank;
INT1 = monitoring point located downstream sedimentation;
INT2 = monitoring point located downstream filtration;
OUT = effluent monitoring point.
Fig. 1 Scheme of Takua Pa water treatment plant (scheme is not in scale)
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
16,000 existing in Takua Pa City and in Khok Kiang,
Bang Nai Si and Bang Muang sub-districts.
Nowadays the plant treats about 150 m3/h of water,
which is drawn from Bang-ee waterfalls (they are few
kilometres away and provide about 30 m3/h) and from
Khok Kien lake (it is located in plant’s neighbour-
hood and provides about 120 m3/h).
The water treatment scheme is composed by
several processes (Fig. 1):
& Coagulation–flocculation, realized through the dos-
age of aluminium sulphate into the plant entrance
canal. Flocculation takes place in two parallel lines
connected by few holes located in the separating
wall. Each line is made of two tanks 4.45 m high
and 2.06 m wide. The first one is 1.55 m long and is
equipped with a vertical axis mixer composed by
three flat-blade impellers placed at different depths
with rotation velocity equal to 12 rpm. The second
one is 2.17 m long and is equipped with a mixer
similar to the previous one whose rotational
velocity is equal to 8 rpm. Hydraulic retention
times in the first and second reactors are, respec-
tively, equal to 11.4 min and 12.6 min;
& Rest tank, placed upstream the settler and made of
two parallel interconnected basins; each of them is
4.45 m high, 2.06 m wide and 1.70 m long;
& Inclined tube sedimentation, performed in two
parallel interconnected countercurrent reactors.
INT2
Undergound
Filter Storage tank
(1000 m3)
Sed
Sed Undergound
Filter Storage tank
(500 m3)
INT1 Cl2 gas
OUT
Aerial Distribution
Storage tank Net
Distribution
Net
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
Each of them is 4.45 m high, 2.06 m wide and
6.75 m long. Two drilled pipes are placed at the top
of each tank; they collect treated water and
transport it to the following filtration section.
Precipitated compounds discharge is performed by
opening the taps located at the bottom of the tank;
the sludge is then dropped directly on the ground,
even if this is not allowed by Thai environmental
law;
& Filtration, achieved by means of two multilayer
gravity filters working in parallel. Each filtering
bed is 1.1 m deep and is composed, from bottom
to top, by gravel, coarse sand and fine sand. Each
filter is 1.40 m wide, 2.40 m long and 1.80 m
high. Filtration rate is equal to 15 m/h. The back-
wash procedure (countercurrent passage of water
coming from aerial storage tank) is carried out
manually about twice a day;
& Storage, achieved in two concrete underground
tanks whose volumes are 1,000 m3 and 500 m3
respectively;
& Disinfection, carried out by dosing gaseous chlo-
rine (about 3.3 mg/l) in the 500 m3 storage tank;
& Pumping to the elevated storage tank or to the
distribution pipeline: the aerial storage tank is
filled by an alternate use of two manually regu-
lated 100 m3/h pumps, whereas the direct pump-
ing of water into the distribution network is
performed by a pump with a nominal capacity of
120 m3/h, or, in case the water request is lower,
through a 60 m3/h pump.
Moreover, out of order equipment (an inclined tube
settler and two pressure filters) is present on the plant
area.
The water distribution system is composed of two
different pipelines, linked by a valve located in Takua
Pa City. The first pipeline, fed by gravity, carries
water from the aerial storage tank to the households in
Takua Pa City, that is about 6 km distant. The second
pipeline, fed by a pump, serves the three sub-districts
Table 1 Lithium mass
dosed upstream the reactors Parameter Unit
and hydrodynamic tests
duration Lithium mass g 34.0
HRT min
Test duration min
347
and reaches Ban Nam Khem village (20 km far from
the plant).
Waterworks Office Region 4, located in Surat Thani
Province, is in charge of plant and water supply
management. The employees verify its correct func-
tioning by providing an ordinary and extraordinary
maintenance (e.g., cleaning fouled tubes and canals,
repairing damaged or broken parts, etc.), regulating
coagulant and disinfectant’s dosage, back-washing the
filters and turning on and off the pumps for aerial tank
fulfilling.
Description of performed activities
Takua Pa treatment plant was monitored daily for five
days. Water was sampled in four different points,
located downstream the most important processes (see
Fig. 1). The parameters determined in the influent and
in the effluent are: temperature, pH, conductivity, total
suspended solids (TDS), turbidity, total organic
carbon (TOC), ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite,
trihalomethanes (trichloromethane, bromodichlorome-
thane, dibromochloromethane, tribromomethane), al-
uminium, iron, manganese, arsenic, cadmium,
chromium, lead, zinc, residual chlorine, total coli-
