Bioenergy from Biofuel Residues and

Wastes
B.S. Choudri1*, Yassine Charabi1, Mahad Baawain2, Mushtaque Ahmed3

ABSTRACT: This review includes works published in the Research Reviews

general scientific literature during 2016 on the production Hamawand et al. (2016) examined the size of the

of bioenergy and biofuel from waste residues generated cotton industry in Australia and the associated by-products

during bioethanol and biodiesel production with a brief produced. This study examined the strengths, weaknesses,

overview of current and emerging feedstocks. A section of opportunities, and threats of different options for utilising

this review summarizes literature on culturing algae for cotton wastes throughout processing. The review found that

biofuels including bioreactors and open pond cultivation that pyrolysis of cotton stalks is a good option due to the

systems with the utilization of inorganic and organic potential revenue of $104 million dollars. It is concluded

sources of nutrients. New methods applicable to the mass that the potential amount of energy produced from burning

culture of algae are highlighted. Algal cell harvesting and cotton stalks can be around 24.8 PJ which is equivalent to

oil extraction techniques are discussed along with policies $97 million worth of coal.

and economics. Putrasari et al. (2016) provides in detail a review

of several topics related to resource recovery, energy

KEYWORDS: algae, bagasse, biodiesel, biofuel, biofuel consumption, policy, and the research and development

residue, biorefinery, butanol, ethanol, feedstocks, glycerine, activities of biofuel in Indonesia. As a discussion, some

hydrogen, lignocelluloses, lipids, methane, stillage. recommendations are provided to encourage further biofuel

development.

doi: 10.2175/106143017X15023776270511 Li et al. (2016) summarized the metabolism of

————————— acetoclastic methanogens, anaerobic digestion features and

1*Center for Environmental Studies and Research, Sultan Qaboos strategies of three main agricultural residues and current
University, Sultanate of Oman; e-mail: bchoudri@squ.edu.om situation of large, medium biogas plant built in China.
2Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, College of
hoping to promote the application of this technology to deal
Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman.
with agricultural residues in the country. Also, the authors
3Department of Soils, Water and Agricultural Engineering, College
presented the current problems associated wigh biogas
of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University,

Sultanate of Oman.

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technology and proposed future research related to this review provides insight into the current hydrolysis and

technology. fermentation technologies for algal conversion, and it

Baicha et al. (2016) provided a critical review of evaluates the economics and viability of the process. This

the new applications of microalgae for bioenergy review can be crucial in providing ideas for the future

production. The review includes studies regarding the use studies that can be implemented in the commercialization

of microalgae for electricity generation in microalgae- of bioethanol from the third generation feedstock.

microbial fuel cells (MFC) including CO 2 capture. Almohammed et al. (2016) discuss a new process

Feedstocks for Biofuel Production to produce a fermentable juice of sugar beet tails using

Bioethanol Feedstocks. Mansouri et al. (2016) pulsed electric field (PEF) and solid-liquid expression. The

studied bioethanol production from a mixture of study found that the higher content of fermentable sugars in

agricultural feedstock in a batch fermenter. It was found PEF expressed juice leads to a higher ethanol content in

that the mixture of Mech Degla dates and grapes juices distillate (6.1% vs. 2.95% v/v) and a higher CO 2 weight

results in a higher bioethanol concentration compared to a loss (57.2 vs. 28.3 g/L) than that obtained from raw juice of

single juice from one kind of fruit. The study revealed that untreated tissue. The results are promising and open new

the addition of 5% ethanol to lead-free gasoline raises the opportunities for valorization of sugar beet by-products.

Research Octane Number (RON) to around 96.4, which can Biodiesel Feedstocks. Bhuiya et al. (2016)

improve its octane number by 2 points. provided extensive reviews on the selection of 2nd

Nurfahmi et al. (2016) successfully used biomass generation biodiesel feedstocks, oil extraction as well as

to convert palm empty fruit bunch (PEFB) into sugars yield biodiesel conversion techniques with the aim to identify the

for use as a raw material for bioethanol conversion through most appropriate and cost-effective feedstocks, identify the

organosolv (i.e. use of high concentrations of organic most suitable oil extraction technique and most efficient

solvents) pretreatment and acid hydrolysis processes. The technology for producing of the 2nd generation biodiesel

results of acid hydrolysis showed that the optimum amount which will substitute the current dependence on the fossil

of total sugars obtained was 133.17 mg/L at a concentration fuel worldwide. Reviews presented in this paper will

of H 2 SO 4 of 0.5% vol with a reaction time 30 min and a contribute to a greater understanding of the recent

temperature 1000C. This study concluded that organosolv developments and prospects of second generation biodiesel

pretreatment and acid hydrolysis can be used as a novel production methods.

