GROUP B (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS)

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1. Residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy meter.
2. Fluorescent lamp wiring.
3. Stair case wiring
4. Measurement of electrical quantities – voltage, current, power & power factor in RLC circuit.
5. Measurement of energy using single phase energy meter.
6. Measurement of resistance to earth of an electrical equipment.

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1.Study of Electronic components and equipments –Resistor, colour coding measurement of AC signal
parameter (peak -peak, rms period, frequency) using CR.
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering practice –Components Devices and Circuits –Using general purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.
REFERENCES:
1. Jeyachandran K., Natarajan S.& Balasubramanian S . , “A Primer on Engineering Practices Laboratory”,
Anuradha Publications, (2007).
2. JeyapoovanT. , Saravanapandian M.& Pranitha S. , “Engineering Practices Lab Manual”, ikas
Puplishing House Pvt.Ltd, (2006)
3. Bawa H.S. , “Workshop Practice”, Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company Limited, (2007).
4. Rajendra Prasad A. & Sarma P.M.M.S. , “Workshop Practice”, Sree Sai Publication, (2002).
5. Kannaiah P. & Narayana K.L. , “Manual on Workshop Practice”, Scitech Publications, (1999).

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fuse rating calculations:

Calculate Fuse Ratings

There is a formula for working out the fuse rating, voltage or wattage for each appliance  
 P (Power in Watts) = V (voltage) x I (current in Amps)
 The fuse rating can be calculated by dividing the power used by the appliance by the voltage going into
the appliance.
 I (Amps) = P (Watts) ÷ V (Voltage)

RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES, FUSE,

EXPERIMENT DATE:-
INDICATOR, LAMP AND ENERGY METER.
No:
AIM:
To construct residential house wiring using switches, fuse, indicator, lamp and energy meter.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Description Quantity

1 Lamps loads 5A 3
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 2 Bulb holder 3
3 Fuses 3
4 One way switches 3
5 Wires required

TOOLS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Quantity

1 Plier 1
2 Knife 1
3 Side cutter 1
4 Screw driver 1

PROCEDURE:
 Collect the materials required for this experiment.
 Draw the layout of the given circuit diagram in the circuit board.
 Fix the necessary materials, by using drilling machine in the layout board.
 The lamps are fixed on the lamp holders.
 Connections are checked and supply is given.
 Switches are operated to see the output of the lamp.
PRECAUTIONS:
 The metal covering of all appliances are to be properly earthed in order to avoid electrical shock
due to leakage or failure of insulation.
 Every line has to be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as per the requirement.

RESULT:

FLUORESCENT TUBE WIRING

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Fuse rating calculations:

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EXPERIMENT DATE:-
FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
No:

AIM:

To construct a Fluorescent tube wiring.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Quantity

1 Tube light 1
2 Choke 1
3 Starter 1
4 Connecting wires
5 Screws and nuts

TOOLS REQUIRED:
S.No Components Quantity
1 Plier 1
2 Knife 1
3 Side cutter 1
4 Screw driver 1
THEORY:

The fluorescent tubes are available in lengths of 0.61m and 1.22m.The tubes are coated from
inside with phosphorous, which is used to convert ultra violet radiations into visible light and to give the
required colour sensation. A choke is used to give a transient high voltage so as to initiate the electron
movement. With the switch S closed, the circuit gets closed.
The current flows through the choke and the starter. The starter suddenly breaks thereby breaking
the circuit. Due to high inductive property of the choke, a transient high voltage is available across the
filaments. Hence electrons are emitted and travel through the tube. Such a continuous flow of electrons
produces the sensation of light to human eyes.
PROCEDURE:
 The tube light wiring is made as per the wiring diagram.
 Supply is given and circuit is checked.

RESULT:

STAIRCASE WIRING

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 Fuse rating calculations:

Power drawn by the circuit =40 watts Voltage of circuit =230volts P=VI cos Ø
Assuming cos Ø = 1 Current in the circuit = power/ voltage = 40W/ 230V = 0.174A
Fuse rating of the circuit = rounding off the current to the nearest 5 =5A
(Normally fuses are available in the ratings of 5A, 10A and etc.)