forms, Escherichia coli and algae. Escherichia coli
was determined only in terms of absence (A) and
presence (P) in the influent and in the effluent. Total
organic carbon (TOC), turbidity and algae contents
were determined also downstream the settler (in
monitoring point INT1) and the filters (in monitoring
point INT2). Water sampling was conducted consid-
ering the hydraulic retention time of each tank, in
order to correlate characteristics of water entering and
exiting each reactor.
In addition to monitoring activity, hydrodynamic
tests were performed on flocculation tanks, settler and
filters, with the purpose of pointing out possible
anomalies in the behaviour of the fluid flowing
through these reactors, such as dead water or flow rate
by-pass presence.
Flocculation Rest tank + sedimentation Filtration
77.0 12.5
28.0 61.5 10.0
56 123 20
348
Tests, executed according to the procedure de-
scribed by Collivignarelli et al. (1995), are aimed to
determine tracer concentration outgoing the tanks at
various times after the injection. In particular, the
tracer chosen was lithium chloride, whose dosed
quantities are reported in Table 1. It was injected into
the entering stream virtually instantaneously.
For each test, 15 effluent samples were withdrawn to
determine lithium concentration outgoing the reactor in
relation with time. Tracer base concentration was
determined by sampling twice (at time zero and at a
time equal to tank’s HRT) the analysed tanks influent.
The two flocculation basins were studied together
because the connecting holes are located at the
bottom, not allowing the sampling. Same reasons
obliged to analyse the rest tanks and the downstream
settlers together.
The last action performed on water treatment plant
was the verification of aluminium sulphate dosage
appropriateness. Tests were performed on water
sampled from the plant influent (characterised by pH
and turbidity respectively equal to 5.8 and 18.1 NTU)
by dosing a 1 g/l Al2(SO4)3 solution.
Firstly, the minimum dosage of reagent was
determined adding small quantities of coagulant in
400 ml of raw water, kept in slow motion (about
30 rpm) by means of a jar test machine, until the
formation of the first flock.
Then, the optimal pH value was established. Four
400 ml samples of raw water were added with
previously identified Al2(SO4)3 minimum dosage.
Their pH was modified by dosing an acid solution
(1% v/v HCl) or a basic solution (0.1% Na2CO3).
Tests were executed as follows:
1. Rapid rotation (155 rpm) for 2 min;
2. Intermediate rotation (90 rpm) for about 3 min;
3. Slow rotation (30 rpm) for 20 min;
4. Sedimentation for 20 min.
After sedimentation, a sample of supernatant was
collected from each beaker and its turbidity was
quantified. The optimal pH was the one associated
with the lowest turbidity.
Finally, the optimal dosage was determined. Six
400 ml samples of raw water (whose pH was already
equal to the optimal pH value, see “Coagulant dosage
verification”) were added with different concentrations
of coagulant (from 50 to 200% of the minimum
dosage). Tests were executed according to procedure
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
described for the optimal pH determination. The
optimal dosage was the one associated with the lowest
supernatant turbidity value.
Finally, quality of water supplied by Takua Pa plant
was monitored daily for five days in five different
points of the network (characteristic of the five areas
served by the plant). Samples were collected between
9.00 and 10.00 am, the period of major water request.
Monitored parameters were: temperature, pH, conduc-
tivity, TDS, TOC, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, THM,
iron, manganese, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead,
zinc, residual chlorine, total coliforms and Escherichia
coli.
Elaboration methodology for hydrodynamic tests
Data collected during the sampling campaign were
elaborated according to Collivignarelli et al. (1995).
The concentration C(t) of the injected material in
the exit stream at time t was reported in a concentra-
tion versus time graph. The shape of the resulting
curve, named retention time distribution (RTD),
clearly gives a good deal of information about the
tank hydrodynamic behaviour. In fact, RTD is
compared with mathematical models representing
specific hydrodynamic behaviours and the one best
suiting the experimental curve can be identified. Two
opposite ideal models are usually considered:
& Complete mixing when the reactor content is
completely homogeneous; fluid properties are
uniform and identical with those of the outgoing
stream;
& Piston flow when fluid velocity is uniform in all
the transverse sections of the reactor; each fluid
constituent entering in the reactor passes on
without interaction with the elements previously
or successively entered.
Characteristic equation for a complete-mixing
reactor is:

  
C0;t þ C0;tþ Δt Q Δt
Ctþ Δt ¼ Ct þ
C t  1
e
V ;
2
where:
Ctþ Δt outgoing tracer concentration at time t+Δt;
Ct outgoing tracer concentration at time t;
Δt discrete time interval;
C0,t incoming tracer concentration at time t;
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358 349

C0;tþΔt incoming tracer concentration at time t+Δt; Mathematical formulations which include these
Q incoming flow rate; anomalies are:
V volume of the analysed reactor. 8  
Δtð1
ib Þ

>
> Ci
1;t þCi
1;tþ Δt

Ideally, plug flow hydrodynamic behaviour can be >
>Ci;tþ Δt ¼ Ci;t þ
Ci;t  1
e t i ð1
i d Þ
>
< 2
retraced to an infinite series of complete mixing  
Ci;0 ¼ C0;0 þ N  CN ;0
C0;0
i
reactors, but that ideal behaviour do not usually occur >
> C
i C
>
> CN ;0 ¼ 0 1
ib b 0;0
with Newtonian fluids; in fact there is always some >
:
Ctþ Δt ¼ ib  C0;tþ Δt þ ð1
ib Þ  CN ;tþ Δt
longitudinal mixing, due to viscous effects and
molecular or eddy-diffusion (Danckwerts 1953). So,
where:
plug flow like reactors are generally modelled by a
limited series of complete mixing tanks through the ib ¼ QQb bypass index;
following equations: id ¼ VVd dead water index;
8 
 Ctþ Δt outgoing tracer concentration at time t+Δt;

<C ¼ C þ
Ci
1;t þCi
1;tþ Δt

C  1
e

Δt
ti Qb bypass flow rate;
i;tþ Δt i;t i;t

2
 ; Vd dead water volume;
:
Ci;0 ¼ C0;0 þ N  CN ;0
C0;0
i
C0 outgoing tracer concentration at time 0

where: Analytical methods

N total number of complete mixing reactors;
i progressive number assigned to each Analyses were carried out by means of instantaneous
reactor; methods or, whenever this was not possible, labora-
Ci;tþ Δt outgoing tracer concentration from reactor tory techniques. Temperature, pH, conductivity, TDS
i at time t+Δt; and salinity were detected by a portable probe
Ci, t outgoing tracer concentration from reactor (HACH, SensION 156), whereas turbidity was mea-
i at time t; sured by means of a turbidimeter (WTW, type 350
Ci−1, t outgoing tracer concentration from reactor IR). Portable kits were used for ammonia (Hanna
i− 1 at time t; Instruments HI 38049), iron, manganese, nitrite and
Ci
1;tþ Δt outgoing tracer concentration from reactor nitrate (IPT – instant precision test), residual chlorine
i−1 at time t+Δt; (Bayrol Pooltester) and chloride (Lovibond AF 418).
ti hydraulic retention time of reactor i;
Δt discrete time interval;
Ci, 0 outgoing tracer concentration from reactor Qb
i at time 0; C0 Qu CN C
C0, 0 incoming tracer concentration in the first Q Vu1 Vui VuN
reactor at time 0;
CN, 0 outgoing tracer concentration from reactor Vd1 Vdi VdN
N at time 0.
Qb Vdi
Moreover, the above mentioned hydrodynamic ib = ; i di =
behaviours can be affected by the presence of anoma- Q Vui + Vdi
lies (Fig. 2), which are:
& Dead water: a considerable fraction of the fluid, Legend: Q = total flow rate;
Qb = bypass flow rate;
represented by ‘dead water index id’, trapped in C0 = outgoing tracer concentration at time 0;
eddies and spending much more than the average Vd = dead water volume;
length of time in the tank (Danckwerts 1953); Vu = usable volume;
CN = tracer concentration outgoing reactor N;
& Bypass flow-rate: a considerable fraction of the C = total outgoing tracer concentration;
fluid, represented by ‘bypass index ib’, outgoing Fig. 2 Scheme of a series of N complete mixing reactors with
the tank without any treatment. flow-rate by-pass and dead water
Table 2 Physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics of Takua Pa drinking water treatment plant influent and effluent
350

