Massachusetts Institute of Technology

13.10J/1.573J STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

Introduction, Forces,
Free-Body Diagrams,
and Stresses
Lecture 1
By Prof. N. M. Patrikalakis

OUTLINE
1. Scope of Structural Mechanics
2. Idealization Method
3. Equations of Statics
4. Free-body Diagram
5. Statically Indeterminate Problems
6. Stress
7. Differential Equations of Equilibrium

READING
• pp. 1 - 45 of Textbook

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1 Scope of Structural Mechanics

• Physical science dealing with deformation and stresses of solids

acted on by mechanical and thermal disturbances or forcings
(considered as static).
• History
– Archimedes - Buoyancy, lever etc. (3rd Century B.C.)
– Newton - Newtonian mechanics (17th Century A. D.)

Mechanics

Fluid Solid
Mechanics Mechanics

Structural Dynamics
Mechanics
(Statics)

2
2 Idealization Method (Simplify/Make Feasible Analysis)

• Continuum assumption: matter assumed continuous (or

at least piecewise continuous)
• Rigid body: solid with no deformation

P P P’

Rigid Body Non-Rigid Body

– Easy to confine problem to – Position and orientation of

beam analysis
– Easy to find reactions (with-
out using deformations)
– For indeterminate prob-
lems, deformation needs to
be found/treated together
with reactions
force change with load
– Difficult to find reactions
– Compliance of supports
– Coupled problems
– Non-linear problems
(geometrically)

• Elastic body
– Resumes original shape when all loads are removed
– Other idealizations:
∗ Linearly elastic → deformation ∼ load
∗ Elastic-plastic
∗ Rigid-plastic
3
• Load idealization
– Concentrated loads
W

Idealized
w

– Distributed loads

Boxes (piecewise)
uniformly
distributed

boxes beam
Actual +
beam Idealized

Example: linearly varying - vessel with liquid

Hydrostatic
pressure
z
P = ρg z























Density Acceleration
ofGravity
Idealized

– Concentrated moment

w M=wd

d
Idealized
Actual
W

4
• Support idealization
– Specification of boundary conditions
– Decoupling of problems
– Types of Supports
∗ Fixed support







· beam into concrete/wall
· beam welded on another structure
Reactions : Force in any direction and moment
P
Fy

Fx
M

Independent Support Reactions: r = 3

∗ Pinned support

Fy

Fx
Diagram
Reaction:
Force in
any direction

r=2

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∗ Roller support

LOG Diagram
Reaction in
one direction

Inclined Roller

α Rv
tan α =
RH

r=1

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3 Equations of Static Equilibrium of a (Solid) Body

• Resultant force and moment = 0

X
~ =0
F
X
~ =0
M

• Decomposing these into components:

– For 3D case (n = 6):
Fx = Fy = Fz = 0
X X X

Mx = My = Mz = 0
X X X

– for 2D case (n = 3):

Fx = Fy = 0
X X

Mz = 0
X

– Leads to 6 or 3 independent equations.

– These equations may be used to determine reactions.
– They are necessary conditions for equilibrium, but not
sufficient. Deformation considerations may also be needed to
provide a set of conditions for equilibrium.

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4 Concept of Free-Body Diagram

• A complete diagram of all external forces and moments acting on

a body (including support reactions), is known as the Free-Body
Diagram (FBD).

KN
4
5
B
A 3
45
3m 9m

FBD:
4 y
H A B H
RA RB = RB
3
x
V V
RA RB = RB z

V
RB
◦
• From: tan45 = H
RB
=1⇒
V H
RB = RB → call this force RB
H V
• Above is a 2D problem with r = 3 unknown reactions: (RA , RA , RB )
H
Fx = 0 ⇒ R A − RB − 3 = 0
X

V
Fy = 0 ⇒ R A + RB − 4 = 0
X

Mz = 0 (w.r.t. point A, +ccw) ⇒ RB · 12 − 4 · 3 = 0

X

3 equations and 3 unknowns:

n=r=3
Solve to find:
H V
RB = 1, RA = 4, RA =3

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5 Static Determinacy of a Structure

• Definition of n and r
n = # of equations of equilibrium (of forces and moments)
r = # of reactions

• Various cases:
– Case A: n=r
∗ Statically determinate structure.
∗ Support reactions can be determined with only the static
equilibrium equations.
– Case B: n<r
∗ Statically indeterminate
∗ Support reactions cannot be determined with only the
static equilibrium equations
∗ Need to use deformation.
– Case C: n>r
∗ Unstable.
∗ Results in rigid body motion.