Sl.no Switch A Switch B Output-Lamp

1 1 2 OFF
2 1 1 ON
3 2 1 OFF
4 2 2 ON

EXPERIMENT DATE:-
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 STAIRCASE WIRING
No:

AIM:
To setup a staircase wiring using the given lamps, controlled by switches.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Components Quantity

1 PVC pipes 1
2 Junction boxes 1
3 Bulb holder 1
4 PVC plates 1
5 Drilling machine 1
6 Wires
7 Two-way switch 2
TOOLS REQUIRED:
S.No Components Quantity
1 Neon tester 1
2 Cutting pliers 1
3 Screw driver 1

THEORY:
In this wiring a single lamp is controlled from two places. For this purpose two numbers of two-
way switches are used.
PROCEDURE:
 Collect the materials required for this experiment.
 Draw the layout of the given circuit diagram in the circuit board.
 Fix the necessary materials, by using drilling machine in the layout board.
 One end of the lamp holder is connected to neutral point and another point is connected at the
center of the two-way switch B.
 The center of the switch A is connected to the phase line.
 The connection of the other two ends of two-way switch is connected as follows. The point 1 of
switch A is connected to point 1 of switch B and point 2 of A is connected to 2 of B.
 The given lamp is fixed on the lamp holders..
 Controlling the switches, the circuit is checked and results are tabulated.

RESULT:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

RLC Circuit
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EXPERIMENT DATE:-
No: MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES – VOLTAGE,
CURRENT, POWER & POWER FACTOR IN RLC CIRCUIT.
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AIM:

To measure real power, reactive power, power factor and impedance RLC circuit using voltmeter
and ammeter

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1 Auto transformer 1 1 1
2 Rheostat 200Ω,150 Ω 200/2A 1
3 DCB 10μf,4μf UPF 2
4 DIB 1H 1
5 Voltmeter (0-150) V 1
6 Ammeter (0-200) mA 1
7 Connecting wires

PROCEDURE:

 Connect the RLC circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

 After verification of circuit close the DPST switch.
 Precaution set the auto transformer to minimum position.
 Vary the auto transformer such that 200 mA of current flows through ammeter.
 Note down drop across R, R-L and C also current in the circuit.
 Readings are tabulated.
 Bring the auto transformer to original position before opening DPSTS.
 Calculate power factor (cos), impedance (Z), real power (P), reactive power (Q), and total
power(S).

CALCULATION:

V1 = Supply voltage = IZ in volts

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 VC = Drop across capacitor = IX C in volts
VR = Drop across resistor = IR in volts
VL = Drop across inductor = IX L in volts

V = Drop across R, L &C =I in volts

I= V/Z in Amps –Current through RLC network

RESULT:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 PHASOR DIAGRAM

EXPERIMENT MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY DATE:-

No: METER.

AIM:
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 To measure the energy using single phase energy meter at UPF load condition
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1 Voltmeter (0-300) V M.I 1
2 Ammeter (0-5) A M.I 1
3 Wattmeter 300V, 5A UPF 2
4 1ϕ Variable resistive load kW 1
5 Stop clock (0-150) V 1
6 Connecting wires

PRECAUTIONS:
 There should be no load at the time of starting.
 The connections must be made proper for UPF.
PROCEDURE:
 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
 The DPST switch is closed and the supply is affected and load is adjusted to full load value.
 The time taken for 10 revolutions of the aluminum disc in the energy meter noted.
 The error is calculated if it is more than +3% the brake magnet is adjusted such that the error is
within +3%.
 The load is reduced in steps and for each step, step #. 3 is repeated and the %error is calculated.
FORMULAE USED:
 Energy meter specification = 1200 rev/Kwhr = 1 Kwhr
 1rev = 1Kwhr/1200 = (3600 * 100) / 1200 = 3000 Watt – sec.
 For UPF conditions,
Power calculated from energy meter reading = 3000 / (time taken for 10 rev)

 %Error = x1

TABULAR COLUMN:

s.no Ammeter Time for 100 Wattmeter Power from Energy %Error
reading revolution (sec) reading (W) meter (%)
(A) (W)
Observed Actual
value value

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Calculation:

RESULT:

BLOCK DIAGRAM

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EXPERIMENT DATE:-
No: MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF AN
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

AIM:
To measure the earth resistance using megger.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:

S.no Components Quantity

1 Megger 1
2 Rod 3

TOOLS REQUIRED:
S.no Components Quantity
1 Connecting Wirea
2 Hammer 1
THEORY:
Earthing means generally connected to the mass of the earth. It shall be in such a means as to
ensure at all times an immediate & safe discharge of electric current due to leakage, fault etc. All metallic
parts of every electrical insulation such as conduit, metallic sheathing, metallic panels, motor, gear,
Transformer regulator shall be earthed using continuous bus wire if one earth bus for installation is found
impracticable move than one earthing system shall be introduced the earthing conductors when taken
outdoors to the earthing point, shall be incased in pipe securely supported and continued upto point not
less than 0.3m below the ground. No joints are permitted in earth bus whenever there is lighting
conductors system installed in a building.
Its earthing shall not be bonded to the earthing of electric installation. Before the electric supply
on apparatus is energized all earthing system shall be tested for electrical resistance to ensure efficient
earthing. It shall not be more than 2ohms including the ohmic value of earth electrode.
PROCEDURE:
 Collect the materials required for this experiment.
 The terminal of ohmmeter E is first connected to earth.
 The two earth rods are fixed to feet away from the ohmmeter. So that they are triangle with
base 50 feet.
 The wires are connected to each rod and the ohmmeter terminals are shown.
 The ohmmeter is ranked and the readings are taken.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 1. CURRENT ELECTRODE
2. POTENTIAL ELECTRODE
3. EARTH

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No Distance Between Electrode(Feet) Resistance(Ohms)

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RESULT:

Resistor Colour Coding:

Resistor Standard Colour Code Table

Colour Value Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 X100

Brown 1 X101 ± 1%

Red 2 X102 ± 2%

Orange 3 X103

Yellow 4 X104

Green 5 X105 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 X106 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 X107 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 X108 ± 0.05%

White 9 X109

Gold X10-1 ± 5%

Silver X10-2 ± 10%

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 None ± 20%

STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT DATE:

EXPERIMENT No:

Aim:

To study electronic components and equipment such as resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and
Multimeter
Components Required:
1. Resistors
2. Oscilloscope
3. Multimeter
Theory:
Resistor colour coding:
Resistor colour coding is used to indicate the values or ratings of resistors. It is also used in
capacitors and inductors. The advantage of colour coding is that essentia linformation can be marked on
small components of cylindrical shape without the need to read tiny printing. Resistor values are always
coded in ohms.
Band A is the first significant digit of component value.
Band B is the second significant digit.
Band C is the decimal multiplier.
Band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no colour means 20%).
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red and gold will have first digit 4(yellow), second
digit 7(violet), followed by 2(red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that the tolerance is ±5%.
Actual resistor value = 4700 ±5% Ω.
Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated CRO for cathode-ray oscilloscope) is electronic test
equipment that allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a two dimensional graph of one or more
electrical potential differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or some other voltage
(horizontal axis).
A typical oscilloscope is a rectangular box with a small screen, numerous input connectors and
control knobs and buttons on the front panel. To aid measurement, a

Tabulation

Sl. No. Resistance Value by Colour Coding Resistance Value by Multimeter (Ω)
(Ω)

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grid called the graticule is drawn on the face of the screen. Each square in the graticule is known as a
division. The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is usually a coaxial
connector such as a BNC or N type.
In the simplest mode, the oscilloscope repeatedly draws a horizontal line called the trace across
the middle of the screen from left to right. One of the controls, the time base control, sets the speed at
which the line is drawn, and is calibrated in seconds per division. If the input voltage departs from zero,
the trace is deflected either upwards or downwards. Another control, the vertical control, sets the scale of
the vertical deflection, and is calibrated in volts per division. The resulting trace is a graph of voltage
against time.
If the input signal is periodic, a nearly stable trace can be obtained just by setting the time base to
match the frequency of the input signal. For example, if the input signal is a 50 Hz sine wave, then its
period is 20 ms, so the time base should be adjusted so that the time between successive horizontal
sweeps is 20ms. This mode is called continual sweep. To provide a more stable trace, modern
oscilloscopes have a function called the trigger. When using triggering, the scope will pause each time the
sweep reaches the extreme right side of the screen. The scope then waits for a specified event before
drawing the next trace. The trigger event is usually the input waveform reaching some user-specified
threshold voltage in the specified direction (going positive or going
negative).
The effect is to resynchronise the time base to the input signal, preventing horizontal drift of the
trace. In this way, triggering allows the display of periodic signals such as sine waves and square waves.
Trigger circuits also allow the display of no periodic signals such as a single pulses or pulses that don’t
recur at a fixed rate.
Most oscilloscopes allow the user to bypass the time base and feed an external signal into the
horizontal amplifier. This is called X-Y mode, and is useful for viewing the phase relationship between
tow signals, which is commonly done in radio and television engineering. When the two signals are
sinusoids of varying frequency and phase, the resulting trace is called a Lissajous curve.
Oscilloscopes may have two or more input channels, allowing them to display more than one
input signal on the screen. Usually, the oscilloscope has a separate set of vertical controls for each
channel, but only one triggering system and time base.