Parameter Unit Influent Effluent Thai standarda WHO

standardb
04.05.06 05.05.06 06.05.06 08.05.06 09.05.06 04.05.06 05.05.06 06.05.06 08.05.06 09.05.06 Guide Max
value value

Temperature °C 29.6 30.2 29.6 30.7 29.2 29.4 29.7 27.9 28.2 28.7 – – –
pH – 5.7 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.2 5.8 5.0 5.7 5.4 5.7 6.5–8.5 9.2 6.5–9.5c
Conductivity μS/cm 31.8 32.3 31.8 16.5 18.7 40.6 39.5 37.2 32.1 27.1 – – 2500.0c
TDS mg/L 15.9 16.1 15.9 8.2 9.4 20.3 19.7 18.6 16.1 13.6 500.0d 1500.0d –
Turbidity NTU 4.1 4.1 8.7 18.1 17.4 3.0 1.6 3.6 5.0 3.1 5.0 20.0 1.0c
TOC mg/L 3 4 7 1 11 3 2 2 2 2 – – –
N
NH4þ mg/L <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 – – 0.5c
Nitrate mg/L <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 <10 45 45 50
Nitrite mg/L <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 – – 0.50c
Iron μg/L 200 200 700 2000 N.P. 100 100 500 N.P. N.P. 500 1000 200c
Manganese μg/L 28.6 51.8 33.4 167.3 32.6 29.2 27.3 33.4 29.9 36.0 300 500 400
Arsenic μg/L <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 <1.1 50.0 – 10.0
Cadmium μg/L 3.42 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 <0.03 10.00 – 3.00
Chromium μg/L <0.2 0.6 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 50.0 – 50.0
Lead μg/L <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 50 – 10
Zinc μg/L 100 60 90 90 140 110 50 70 90 120 5000 15000 3000
Aluminium μg/L N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. 285.7 121.6 140.1 98.4 – – 200.0
Residual Chlorine mg/L N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 – – –
Trichloromethane μg/L N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. 11.5 8.9 17.4 9.2 9.3 – – 200.0
Bromodichloromethane μg/L N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. 3.2 2.6 3.7 1.9 2.0 – – 60.0
Dibromochloromethane μg/L N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3 – – 100.0
Tribromomethane μg/L N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. N.P. <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 – – 100.0
Total Coliforms MPN/ 17.0 13.0 43.0 278.0 278.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 – 0.0c
100cm3
E. Coli – P P P P P A A A A A A – Ac