integrated method to optimize the total sugars production Sanjid et al. (2016) investigated the engine

synthesized from PEFB to bioethanol. combustion performance and emissions of kapok and

Jambo et al. (2016) ireviewed the potential and moringa combined biodiesel-diesel blends and compared

prospects of third generation bioethanol feedstocks. The with diesel fuel, kapok and moringa biodiesel blends. The

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authors concluded that kapok and moringa are potential Cane Sugar-to-Ethanol Residues. Moreira et al.

feedstocks for biodiesel production, and up to 20% of their (2016) presented a case study on a bioenergy with carbon

blends can replace diesel fuel without modifying engines. capture and storage (BECCS) scheme, where carbon

This method reduces dependency on petroediesel as well as capture storage is applied to CO 2 vented from a Brazilian

edible biodiesel feedstock and produces cleaner exhaust ethanol fermentation installation using ethanol by-products

emissions. (bagasse and other sugar cane residues). The assessment

Varma and Sharma (2016) focused their review shows that fuel prices would increase by less than 3.5% due

on the various technical aspects of biodiesel production to the adoption of BECCS from fermentation, while

methodology. The review reveals that the optimum increasing investors’ revenues are sufficient to compensate

biodiesel production reaction temperature should be in for the investment required.

range of 50-60 °C, and the molar ratio of alcohol to oil Michailos et al. (2016) presented a consistent and

should be in range of 6-12:1 with the use of an alkali comparative assessment of the overall exergy, financial

catalyst having an optimum concentration 1% by weight. assessment, and environmental efficiencies of two biomass-

The optimal reaction time for the transesterification process to-fuels conversion options. The study concludes with

is 120 min. multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) where each process

Baskar and Aiswarya (2016) presentented a is issued a score according to the investigated criteria. The

review focused on various technologies and challenges use of MCDA makes it possible for the investigated

linked to the production process including some important procedures to be compared on the same basis. According to

aspects of feedstock selection. Thus the review in this paper this analysis, the production of gasoline achieves a higher

is mainly focused on various catalytic technologies used for overall score than butanol production, i.e. 97% and 90%

biodiesel production using different production methods respectively.

and potential feedstocks. Khatiwada et al. (2016) studied the sustainability

Fatty acid methyl esters (biodiesel) prepared from of fuel ethanol production from cane molasses in Indonesia.

field pennycress and meadowfoam seed oils were blended A life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to evaluate

with methyl esters from camelina, cottonseed, palm, and the net emissions and energy inputs in the production chain

soybean oils in an effort to ameliorate the technical in Indonesia. The net lifecycle GHG emissions from the

deficiencies inherent to these biodiesel fuels by Moser conversion of cane molasses to ethanol in Indonesia was 29

(2016). The study concluded that blending enhanced fuel gCO 2 eq per MJ of ethanol produced when the resources

properties such as cold flow, kinematic viscosity, and the were economically allocated. Further, results of a

oxidative stability of biodiesel. sensitivity analysis suggested that energy and emission

Residues/Wastes from Biofuel Production Processes

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values were strongly sensitive to sugarcane yield, the price inhibitor-tolerant Saccharomyces cerevisiae for bioethanol

of molasses, and ethanol yield. production from undetoxified pretreated biomass in a

Sweet Sorghum-to-Ethanol Residues. Wang et simultaneous saccharification and cofermentation (SSCF)

al. (2016) have proposed a novel combined ethanol and process. This study showed co-culture SSCF increased the

power (CEP) model for a microgrid driven by sweet ethanol concentration by 21.2% and 41.0% compared to

sorghum ethanol using advanced solid-state fermentation SSCF using individual inhibitor-tolerant and xylose-

(ASSF), during which a great deal of solid vinasse will be utilizing strains, respectively, which suggest this co-culture

generated. Based on this study, the authors have concluded system was very promising.

that the novel CEP microgrid model exhibits much more Amini and Razavi (2016) investigated the

robust and stable traits compared to conventional simultaneous treatment of corn starch by ultrasound and

microgrids. sulphuric acid hydrolysis in order to give a reduction in

Barcelos et al., (2016) demonstrated in a study starch nanocrystal preparation time while increasing the

that whole sweet sorghum is a promising alternative energy yield. The results revealed that sonication during

crop for ethanol production that can make large nanocrystal preparation not only preserved the crystalline

contributions to ethanol-producing nations due to its wide structure, but also increased the efficiency of hydrolysis to

adaptability, high biomass productivity, and short growth produce starch nanocrystals. The results of this study are

period. The authors concluded that, specific to Brazil, importance to adopt large-scale production of nanocrystals

ethanol from sweet sorghum can be deployed in Brazilian from starch.

