The History of Biological Warfare

1) Definition of biological Warfare

a) Examples of Biological warfare
b) Modes of Transmission
2) History of biological warfare
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326439/
a) Effect on public health
b) Prevention and control

Biological warfare, or bioterrorism, is the use of toxin-producing microorganisms for the purpose of
terrorism. It is the intentional release of biological hazards to spread fear among people.

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has categorized bioterrorism agents into three categories based
on several factors like ease of transmission and mortality rate. Category A belongs to the high-priority
organisms that: can be easily disseminated or transmitted from person to person; result in high
mortality rates and have the potential for major public health impact; might cause public panic and
social disruption; and require special action for public health preparedness (Bioterrorism
Agents/Diseases, nd). Diseases that are categorized under category A are: anthrax, botulism, plague,
smallpox, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers that are caused by filovirus and arenavirus. Anthrax is
naturally found in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild animals. They can get infected after
ingesting soil, plants, or water contaminated with spores. The type of illness a person will contract is
entirely dependent on how the person is able to get in contact with the Bacillus anthracis spores. The
spores can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, or injection. Botulism, caused by the bacteria
Clostridium botulinum, is a deadly disease that affects the body’s nervous system. It can be contracted
through: eating food contaminated with spores; getting injected with a drug that is contaminated; or
having spores enter an open wound. Plague is an illness that can affect mammals. It is caused by the
bacteria Yersinia pestis and can be transmitted through: flea bites; contact with contaminated fluid or
tissue; and through infectious droplets. Variola virus, the virus that causes smallpox, can easily spread
from one person to another through coming in contact with the fluids and scabs containing the virus.
Tularemia is an illness characterized by fever, skin ulcers, and enlarged lymph nodes. It is caused by the
bacteria Francisella tularensis which can also cause illness among other types of mammals, especially
rodents.

Category B belongs to the second-highest priority organisms that are: moderately easy to transmit;
moderately morbid; and require specific enhancements of CDC’s diagnostic capacity and
need disease surveillance. Diseases that are categorized under category B are: brucellosis, glanders;
melioidosis; psittacosis; and typhus fever among others. Brucellosis, caused by bacteria from the genus
Brusella, is a disease that is acquired from domestic animals such as sheep, cattle, goats, pigs, and dogs.
It can be transmitted by ingestion, inhalation, and infection via open wounds. Glanders is an infectious
disease caused by bacteria Burkholderia mallei, bacteria that cause pulmonary infection and chronic
infection that can be fatal if left untreated. They can be transmitted through contact with infected
animals and can enter the body by abrasions in the skin, cuts, and contact with mucosal surfaces such as
eyes and nose. Meliodosis, caused by the bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei, is a disease acquired from
tropical climates naturally found in soil and water. They can get infected by ingesting soil and water
contaminated with the bacteria. It can affect both animals and human. Psittacosis is a disease
that causes mild pneumonia. It is caused by bacteria Chlamydia psittaci which affects bird species.
Transmission requires direct contact with the birds stool and respiratory secretions or inhalation of dried
respiratory secretions. Typhus fever is an illness that is acquired from bacteria carried by fleas, lice, and
chiggers common symptoms includes fever, rash, and headache.

Category C belongs to the third-highest priority organisms that are: easy to transmit; highly morbid; and
known for its availability. Diseases that are categorized under category C are: nipah virus and hantavirus.
Nipah Virus, is a virus that causes encephalitis and respiratory illness, they can get infected by means of
ingesting domestic animals especially farm pigs infected by a vector. Hantavirus is a virus that causes
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). They can get
infected after inhaling aerosolized virus from a rodent’s urine, feces, saliva, or bite.

There are several modes of transmission for these agents of bioterrorism. The diseases could be
transmitted through: the air; an animal vector; direct contact; and ingestion of contaminated food or
water. A single disease can be transmitted in several ways. Transmission through the air, also known as
airborne transmission, happens when a person inhales small droplets of liquid or fine solid particles
from the environment. The spores or bacteria that can cause: anthrax, botulism, brucellosis, Q fever,
glanders, plague, melioidosis, and tularemia are some some examples of weapons of bioterrorism that
can be transmitted through the air. Some diseases need an animal vector to be able to infect humans.
Usually, animal vectors are insects, mosquitoes, and small underwater organisms. These animal vectors
come in contact with a person and gets them infected with diseases like plague, typhus, tularemia, Q
fever, viral encephalitis, West Nile fever virus, and Rift Valley fever virus. There are also diseases that
can be transmitted through direct contact. It happens when one person comes in physical contact with
an infected person or an animal or by contact with infected urine, feces, vomit, saliva, or tissue. Anthrax,
plague, tularemia, meliodioisis, and brucellosis can all be transmitted through direct contact. Ingestion
of contaminated food or water is also one way of transmitting disease. Anthrax, botulism, brucellosis,
salmonella, and cholera are examples of disease that can be transmitted this way.