N.P. Analysis not performed

a
Thai Drinking water quality standards (Pollution Control Department 2004)
b
Drinking water quality standards from guidelines for drinking–water quality (WHO 2006)
c
Limits from 98/83/EC (for those parameters not ruled by WHO guidelines) (Council Directive 1998)
d
Value referred to total solids
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
Fig. 3 Turbidity in the
plant monitoring points
Following parameters were detected in laboratories
located in Bangkok according to the analytical
methods reported between brackets:
& TOC (HACH Company 2006);
& Arsenic (APHA et al. 1995a);
& Aluminium, cadmium, hexavalent chromium,
lead, lithium, manganese and zinc (APHA et al.
1995b);
& Total coliforms (APHA et al. 1995c);
& Escherichia coli (APHA et al. 1995d);
& Algae (APHA et al. 1995e);
& THM (APHA et al. 1995f).
Results and discussion
Drinking water treatment plant monitoring
Table 2 sums up chemical–physical and microbiolog-
ical characteristics of water samples drawn from
Takua Pa treatment plant influent and effluent. Data
show clear differences in the incoming water quality,
comparing the first three days and the last two days
(when monsoons began) of the monitoring period. In
Fig. 4 TOC concentration
in the plant monitoring
points
351
particular, for what concerns chemical–physical
parameters, it was possible to observe a large decrease
of TDS concentration (from about 16 to about 9 mg/l)
and conductivity (varying from 32 μS/cm to about
17 μS/cm), probably because of dilution due to
rainwater. At the same time, it was noticed an increase
of turbidity (from 4–8 NTU to about 18 NTU), iron
(from 0.2 to 2 mg/l) and manganese (which reached a
peak value equal to 167.3 μg/l); instead, TOC showed
an anomalous trend, reaching its minimum (1 mg/l)
and maximum (11 mg/l) during rainy days. No
significant variation were registered for other param-
eters: temperature and pH ranged respectively be-
tween 29.2 and 30.7°C and 5.2 and 5.8, respectively,
whereas the remaining pollutants were detected in
slender concentration, often lower than the instrument
detection limit.
Influent microbiological properties changed after
monsoons beginning: it was registered in fact a
remarkable increase of total coliforms (from 13–43
up to 278 MPN/100 cm3), whereas Escherichia coli
was always present in the influent. This variation was
probably originated by the worsening of Bang-ee
waterfalls and Khok Kien lake water quality due to
surrounding surface wash.
352
Fig. 5 ‘Filter clogging’
algae concentration in the
monitored points of the
plant
The effluent resulted suitable for human consump-
tion in the five monitored days both for chemical–
physical and microbiological parameters. The only
parameter not respecting the guide value, provided by
Thai law, was pH (assuming values between 5.0 and
5.8), already too acid in the plant influent. Conduc-
tivity and TDS, even though present in concentrations
slightly higher than in the influent, probably due to
coagulant dosage, resulted in the range 27.1–40.6 μS/
cm and 13.6–20.3 mg/l, respectively. Supplied water
showed a slender turbidity (1.6–5 NTU), exceeding
the 1 NTU threshold provided by 98/83/EC, and TOC
content equal to 2–3 mg/l. Metals were detected in
low concentrations, although iron and aluminium
presented a peak value of 500 and 285.7 μg/l.
As reported in “Description of performed activi-
ties,” turbidity, TOC and algae were monitored also
downstream settlers and filters. The results highlight-
ed that turbidity trend within the plant, as illustrated
in Fig. 3, was averagely decreasing. In particular,
overall turbidity removal efficiencies were between
12.3 and 94.3%.
Fig. 6 Not ‘ filter clogging’
algae concentration in the
monitored points of the
plant
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
On the contrary, TOC trend, as reported in Fig. 4,
presented anomalous variations. In fact, TOC was
generally removed within sedimentation tanks, but it
highly increased downstream filters, clearly releasing
organic matter. In particular, TOC concentration
downstream filters was always higher than 2 mg/l,
value that should not be exceeded to avoid disinfec-
tion-by-products formation (US EPA 1999a).
However, THMs were detected in the plant effluent
in very low concentration, strongly inferior to
drinking water quality standards provided by WHO
(see Table 2): trichloromethane (CHCl3) varied
between 9 and 17 μg/l, whereas bromodichloro-
methane (BDCM) and dibromochloromethane
(DBCM) resulted to be respectively between 2–4
and 0.3–0.6 μg/l. Tribromomethane (CHBr3) resulted
inferior to instrument detection limit (0.1 μg/l). Such
differences lead to suppose that bromine content in
the plant influent was very low.
Analogously to turbidity and TOC, also algae
belonging to Crisophyta, Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta
and Euglenophyta divisions were monitored after
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358 353
Fig. 7 Hydrodynamic test
Experimental data Theorical RTD
results relative to floccula-
tion tanks
25

20

Li+ concentration (µmol/L)

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (min)

settlers and filters. As expected, ‘filter clogging’ algae
(i.e. algae able to clog filters, resulting in reduced
runtimes and an increase in the volume of backwash
water needed for cleaning; US EPA 1999b) trend,
presented in Fig. 5, was very similar to the turbidity
one and their average removal efficiency was 80%.
Contrarily, remaining algae removal efficiency,
whose trend is reported in Fig. 6, was lower
(averagely 54.2%). This is mainly due to Chlorophyta
division algae, in particular Ankistrodesmus falcatus
and Cosmarium sp., whose concentrations in the
effluent were sometimes higher than the ones in the
influent. Their origin is referable to algal proliferation
in the underground storage tanks. However, no toxic
algae belonging to Cyanophyta division were detected
in the plant effluent.
Finally, the presence of yellow-reddish froths (occa-
sionally removed manually by employees) in several
plant basins has to be signalled. Their origin is not clear
yet, but it seems referable to the reaction between
aluminium sulphate, dosed in the plant influent, and
organic matter and iron present in the water.