plants without major adjustments, contributing to Cassava Starch-to-Ethanol Residues.

sustainable and renewable bioethanol production and Poonsrisawat et al. (2016) evaluated the synergism of cell

adding to crop diversity. wall degrading enzymes on the rheology of cassava root

Silva Reis et al. (2016) tested the efficiency of mash under a very high gravity (VHG) condition. The

ethanol production from bagasse of sugarcane (SCB) and enzyme showed strong synergism with Trichoderma reesei

sweet sorghum (SSB) after alkaline H 2 O 2 pretreatment and cellulase and Aspergillus pectinase leading to a marked

enzymatic hydrolysis treatment. The results support the reduction in mash viscosity compared with individual

enzymes. The work showed for the first time the enzymatic
technical feasibility of using H 2 O 2 in an alkaline medium
modification of cassava root mash rheology related to
at room temperature and with reduced reaction time by
degradation of cell wall polysaccharides.
pretreating the biomass of sugarcane and sweet sorghum
Zu et al., (2016) provided a state-of-the-art
that are abundant in northeastern Brazil.
review on the source, composition, and characteristics of
Corn Starch-to-Ethanol Residues. Yan et al.
cassava industrial wastes and residues and their
(2016) developed a co-culture of xylose-utilizing and

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bioconversion into value-added products, mainly biofuels wastes from the juice industry (carrot) and wastes from the

(ethanol and butanol), biogas, biosurfactant, organic acids beer brewing process (BSG). The mechanical separation of

and other valuable biochemicals. Further, the review also the cellulose nanofibers was achieved by ultrafine grinding.

outlines future perspectives with respect to developing The study showed that carrot residue has potential for the

more effective and efficient bioconversion processes for industrial production of cellulose nanofibers due to its high

converting the cassava wastes and residues into high-value quality, processing efficiency, and low raw material cost.

products. Moriana et al., (2016) investigated for the first

Nanssou et al., (2016) determined the optimal time the feasibility of extracting cellulose nanocrystals

conditions of hemicellulose thermohydrolysis of cassava (CNCs) from softwood forestry logging residues with an

stems and peelings and evaluated their impact on the obtained gravimetric yield of over 13%. Compared with the

enzymatic hydrolysis yield of cellulose. The ethanol other residues, forestry logging residues rendered a higher

concentrations obtained after fermentation of enzymatic yield of bleached cellulosic fibers with higher

hydrolysates were 1.3 and 1.2 g/L for the stem and peeling hemicellulose, pectin and lignin content, longer diameter,

hydrolysates, respectively. The hydrolysates of stems and lower crystallinity, and higher thermal stability. The

peelings under these optimal conditions respectively gave authors have discussed the potential of using the resulting

ethanol concentrations of 5.27 g/100 g for cassava stems CNCs as reinforcements in nanocomposites in order to

and 2.6 g/100 g for cassava peelings. improve the aspect ratio, crystallinity and thermal stability.

Veiga et al., (2016) conducted a study to quantify Reina et al. (2016) studied the production of

and characterize cassava waste as a fuel. Physical and ethanol using Eucalyptus dunnii bark pretreated with 1-

chemical analyzes were carried out to determine the butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl) as ionic

elemental composition of the waste, volatile matter content, liquid (IL). This study showed high ethanol yields obtained

fixed carbon content, ash content, moisture content, lignin using the minimal quantity of IL necessary for wetting but

content; cellulose content, hemicellulose content, ash not dissolving the lignocellulosic material. The best result

composition, and higher heating value. The study showed obtained was 70% of ethanol yield using an IL: bark ratio

that the use of cassava agricultural waste can increase the of 5:1, with a separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF)

viability of cassava root as a raw material for ethanol and process, and a cellulase load of 50 FPU/gram of pretreated

food production in integrated units with electricity material.

cogeneration. Vegetable Oil / Animal Fat-to-Biodiesel

Cellulose-to-Ethanol Residues. Berglund et al. Residues. Sajjadi et al. (2016) provided comprehensive

(2016) evaluated the production potential of cellulose information and analyses on biodiesel produced from

nanofibers from two different industrial bio-residues: edible and non-edible vegetable oils including their