Usage of CRO:
One of the most frequent uses of oscilloscopes is troubleshooting malfunctioning electronic
equipments. An oscilloscope can graphically show signals: whereas a voltmeter can show totally
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unexpected voltage, a scope may reveal that the circuit is oscillating. In other cases, the precise shape of
pulse is important. In electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages (e.g. electronic
mixers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be ‘probed’ for the expected signal, using the scope as a
simple signal tracer. If the expected signal is absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics
circuit is not operating correctly. Since most failures occur because of a single faculty component, each
measurement can prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment either work or probably
did not cause the fault. Once the faulty stage is discovered, further probing can usually tell a skilled
technician exactly which component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can be restored
to service, or at least the next fault can be isolated. Another use is to check newly designed circuitry.
Often a newly designed circuit will suffer from design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc.
Multimeter:
A Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that contributes several functions in one unit.
The most basic instruments include ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Analog multimeters are
sometimes referred to as “volt-ohmmeters”, abbreviated as VOM
A multimeter is a handheld device and used to find basic fault and for field service work. It can
measure to seven or eight and a half digit of accuracy. Current, voltage and resistance measurements are
considered standard features for multimeter.A multimeter may be implemented with an analog meter
deflected by an electromagnet, as a classic galvanometer; or with a digital display such as an LCD or
vacuum fluorescent display.
Modern multimeters are, exclusively digital and identified by the term DMM or digital
multimeter. In such an instrument, the signal under test is converted to a digital voltage and an amplifier
with an electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. Since the digital display directly indicates
a quantity as a number, there is no risk of error when viewing a reading. Similarly, better circuitry and
electronics have improved the meter accuracy. Older analog meters might have basic accuracies of ±5%.
Modern potable DMMs have accuracies as good as ±0.025%

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Result

Pin Diagrams:

AND Gate:

OR Gate:

NOT Gate:

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EXPERIMENT DATE:-
STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES
No:

Aim:
To verify the truth table of the logic gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND & NOR using 74XX ICs.

Components Required:

IC 7432(OR Gate)
IC 7408(AND Gate)
IC 7404(NOT Gate)
IC 7400(NAND Gate)
IC 7402(NOR Gate)
Digital IC trainer kit
Theory:

Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output
signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low or high voltages.
Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analysed using Boolean algebra.
AND Gate:

An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output can go to logic 1 if all
its inputs are at the high state.
The Boolean expression for a two input AND gate is: F=x.y

OR Gate:
An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output will be at logic 1 if any
or both of its inputs are at the high state.
The Boolean expression for a two input OR gate is:
F=x+y

NAND Gate:

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NOR Gate:

NOT Gate:

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 A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an inverter.
The output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output will be at logic 0. Thus its
output is the complement of its input.