Fig. 8 Hydrodynamic test

Experimental data Theoretical RTD
results relative to inclined
tube settler
140

120
Li+ concentration (µmol/L)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Time (min)
354
Fig. 9 Turbidity vs 18
Al2(SO4)3 dosage curve
16
14
Turbidity (NTU)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2
Hydrodynamic tests
RTD relative to hydrodynamic tests on flocculation
tanks is graphed in Fig. 7. It shows that such basins
are modelled by a series of five complete-mixing
reactors, three simulating the first basin and two
simulating the second, with a flow-rate by-pass equal
to 25% and a dead volume equal to 10%. The remark-
able by-pass presence is referable to the wrong
position of entrance and exit holes, favouring the
direct transit from a hole to the other. Dead volume,
probably located in the tanks corners, indicates a not
optimal mixing.
RTD concerning rest tank and settler, illustrated in
Fig. 8, is modelled by a series of five complete-
mixing reactors; three of them simulating the rest tank
behaviour and the others simulating the sedimentation
behaviour, with a by-pass equal to 11%. The result
obtained for rest tank is plausible since, although it
has a square plan, it is not provided with a mixer. On
the contrary, model obtained for sedimentation tank
do not correspond completely to the expected one. In
fact, a model characterized by a higher number of
complete mixing reactors in series (more similar to a
piston-flow behaviour) would be expected. Further-
more, it seems improbable the absence of dead
volume in such a fouled settler. Unfortunately, it
was not possible to either look up the plant design (it
seems to be missed) or empty the tanks, hence ob-
tained results are not completely explainable.
At last, filtration tank presented, as expected, an
hydrodynamic behaviour simulated by a complete-
mixing reactor followed by a piston flow. Also in this
case, however, results can not be fully explained
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
D (mg/L)
because filters’ detailed constructive features are
currently unknown.
Coagulant dosage verification
Tests highlighted that optimal pH is equal to 5.8,
coincident to natural value of water used in tests. The
optimal coagulant dosage, able to guarantee the
lowest turbidity value (about 3 NTU), ranged between
12 and 14 mg/l (see Fig. 9).
The current aluminium sulphate dosage amounts to
10 mg/l and it allows a turbidity removal to values
lower than the standard provided by Thai law
(5 NTU), as verified during the plant monitoring.
Supplied water monitoring
Table 3 sums up chemical–physical and microbiolog-
ical characteristics of water drawn from five points of
Takua Pa plant supply network. Data analysis shows
that water does not present microbiological contam-
ination (total coliforms and E. coli are absent) and has
a slender content of salts, nitrogenous compounds and
metals. Critical parameters are pH, which presented
too acid value (4.1–6.1), and turbidity, which in few
cases was higher than Thai guide value (5 NTU) and
in one sample higher than the maximum acceptable
limit (20 NTU).
TOC, not regulated by Thai law, was present in
concentration (2–14 mg/l) considerably higher than
those measured in the plant effluent (see Table 2).
Also THMs in supplied water were higher than in
plant effluent, whereas residual chlorine concentration
decreased (to values often inferior to 0.1 mg/l) as
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358 355

Table 3 Physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics of water supplied by Takua Pa drinking water treatment plant

Parameter Unit Monitored point Thai Standarda WHO

Standardb
DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 Guide value Max
value