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
composition and specifications. Information was collected residues and drought-tolerant crops resources in Spain by

on the fatty acid (FA) profiles of 28 edible vegetable oils considering the volume of horticultural residues generated,

and 40 non-edible vegetable oils. The specifications were the availability of suitable land for dedicated prickly pear

elucidated for sulfur content, density, viscosity, flash point, plantations, and the methane generation capacity.

cloud point, pour point, cold filter plugging point, cetane Experimental biomethane yields have also been determined

number, iodine number, heating value, acid value, and for different substrates mixtures of overripe tomatoes and

carbon residual before and after transesterification . prickly pear cladodes. The results show that a significant

Lee et al. (2016) investigated the in-situ number of concentrated solar power (CSP) plants could be

production of fatty acid methyl esters from swine fat via methane-fueled by from biomass based carbon.

thermally induced pseudo-catalytic transesterification on Corneli et al. (2016) evaluated the suitability of

silica. Instead of methanol, dimethyl carbonate (DMC) was ensiled giant reed, ensiled maize, ensiled olive pomace, and

used as the acyl acceptor to achieve environmental benefits wheat bran for combined systems (CS) using dark

and economic viability. This study showed fatty acid fermentation and anaerobic digestion (AD) to produce

methyl ester yield via in-situ pseudo-catalytic hydrogen-rich biogas (biohythane). Their approach was

transesterification of swine fat reached up to 97.2% at 380 tested in batch under basic operational conditions. Results

°C. Therefore, in-situ pseudo-catalytic transesterification showed that the butyrate/acetate ratio matched with the

can be applicable to biodiesel production of other oil- ratios found in dark fermentation, which correlated well

bearing biomass feedstocks. with hydrogen production (r = 0.92), and they found that

Skoronski et al. (2016) proposed a valorization wheat bran proved to be a promising residue for CS based

strategy of rendering facilities animal fat and tested this on the hydrogen/methane potential and energy recovery.

strategy by investigating the optimal parameters for ester Corre and Conijn (2016) explored the

production using chemical as well as enzymatic catalysis. possibilities of sustainable biogas use for the hybridisation

This study showed that catalysis using immobilized of Concentrated Solar Power (HCSP) in Europe. Their

enzymes produced the best yields, which is advantageous study showed that using biogas from agricultural residues

since enzyme can be directly separated from the reaction results in an efficient reduction of non-renewable energy

mixture, yielding cleaner products and allowing enzyme use, especially GHG emission, due to the avoidance of

recycling. The valorization strategy presented here can be methane emission from manure storage. Further, the net

applied for waste recycling of animal fat in the meat biomethane production from agricultural residues in EU-27

processing industries. can reach approximately 29,000 Mm3 potentially, and it is

Biomethane from Residues/Wastes. Sanchez et concluded that uncertainties concerning the production

al. (2016) investigated the biomass potential of horticultural potential are large.

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 Jaffar et al., (2016) tested potassium hydroxide factor for obtaining continuous hydrogen production, and

(KOH) concentrations of 1% (K1), 3% (K2), 6% (K3) and the optimal results were observed in a pH range from 5.1 to

9% (K4) for wheat straw pretreatment at ambient 5.2.

temperature with a C:N ratio of 25:1; a total solids content The photosynthetic purple non-sulfur bacterium

of 86%; a volatile solids content of 89% ; and a Rhodobacter sphaeroides MDC6521, isolated from an

lignocellulose, cellulose, hemicellulose content of 22%. Armenian mineral spring, was used to convert distiller’s

The wheat straw was decomposed effectively when grains with solubles (DGS) to bio-hydrogen (H 2 ) according

pretreated by 6% KOH. The results showed that the process to Sargsyan et al. (2016). This study identified acheaper

with pretreatment was effective to produce an optimum and more effective source of biomass and bio-hydrogen as

biomethane yield and biogas production, and the residue is well as a way to solve the problem of ethanol by-product

expected to be a good soil conditioner for crops. utilization.