The practice of bioterrorism trace its roots to as early as 400 BC when Scythian archers dipped
the tip of their arrows in decomposing human bodies or in blood mixed with feces. In the year 1155,
Emperor Barbossa poisoned wells in Tortona, Italy by placing cadavers. Humans have been using toxins
for the purpose of assassination and death for thousands of years already. Another instance includes the
distribution of smallpox-infected blankets to the Native American population by the British in an effort
to reduce the former’s population. The foundation of microbiology by Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur
presented a new opportunity for individuals and terrorist that are interested in biological warfare.
Through microbiology, biological agents can be chosen and designed on a rational basis (Frischknecht,
2003). During the World War I, the German Army developed and used anthrax, glanders, cholera and
wheat fungus in an effort to attack and infect the animals of their enemy country. During the World War
II, the Japanese opened a secret laboratory facility that researched on biological agents of terrorism.
According to Frischknecht (2003):

The father of the Japanese biological weapons programme, the radical nationalist Shiro

Ishii, thought that such weapons would constitute formidable tools to further Japan's

imperialistic plans. He started his research in 1930 at the Tokyo Army Medical School and later

became head of Japan's bioweapon programme during the Second World War. At its height, the

programme employed more than 5,000 people, and killed as many as 600 prisoners a year in

human experiments in just one of its 26 centers. The Japanese tested at least 25 different

disease-causing agents on prisoners and unsuspecting civilians.

A few days after the September 11 terrorist attacks in the World Trade Center, the United States
faced yet another attack. The Amerithax, or more commonly known as the 2001 anthrax attacks, lasted
for a couple of weeks over the cities of New York, Washington, and West Palm Beach resulting in 5
deaths and 17 non-fatal injuries. The spores were spread through contaminating letters and mailing
them to U.S. media and government offices.

Big-time countries and terrorist groups have been looking into the use of biological warfare as a
way to wreak havoc and spread fear among people. The militant group Al Qaeda is reported to work on
using anthrax bacteria and botulinum toxin as weapons for their attacks.

Theories about the novel corona virus or Covid-19 being a biological weapon has been going
around since the news broke out that the only Biosafety Level 4 Laboratory in China is located in Wuhan,
which also happens to be the reported place of origin of the disease. But scientists are quick to debunk
the conspiracy by saying that the genetic makeup of the virus does not indicate that it was biologically
engineered.

Peace treaties and declarations were made in order to control and prevent the use of biological
weapons in warfare. Czar Alexander II initiated the Brussels Peace Conference in 1874 where an
international declaration regarding the law and customs of war was made; article 13 states that,
“According to this principle are especially forbidden: (a) employment of poison or poisoned weapons…. ”
In 1899, the Hague Convention created another treaty on the conduct on warfare, under Article 23 it
states that, “Besides the prohibitions provided by the special Conventions, it is especially prohibited to:
(a) To employ poison or poisoned arms….” A multilateral disarmament treaty was signed by 109
member countries of the United Nations (UN) in 1972 giving way to the creation of The Convention on
the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapons
and on their Destruction. Under this treaty, the signatory countries will provide annual reports about
researches and laboratories that are experimenting on biological weapons. This treaty aims to prevent
the occurrence of biological terrorism ensuring the safety of all people.

Bioterrorism Agents/Diseases. (2018, April 4). Retrieved from

https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp
Frischknecht, F. (2003, June). The history of biological warfare. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326439/
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~wggray/Teaching/His300/Handouts/Brussels-
1874.html
International Peace Conference, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace., International
Peace Conference, & International Peace Conference. (1915). The Hague conventions of
1899 (II) and 1907 (IV) respecting the laws and customs of war on land.
Transmission routes of potential bioterrorism agents (2005, May 1). Retrieved from
http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/pdf/transmission-routes-of-potential-bioterrorism-agents?
fbclid=IwAR1cXdYmIHPCcfj-
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