Temperature °C 27.9– 25.2– 26.4– 26.4–28.7 25.2– – – –

28.6 29.1 32.2 29.4
pH – 4.2–5.6 4.2–5.9 4.1–5.9 4.8–6.0 5.1–6.1 6.5–8.5 9.2 6.5–9.5c
Conductivity μS/cm 30.3– 27.7– 28.2– 29.2–38.4 28.6– – – 2500.0c
34.5 33.0 33.2 32.7
TDS mg/l 15.1– 13.8– 14.1– 14.6–19.2 14.3– 500.0d 1500.0d –
17.2 16.5 16.6 16.4
Turbidity NTU 1.3–3.6 1.6–5.6 2.0–5.5 1.8–22.9 2.2–7.8 5.0 20.0 1.0c
TOC mg/l 2–6 N.P. 2–5 2–14 N.P. – – –
N
NHþ 4 mg/l <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 – – 0.5c
Nitrate mg/l <10 N.P. <10 <10 N.P. 45 45 50
Nitrite mg/l <0.05 N.P. <0.05 <0.05 N.P. – – 0.50c
Iron μg/l <250 N.P. <250 100–250 N.P. 500 1000 200c
Manganese μg/l 3.4–13.6 N.P. 3.4–19.3 9.6–13.6 N.P. 300.0 500.0 400.0
Arsenic μg/l <1.1 N.P. <1.1 <1.1 N.P. 50.0 – 10.0
Cadmium μg/l <0.03 N.P. <0.03 <0.03– N.P. 10.00 – 3.00
0.72
Chromium μg/l <0.2 N.P. <0.2 <0.2 N.P. 50.0 – 50.0
Lead μg/l <1.0 N.P. <1.0 <1.0–30.6 N.P. 50.0 – 10.0
Zinc μg/l 50–80 N.P. 50–70 100–2190 N.P. 5000 15000 3000
Residual Chlorine mg/l <0.1–0.6 N.P. <0.1–1.5 <0.1–0.1 N.P. – – –
Trichloromethane μg/l 24.9– N.P. 10.7– 33.1–42.9 N.P. – – 200.0
54.2 47.1
Bromodichloromethane μg/l 4.6–9.1 N.P. 1.4–6.8 5.5–7.4 N.P. – – 60.0
Dibromochloromethane μg/l 0.7–1.4 N.P. 0.3–0.7 0.7–1.1 N.P. – – 100.0
Tribromomethane μg/l <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 N.P. – – 100.0
Total Coliforms MPN/ 0.0 N.P. 0.0 0.0 N.P. 2.2 – 0.0c
100cm3
E. coli – A N.P. A A N.P. A – Ac

N.P. Analysis not performed

a
Thai Drinking water quality standards (Pollution Control Department 2004)
b
Drinking water quality standards from Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (WHO 2006)
c
Limits from 98/83/EC (for those parameters not ruled by WHO guidelines) (Council Directive 1998)
d
Value referred to total solids

passing through the pipeline. Such variations could be
due to a possible bacterial proliferation in the net, that
can not be excluded in spite of the absence of E. coli
and total coliforms in the monitored samples.
Plant deficiencies and possible corrective actions
In this chapter few interventions are proposed in order
to solve current plant lacks arisen clearly during the
surveys and confirmed by monitoring results.
Regarding the coagulation–flocculation section, it
was verified that aluminium sulphate dosage was suit-
able to respect Thai standard for turbidity. The coag-
ulant is added at the beginning of the canal feeding the
following flocculation basins; such canal is equipped
with steps that favour on the one hand coagulant diffu-
sion (that could be improved by introducing horizontal
baffles), on the other hand a slight pre-aeration and the
stripping of eventual gaseous compounds.
It was verified that operational parameters for
flocculation process are suitable: in fact, values for
356 Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358

Table 4 Main design parameters proposed for flocculation, inclined tube settler and gravity filters

Process Reference Design parameter Suggested values

Flocculation Nurizzo 1995 Hydraulic retention time 15–40 min

Inclined tube sedimentation
Gravity filtration
Plates rotational velocity 0.2–0.6 m/s
Water transfer velocity 0.3–0.4 m/s
MWH 2005 Hydraulic retention time 20–30 min
Average velocity gradient 10–80 s−1
Chen 1979; Willis 1978 Surface overflow rate 2.5–9.2 m/d
Culp and Culp 1974 Diameter of tube 25–50 mm
Panneerselvam 1982 Length of tube 60–120 cm
Yao 1970 Inclination angle 50–60°
Yao 1970; Vigneswaran and Visvanathan 1995 Shape parameter of tubes 1 Parallel tubes
4/3 Circular tubes
11/8 Square tubes
Nurizzo 1995 Surface loading rate 6–7 m/h (<10 m/h)
Depth of filtering bed 1–2 m/h
MWH 2005 Surface loading rate 5–15 m/h
Depth of filtering bed 0.6–1.8 m
Metcalf and Eddy 1991 Surface loading rate 5–20 m/h
Depth of filtering bed 0.5–1.1 m