Methane from Glycerol. The industrial Sinha et al. (2016) investigated the possibility of

production of renewable lubricant glycerol trioleate was using a bioaugmentation strategy by employing facultative

simulated using a microwave reactor through esterification anaerobe bacteria and other obligate anaerobe bacteria in a

of glycerol with oleic acid in the presence of methane co-culture system for the enhancement of hydrogen

sulfonic acid catalyst under solvent-free conditions by Xu production. The study showed that Cane molasses and

et al. (2016). The interaction effects of operating distillery effluent were found to be suitable carbon sources.

temperature, catalyst concentration, and reaction time were Further, enzymatic enhancement by co-cultures can be

investigated. The findings confirmed that the presence of exploited to utilize a variety of wastes comprising complex

impurities reduced both selectivity and total conversion substrates for the biohydrogen production.

significantly. Bioethanol Production

Biohydrogen Production Ethanol from Glycerol. Trinh et al. (2016)

Biohydrogen from Stillage and Distillery pretreated rice straw using an industrial grade glycerol for

Wastewater. Fuess et al. (2016) assessed continuous ethanol production. The glucan content in the regenerated

biohydrogen production in a packed-bed reactor operated rice straw increased with increasing pretreatment

under thermophilic conditions (55 °C) using sugarcane temperature and time. The fermentation of hydrolysates

stillage as the substrate. The results indicated that the resulted in an ethanol yield of 0.44 g/g sugar,

acidogenic reactor achieved a capacity for recovering from corresponding to a theoretical yield of 84.3%. This study

performance losses, regardless of their cause, and concluded that acidified glycerol is a good candidate to be

maintaining continuous hydrogen production rates under an organic solvent for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic

long-term operation (240 days). The pH proved to be a key biomass.

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 Vikromvarasiri et al. (2016) tested the microbes Hydrogen from Glycerol. Demsash and Mohan

present in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) (2016) prepared five kinds of nickel-alumina and ceria

reactor for application in batch fermentation of ethanol at promoted nickel-alumina catalysts with different nickel and

varying glycerol concentrations, and pHs of culture ceria loadings by the wet impregnation method, and they

medium. The major ethanol producers were identified as tested the catalyst for conversion efficiency of 30 wt. %

Enterobacter and Klebsiella strains. This study glycerol in water. Complete conversion of glycerol and

demonstrated the potential use of biodiesel derived glycerol hydrogen selectivity of 85.7% was obtained over the

as a feedstock for the ethanol production, and revealed the catalyst at 650 °C with a 95.9% thermodynamic value. A

major roles of Enterobacter and Klebsiella in the ethanol kinetic study was also done for this catalyst to determine

production from glycerol. the reaction rate equation. Using power law model, the

Cofre et al. (2016) studied the biotransformation order of reaction and activation energy were determined to

of crude glycerol, obtained from a biodiesel production be 0.45 and 62.91 kJ/mol.

process, into ethanol and H 2 by Escherichia coli MG1655 Biobutanol Production. Mostafazadeh et al.

for batch and fed-batch operating modes. This study (2016) performed a set of experiments to investigate the

showed that an exponential feeding regime is a promising production of biobutanol as a novel applicable biofuel in a

process to increase ethanol production, H 2 production, and bioelectrolysis cell (BEC) with the objective to understand

crude glycerol utilization compared to a batch mode the mechanism and production rate of the biobutanol by

reactor. bioelectrosynthesis (BES) using glucose as a substrate. A

Maru et al. (2016) compared glycerol maximum butanol production of 13.31 g/L was obtained by

fermentation between three other strains: Escherichia coli applying 1.32 V indicating the suitability of this procedure.

CECT432, Escherichia coli CECT434 and Enterobacter The results showed that by applying optimum conditions in

cloacae MCM2/1. E. coli CECT432 was found to perform a standard minimal medium, the butanol could be enhanced

best with a H 2 productivity of 69.1 mM (1307 mL/L). A remarkably by electroactive microorganisms in cathode

co-culture of E. coli CECT432 strain with Enterobacter chamber.

spH1 showed a 3.1-fold higher H 2 productivity (4767 Shukor et al. (2016) optimized catalytic

mL/L) from pure glycerol, and it resulted in a higher depolymerization of mannan from palm kernel cake (PKC)

biomass production. The authors also found that the ability by mannanase to enhance the release of mannan-derived

to produce H 2 without prior purification of the waste monomeric sugars for further application in acetone-

glycerol is attractive because it avoids extra costs in the butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation. The efficiency of

process. enzymatic hydrolysis was studied by evaluating the effects

of PKC concentration, mannanase loading, hydrolysis pH

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
value, reaction temperature, and hydrolysis time on the prevent large-scale practical implementation of algal

production of fermentable sugars using one-way analysis of technologies for fuel production. Research and

variance (ANOVA). The ANOVA results revealed that all development work currently underway in a large number of

factors studied had significant effects on total sugar academic and private enterprise laboratories worldwide

liberated (P < 0.01). promises to provide solutions to many of these problems in

Zu et al. (2016) have discussed the properties of the short- to medium-term.

biobutanol for applications as a valuable fuel source and Milano et al. (2016) provided a critical review on

chemical feedstock. Recent significant progresses in the current production technologies of microalgae, ranging

feedstock strains development and the development of from cultivation, harvesting, extraction and biofuels

acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation processes are conversion processes. The authors highlighted the high

also reviewed. The authors concluded that commercial photosynthetic efficiency of microalgae, which translates to

ABE fermentation is now still not economically efficient efficient mass cultivation and a reduction in

competitive, but they expect that by taking advantages of carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. It was

new technologies, ABE fermentation will be revitalized concluded that in future, biofuels production from

again in the near future. microalgae can be economically viable,.