The Boolean expression for the inverter is:

F = x’
NAND Gate:
It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is also called as an universal
gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 0 iff all its inputs are at the high state.
The Boolean expression for a two input NAND gate is F = (x.y)’

NOR Gate:
It is the combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It is also called as an universal gate. The
output of this gate will go to logic 1 iff all its inputs are at the low state.
The Boolean expression for a two input NOR gate is:
F = (x + y)’

Procedure:

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 1. Connections are given as per the logic diagrams and the pin-out diagrams of the individual
ICs.
2. Supply and ground connections are given to the ICs.
3. Inputs are applied by using the switches that provide the logic High and Low levels.
4. The outputs are observed by using the LED’s.
Result:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

EXPERIMENT DATE:-
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 GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL
No:

AIM:
To generate a clock signal of 1KHz (square waveform) by an astable
multivibrator using IC555 timer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.no Equipments & Components Range Quantity

1 Power Supply (0-30) V 1

2 Resistors 3300+330=3.630K, 1
5.1+2.2=7.3K 1
3 Capacitors 0.01μF 1
0.1μF 1
4 CRO (0-20) MHz 1
5 Diode 0A79 1
6 IC555 1

DESIGN:
Case (I)
Given f = 1KHz and D =0.5

TABULAR COLUMN:
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 Output Amplitude (V) Time period (ms)

MODEL GRAPH:

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Page | 27
 THEORY:

The 555 timers is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or
oscillation. A single 555 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours whereas
counter timer can have a maximum timing range of days.
An astable multi vibrator is a square waveform generator. Forcing the Op-amp to operate in the
saturation region generates square waveform. It is a free running symmetrical multivibrator because it
does not require any external trigger.

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The square waveform is obtained at output pin of Op-amp.
3. Note the amplitude & Time period of the of the waveform & Plot it in the graph.
4. Duty cycle is calculated using the formula given.

RESULT:

Thus IC555 timer was operated in astable mode to generate square wave.

Theoretical Duty cycle: 25%

Practical Duty cycle : ----------------------------------------

EXPERIMENT DATE:-
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 SOLDERING AND CHECKING CONTINUITY
No:

Aim:

To practice soldering of plates and wires

Tools Required:

1. Soldering iron
2. Solder and
3. Flux

Theory:

Soldering:

Soldering is the process of joining thin metal plates or wires made of steel, copper or brass. It is
very commonly used to join wires in electrical work and mount electronic components on a circuit board.
The joining material used in soldering is called as solder or filler rod. An alloy of tin and lead is
commonly used as the solder. The flux is used to clean the surface of the plates/wires to be soldered.
Aluminium chloride or zinc chloride is commonly used as flux. A good soldering iron is a variable
temperature setting type with interchangeable irons and tips. The tip should be removed regularly to
prevent oxidation scale from accumulating between the heating element and the tip.
Procedure:

1. The surface to be soldered is cleaned and flux applied.

2. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature.
3. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads over the surface to join
the plates/wires.
Soldering Simple Electronic Components:
A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a
plastic board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path. Leads of components
mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the board and the conductive copper. These leads are
soldered to the copper at the end of the hole. If excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from
the board or the components on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is used to
heat the junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board should be properly prepared and cleaned
before soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and component leads.
Check the conductive strips and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid excess solder to
prevent two copper paths from bridging. When solder globules form on the junction area, remove them by
cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth.
Checking Continuity:
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 The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms of resistance.
Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test continuity, select the lowest ohm range. A
wire may have an internal break, which is not visible due to insulation, or the wire may have a bad
connection at the terminals. Checking for zero ohms between any two points tests the continuity. A break
in the conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite resistance.
In a cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colours. Consider the figure, where the
individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find the wire that connects to terminal A. This is done by,
checking continuity of each wire to terminal A. The wire that has zero ohms is the one connected to this
terminal. Continuity of a long cable may be tested by temporarily short-circuiting the other ends of the
wires. The continuity of both wires may be checked for zero ohms.
In a digital multimeter, a beep mode is available to check continuity. The connectivity between
the terminals is identified by the beep sound.

Result:

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EXPERIMENT ASSEMBLING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON DATE:-
No: A PCB AND TESTING

Aim:

Page | 31
 To assemble electronic components on a PCB and test it
Tools Required:

1. Soldering iron
2. Solder and
3. Flux
Components Required:

1. PCB and
2. Electronic Components

Procedure:
The electronic components are carefully assembled as per the circuit design. The assembling of
electronic components on a PCB involves the following steps.
Component Lead Preparation:
Components such as capacitors have leads and are bent carefully to mount on PCB. The lead
bending radius should be approximately two times the diameter of the lead. The bent leads should fit into
the holes perpendicular to the board, so that the stress on the component lead junction is minimized.
Suitable bending tools may be used for perfect bending. Leads are bent and assembled on board in such a
way that the polarity symbols are seen after mounting the component.
Component Mounting:
Components are mounted on one side of the board and leads are soldered on the other side of the
board. The components are oriented both horizontally and vertically but uniformity in reading directions
must be maintained. The uniformity in orientation of diodes, capacitors, transistors, IC’s etc. is
determined at the time of PCB design. Components dissipating more heat should be separated from the
board surface.
Manual Assembly of Components:
The components to be assembled on a PCB are arranged conveniently. The board to be assembled
is held in a suitable frame and the components are kept in trays or bins. The insertion tools, if required,
must be kept in the easy reach of the worker. The work is divided depending on number of parts to be
assembled and the size of each part. The number of different components to be assembled for one worker
should not be more than 20.
Inspection and Testing:
The components assembled on the PCB are tested before they are soldered to the board. It is a
common practice to have the assembled boards checked prior to soldering. An assembly inspector is
located at the end of the assembly line for inspection. The inspection includes verifying component
polarity, orientation, value and physical mounting.
Soldering and Lead Cutting:

Page | 32
 The components are soldered on the PCB. The excess lead is cut after soldering. The performance
and reliability of the solder joints are best if lead cutting is carried before soldering so that the lead end
gets protected. However, this is not practiced in hand soldering.
PCB Cleaning:
The soldered PCB may have contaminants that could cause trouble during the functioning of the
circuit. The contaminants include flux and chips of plastics, metals, and other materials. Hence, the PCB
must be cleaned before use. A wide range of cleaning media is available; usually chemicals such as
acetone and alcohols are used.
Result:

Circuit diagram :( Half wave rectifier with capacitor)

Circuit diagram:(Half wave rectifier without capacitor)

Circuit diagram: (Bridge Rectifier without capacitor

Page | 33
 Circuit diagram: (Bridge Rectifier with capacitor)

EXPERIMENT MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR DATE:-

No: RECTIFIERS

Aim:
To study half-wave and full-wave rectifiers and measure the ripple factors with
and without capacitor filter.
Apparatus Required:
Sl.no Component Name Range Quantity Required
1 CRO 1 (0 – 20 MHz) 1
2 Multimeter 1 1

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 3 PN Junction Diode IN 4007 1
4 Transformer 230 volts / 15 – 1
0 –15 Volts,
200 mA
5 Resistor 470Ω 1
6 Capacitor 470 μF / 25 V 1
7 Breadboard - 1
8 Connecting Wires - As required

Theory:
The process of converting AC voltage and current to Direct current is called rectification. An
electronic device that offers a low resistance to current in one direction and a high resistance in the other
direction is capable of converting a sinusoidal waveform into a unidirectional waveform. Diodes have this
characteristic, which makes it a useful component in the design of rectifiers. In order to achieve a
constant/pure DC voltage at the output, filtering should be done to the pulsating DC output of the
rectifier.
The output varies with the variation in AC mains. Hence a voltage regulator is used to maintain
the output voltage at the same value.

Model Graph:

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 Diodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert AC into DC. When only one half of the AC cycle
is rectified, it is known as half-wave rectification. When both the half cycles are rectified, it is known as
full-wave rectification.
Procedure:

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 Half Wave Rectifier:

(i) Without Capacitor filter:

1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and
observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the
transformer.
2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
(ii) With capacitor:
1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.
2. Assume r= 10% of ripple peak-to-peak voltage for R= 500 . Calculate C using
the formula r = 1/23fRC
3. Connect CRO across load.
4. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and adjust it to the X-
axis.
5. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.
Full wave Rectifier:
(i) Without Capacitor:
1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the
transformer and observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion
at the secondary of the transformer.
2. Connect the full wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the Ripple factor
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
(ii) With capacitor:
1. To plot ripple peak-to-peak voltage Vs. Idc to choose C a ripple factor of 0.15 isassumed.
2. To get a variable load resistance a number of 500 , 5W of resistance are to be connected in
parallel. Hence Idc = Vdc /(N X 500). Where N is number of 500  resistances connected in
parallel.
3. Plot the graph Idc Vs ripple peak to peak.
4. The above steps are repeated for the various values of capacitance.

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Result:

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