hydraulic retention time, equal to about 27 min, and
average velocity gradient, estimated to be between 21
and 37 s−1 in the first basin and between 15 and
25 s−1 in the second one, are in the commonly
adopted ranges (MWH 2005; see Table 4). Likewise,
also plates rotational velocity and water transfer
velocity (respectively 0.5–0.6 and 0.4–0.5 m/s for
the first basin and 0.4–0.5 and 0.3–0.4 m/s for the
second basin) do not differ significantly from litera-
ture values. Instead, hydrodynamic tests proved the
presence of a significant (25%) flow-rate by-pass, that
could be avoided by modifying the position of
entrance and exit holes in the flocculation basins,
and a 10% dead volume, that could be eliminated by
providing the reactors with breakwater baffles.
Furthermore, dosage of lime in the plant influent
should be adopted to improve coagulation–flocculation
performance and neutralize influent pH, also allowing
to reduce pipes corrosion and froth formation.
Regarding the settler section (whose constructive
details are not known), surface overflow rate was
estimated to be not inferior than 12.2 m/day and
therefore superior to literature values (2.5–9.2 m/day;
Chen 1979; Willis 1978). This section upgrade is then
necessary and it could be achieved by providing with
inclined tubes the rest tanks and by restoring the

gaseous chlorine from filters from filters gaseous chlorine

to distribution to distribution
network network
to aerial to aerial
storage tank storage tank
500 m3 1000 m3 500 m3 1000 m3
underground tank underground tank underground tank underground tank

Fig. 10 Underground storage tanks scheme in current configuration (left) and in proposed one (right)
Environ Monit Assess (2008) 142:345–358
inclined tube settler already located inside the plant
area but currently out of order. This intervention would
reduce the surface overflow rate to an acceptable value
between 6.1 and 8.1 m/day.
Moreover, sludge removed from settlers, currently
discharged directly on the land inside the plant,
should be stored and properly disposed.
Coming to the filtration section, filtering bed depth
(equal to 1.1 m) does not differ from usually adopted
values (see Table 4), whereas surface loading rate
(equal to about 20 m/h) should be reduced. Further-
more, a reserve filter to be used during backwash is
missing; in fact, the two filters are nowadays back-
washed contemporaneously because an alternate
backwash would cause an excessive surface loading
rate on the operating filter. This procedure brings to
an increase of water level in the upstream settlers and
a consequent loss of water through the overflow
discharge system. Hence, filtration section should be
upgraded by restoring the pressure filters already
present in the plant and currently out of order or by
building new filters. Moreover, backwash water,
which is currently discharged on land, should be
recirculated to the coagulation section.
Water coming out the filters reaches two parallel
and interconnected underground tanks, whose vol-
umes are 500 and 1,000 m3 (see Fig. 10). Chlorine
dosage point is located in the 500 m3 tank and is very
close to the pumps feeding the water supply system.
This configuration causes an excessive residual
chlorine concentration (1–3 mg/l) in the plant efflu-
ent, much higher than 0.1–0.3 mg/l suggested by
Geldreich and LeChavelier (1999); furthermore, there
is not any disinfectant in the 1,000 m3 tank, where
biological and algal proliferation could take place. I
would be convenient to vary the hydraulic flow in
order to direct filters effluent into 1,000 m3 tank and
move chlorine dosage at the beginning of that tank
(see Fig. 10).
Coming to the general plant management, it is
performed roughly: for instance, settlers and other parts
of the plant are dirty, filters backwash is performed
randomly as much as aerial storage tank fulfilling.
Hence, it would be very useful to better organize each
activity inside the plant, planning opportunely all
necessary operations and reporting them on specific
registers. Moreover, the possibility of automizing few
processes, such as filters backwash, aerial tank fulfill-
ing and coagulant dosage should be assessed.
357
Conclusions
Takua Pa water treatment plant monitoring highlight-
ed that, despite the influent variability, treated water
suited Thai guide values, except for pH, that was
already too acid in the influent. Moreover, TOC trend
inside the plant showed a remarkable organic matter
release from filters, but the following chlorine
disinfection was able to abate TOC causing only a
slender THMs formation. Algae and turbidity moni-
toring indicates that algal proliferation in the under-
ground storage tanks is likely to take place.
Hydrodynamic tests and plant consistency verifica-
tion demonstrated the necessity of few structural and
managerial improvements, such as filtration and sedi-
mentation upgrade, coagulation/flocculation and final
disinfection re-organization, use of proper registers to
better plan and control employees activities.
Regarding water quality in the distribution net-
work, it was characterized by turbidity and TOC
contents higher than in the plant effluent, hence a
further study should be started to determine the causes
of such contamination.
Aknowledgments Authors would like to thank University of
Brescia professors and Comunità Bresciana Foundation, who
financed this study. Thanks are extended to Francesco
Montemagno and Sabrina Sorlini for their useful suggestions.
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