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• Examples of Determinacy (with n = 3)

– Case A: Statically determinate

n=3
r =3

– Case B: Statically indeterminate

r=4

n<r

r=4

– Case C: Unstable

A
No restriction to r=2
r=2 rotate about A
n> r

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• Another Example
F
y
x
F1 F2 F3 F’
z

Horizontal:
Fx = 0, n = 1, r = 0, n > r, unstable
X

Vertical:

Fy = 0, Mz = 0, n = 2, r = 3, n < r,
X X

indeterminate (in vertical reactions)

Contrast with:
F

F1 F3

n = 2, r = 2, n = r, determinate (in vertical reactions)

Here, horizontal and vertical reactions are not coupled in the equi-
librium equations.

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6 Stress

• Arbitrary body in equilibrium

• Cut body with (virtual) plane S

B
S

• Determine force distribution of cut

F
S

~r × δ F~ )
Z
(M = s

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• Examine area element δA of S

δF

δA

(δ F~ = force resultant transmitted across δA)

• Note: As δA → 0, force distribution with δA can be considered
constant in magnitude and direction.

X Z
δF
Y

Resultant
δM = 0
δA as δ A 0 area = 0

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• Decompose δ F~ into 3 orthogonal components:

If S ⊥ x-axis → δ F~x k Normal of δA

δ F~ = δFx~i + δFy~j + δFz~k

Normal stress:

δFx
τxx = lim
δA→0 δA

Shear stresses:

δFy
τxy = lim
δA→0 δA
δFz
τxz = lim
δA→0 δA

• Stresses τxx , τxy , τxz

– First subscript: cutting plane ⊥ x-axis
– Second subscript: direction of stress component
– repeated indices: normal stresses

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• Concept of tensor
infinitesimal
Z rectangular
box

Y
τzz
τzy
τzx τyz
X
Z τxz τyy
τxy τyx

τxx
Y

– Sign convention: a stress > 0 (positive) if stress vector and

outward normal vector both point in + (or both in -) direction.
– 3 normal stresses τxx , τyy , τzz
– 6 shear stresses τxy , τxz , τyx, τyz , τzx , τzy
– Stress tensor: 3 × 3 matrix
 
 τxx τxy τxz 
 


 τyx τyy τyz 


τzx τzy τzz
 

• Stress tensor is symmetric:

τxy = τyx, τxz = τzx , τyz = τzy
(Complementarity of stress) - Follows from static equilibrium
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• Example: 2-D Case (Plane Stress)
τyy
Y
τyx thickness t

By τxy
τxx
δy
Bx τxx
τxy
δx
0 X
τyx
τyy

MO = 0 (+cw), (Normal stresses have 0 contribution to MO )

X

δy δx
τyx · δxδyt − τxy · δyδxt + Bx · δxδyt − By · δxδyt = 0
2 2
As:
δx, δy → 0 ⇒ τyx = τxy
More general proof is also easy.

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7 Differential Equations of Static Equilibrium

• Consider stresses as functions of x, y, z in body B.

B
X

τyx
δz τyx + δy
y
τzx
Y τxx τxx
τxx + δx + h.o.t
δy x
τzx
τyx τzx + δz
δx z
(x, y, z)
X
1st order
Taylor expansion

• Study equilibrium of rectangular box (δx, δy, δz: sides - in deformed

state)

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• Sum up forces in x direction.

∂τxx
(τxx + · δx)δyδz − τxx δyδz+
∂x
∂τyx
(τyx + · δy)δxδz − τyxδxδz+
∂y
∂τzx
(τzx + · δz)δxδy − τzx δxδy−
∂z
Bx · δxδyδz = 0
where Bx represents a body force (per unit volume).

∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz

+ + + Bx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
where the complementarity of stress was used.
Similarly:
∂τyx ∂τyy ∂τyz
+ + + By = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂τzx ∂τzy ∂τzz

+ + + Bz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
(moment equation already satisfied: normal stresses →
0 moments, complementarity property uses moment equilibrium)
→ 6 unknowns, 3 equations →
(Internally statically indeterminate → deformations needed
(together with boundary conditions).
Also, equations apply to elastic, plastic materials - no material
properties used.

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