Aroua et al. (2016) hydrolyzed sugarcane bagasse Dutta et al. (2016) analyzed the sustainability of

with the assistance of gamma-valerolactone (GVL). After microalgae-derived biofuel production by performing an

phase separation, the direct hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse extensive comparison of conversion pathways studied at

resulted in 24.08 g/L total sugars. The removal of lignin the University of Aveiro (UA), Portugal and the National

significantly increased the total sugar concentration to Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, Colorado,

248.41 g/L with a yield of 0.87 g/g. Due to the low level of USA. The authors compared each of these processing

inhibitors in hydrolysate, the hydrolysate was used as a technologies from beginning to end using life-cycle

substrate for biobutanol production. This study assessment. It was concluded that increasing the recovery

demonstrated that sugarcane bagasse hydrolyzed in of solvent (hexane) used during the process can play a

GVL/water solution could be an alternative substrate for major role in reducing total greenhouse gas emissions.

the low-cost production of biobutanol. Kumar et al. (2016) focused a review on all the

Microalgae for Biofuels. Hallenbeck et al. possible avenues of biofuel production through biochemical

(2016) provided a review on the different aspects of algal and thermochemical conversion methods in one place,

culture and harvesting and briefly discussed the various bringing together both microalgae and macroalgae on the

options for making fuels from algal biomass. The authors same platform. The review provides a brief overview on the

concluded that a number of significant technical challenges various mechanisms of biofuel production from algae.

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
Factors affecting the biofuel process and the associated demand (COD) removal and columbic efficiency (CE) is

challenges have been highlighted along with an analysis of presented. Some of the challenges and future perspectives

techno-economic study. with regard to energy recovery from wastewaters using

Microbial Fuel Cells. Miran et al. (2016) MFCs are discussed.

performed a demonstration study that showed that Microalgae cultivation

microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology can be explored for Open Pond Cultivation Systems. Bello et al.

bioelectricity production from orange peel waste (OPW), (2016) attempted to provide a comprehensive dynamic

an agricultural byproduct and an organic substrate, without mathematical model to simulate the production of

any chemical pretreatment or the addition of extra microalgae in a high-rate algal pond (HRAP). A synergetic

mediators. A maximum voltage generation of 0.59 ± 0.02 V algal-bacterial system comprising various interrelated

(at 500 Ω) was achieved in a dual chamber MFC during biological and chemical system processes is presented. The

stable voltage generation stages. Further it was found that a sensitivity analysis of important process parameters is also

well-known exoelectrogen, Pseudomonas, was present discussed in this study. The developed model can be used

among the predominant genera in the anode biofilm. to assess the factors that affect the pond performance

Schievano et al. (2016) described how dark criteria, including algal productivity and the dynamics of

fermentation (DF), anaerobic digestion (AD) and microbial nutrient requirements.

fuel cells MFC integrated to co-produce valuable Xie et al. (2016) developed and studied a CO 2

biochemicals. The researchers also show that solid-liquid supply system for a spray absorption tower combined with

separation can be integrated to co-produce valuable an outdoor open raceway pond (ORWP) for microalgae

biochemicals (hydrogen and methane), bioelectricity, and photoautotrophic cultivation. The microalgae yield,

biofertilizers. The study concluded that the supernatant productivity, and CO 2 fixation efficiency were investigated

fraction could be used for producing electricity by using and compared with the bubbling method. This study

MFC technologies, thereby satisfying the energetic demand showed that this method of quantifiable control CO 2 supply

for solid liquid separation and reducing the organic load in can meet the requirements for the growth of microalgae

waste waters. cultivation at large-scale.

Pandey et al. (2016) provided a comprehensive Dahmani et al. (2016) cultivated chlorella

review and state-of-the-art information on various pyrenoidosa in secondary wastewater effluent to assess its

wastewater substrates that have been used in MFCs. The nutrient removal capabilities. Wastewaters were obtained

performance of different types (designs) of MFCs in terms from a wastewater treatment plant located in Ouargla,

of electric current and power outputs together with the Algeria. The experiments were conducted in winter under

wastewater treatment efficiency based on chemical oxygen natural sunlight in an outdoor open raceway pond situated

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
in the desert area. Results of this study showed that the microalgal production. The paper first unveils the current

potential of nutrient removal by microalgae grown on status of microalgal production by providing basic

secondary wastewater in arid areas. background to the topic. Subsequently, microalgal

He et al. (2016) investigated five microalgae for cultivation technologies using biogas slurry are discussed

their environmental tolerances and lipid production in detail. A scale-up scheme for simultaneous biogas

potential in open raceway pond outdoors. Chlorella sp. L1 upgrade and digestate application through microalgal

and M. dybowskii Y2 were selected for their environment cultivation is then proposed. Afterwards, several

adaptability, higher lipid productivity, and resulting uncertainties that might affect this practice are explored.

biodiesel quality. The authors concluded that these two Heterotrophic and Mixotrophic Growth. Zhan

microalgae exhibit potential in lipid production outdoors et al. (2016) compared growth modes of microalgae and

under semicontinuous mode for commercial application. discussed the advantages of mixotrophic modes in

Algae Species for Biofuels. Doshi et al. (2016) bioenergy production by considering the difference in

presented a review on the economic benefits and costs growth, photosynthesis characteristics, and bioenergy

related to conventional biofuels and suggested the need for production. Also, the factors influencing mixotrophic

further development of a third-generation feedstock based cultivation and the application of mixotrophic microalgae

on algae. The article provides guidance on the potential for in bioremediation are discussed, laying theoretical

a policy framework for supporting microalgae as a source foundation for large-scale microalgae cultivating for

of biofuels. biomass production, bioenergy production, and

Sun et al. (2016) gives a review of the recent environmental protection.

advances in microalgal oil biosynthesis and downstream Ji et al. (2016) investigated the effects of liquid

technologies. In recent years, the exploitation of microalgae crystal display (LCD) wastewater on biomass production

as a source of alternative energy has attracted worldwide and the biochemical composition of the green microalga

attention. Properties like rapid growth rates, high biomass Nephroselmis sp. cultivated in Bold’s Basal Medium

accumulation, and great oil productivity, in combination (BBM). The study showed that cultivation with LCD

with CO 2 capture and recycling capacities, make wastewater increased the microalgal saturated and

microalgae the most promising cell factory for biofuel monounsaturated fatty acid contents up to 9 and 24%,

production with significant potential to beat the traditional respectively. The application of LCD wastewater improved

sources such as agricultural crops. Finally, the authors the growth, lipid/carbohydrate/carotenoids productivity,

discussed some obstacles and future research trends. and nutrient removal efficiency of Nephroselmis sp., which

Yan et al., (2016) conducted a review on the can be a cost effective strategy for microalgal biomass

integration of digestate nutrient management with production.

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 Marudhupandi et al. (2016) used response surface crystallinity (73%) than that of untreated fiber (33%), and it

methodology (RSM) to enhance the biomass and lipid possessed good thermal stability which is suitable for

content in Nannochloropsis salina. Preliminary screening nanocomposite material.

results revealed that the N. salina can be cultivated as a Dean et al. (2016) used two-dimensional

heterotroph with various carbon and nitrogen sources electronic spectroscopy to quantify the vibronic mixing

yielding higher biomass (0.91 ± 0.0035 g/L) and lipid among the light-absorbing molecules of a light-harvesting

content (37.1 ± 0.49 mg/L) than for the photoautotrophical complex from cryptophyte algae. These data reveal a

cultivation (0.21 ± 0.009 g/L and 22.16 ± 0.27 mg/L). striking reallocation of absorption strength that, in turn,

Further, experiment results for the RSM yielded a biomass provides a robust increase in the rate of energy transfer;up

concentration of 1.85 g/L and a total lipid content of 48.6 to 3.5-fold. The results showed a multiplicative increase in

mg/L. the rate of energy funneling, which established a

Paranjape et al. (2016) applied two nitrogen bioinspired design principle for optimal light-harvesting

limitation strategies to further increase lipid production systems.

during growth with glycerol. In one strategy, cultures were Cheng et al. (2016) characterized two new

grown in nitrogen replete medium and then resuspended in compounds, known as mozukulins A (1) and B (2),

nitrogen free medium. In a second strategy, cultures were together with three known compounds; eicosapentaenoic

grown with different initial concentrations of nitrate. Lipid acid (EPA), henicosahexaene, and phytol; from edible

production by the two microalgal strains used, Chlorella brown alga Cladosiphon okamuranus. The constituent

sorokiniana (PCH02) and Chlorella vulgaris (PCH05), was analysis of Chlorella sorokiniana from Taiwan produced

shown to be boosted by the strategies of nitrogen limitation, chlorellatins A (3) and B (4) that are reported from the

but they responded differently to how nitrogen limitation natural sources for the first time, as well as eight other

was imposed. known compounds. Moreover, the lutein content was as

New Methods of Algae Analysis. Chen et al., high as 4.54% in a fraction of extracts.

(2016) successfully isolated Nanocellulose from Gelidium Microalgae Harvesting. Laamanen et al. (2016)

elegans red algae marine biomass. The red algae fiber was proposed an alternative method of heating microalgae

treated in three stages namely alkalization, bleaching cultures prior to flotation in order to induce cell clumping

treatmen,t and acid hydrolysis treatment. Morphological and improve recovery efficiency. The use of industrial heat

analysis was performed by field emission scanning electron aids the flotation process and avoids the need for chemical

microscopy (FESEM) and transmission electron additives. The best separation was achieved at 85 °C with a

microscopy (TEM). The prepared nano-dimensional Scenedesmus sp. Culture, which was concentrated to 2.78

cellulose demonstrated a network-like structure with higher

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
g/L from an initial density of 0.13 g/L. The result showed a algal technology for the synthesis of novel bioproducts to

concentration factor of 25.8 and a recovery of 83%. improve the algal biofuels.

Guldhe et al. (2016) assessed an electrochemical Wang et al. (2016) propsed a novel method based

harvesting (ECH) process for the harvesting of a small size on using formic acid, assisted with small amounts of

microalga Ankistrodesmus falcatus by using non-sacrificial hydrochloric acid, to treat water-containing microalgae and

carbon electrodes. The highest recovery efficiency was to extract lipid subsequently. The effects of several factors

obtained by centrifugation (93% after 15 min) followed by on the mixed acid treatment of Chlorella protothecoides

the ECH process (91% after 30 min), alum (86% after 60 were investigated systematically. This study revealed that

min), and chitosan (55% after 60 min). Further, results the process was suitable for the treatment of different

showed high recovery efficiency, low energy consumption, microalgae materials, and the results indicate that this

and the use of non-sacrificial electrodes make ECH a mixed acid treatment is very promising for using wet

sustainable harvesting technique for small size microalgae. microalgae as the feedstocks for biodiesel production.

Lananan et al. (2016) examined the potential of Pohndorf et al. (2016) obtained lipids from

auto-flocculating microalgae Ankistrodesmus sp. for its Spirulina and tested different methods of biomass drying

potential as bio-flocculant to harvest Chlorella sp. A zeta (tray and spouted bed), cell disruption (microwave,

potential analysis was performed on the microalgae in the autoclaving and milling), and solvent extraction (hot and

pH range of 4.16–9.55 before subjecting the microalgae to cold). The average content of lipids extracted by the cold

the coagulation -flocculation assay. The study showed that method, using polar solvents, was of 5.8 ± 0.6 g 100 g−1.

the development of innovative microalgae treatment FT-IR spectra and thermal analysis indicated that the hot

technology for incorporating continuous bio-harvesting extraction resulted in a more purified lipid extract than the

with microalgae-microalgae flocculation could provide a cold extraction. The Brimberg model showed the best fit to

low-cost and sustainable wastewater treatment approach. the lipid extraction kinetics, and the activation energy in the

Microalgae Extraction and Biofuel Production. Suganya best conditions was 6.11 ± 1.41 kJ mol−1.

et al. (2016) briefly describes biofuel conversion Skorupskaite et al. (2016) presented an overview

technologies for both macroalgae and microalgae. The of possible applications of one new form of technology -

gasification process produces combustible gases such as in-situ technology for simultaneous oil extraction and

H 2 , CH 4 , CO 2 and ammonia; whereas, the product of transesterification. The review describes ways of applying

pyrolysis is bio-oil. The fermentation product of algae is this technological tool for biodiesel production from

ethanol, which can be used as a direct fuel or as a gasohol. microalgae oil. The authors concluded that effective

This review investigates the biorefinery concept applied on biodiesel production frommicroalgae biomass using the in-

situ transesterification process may be obtained if high oil

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
content and fast growing algae strains are selected, and if multidirectional effects on the economy, energy, and the

biomass preparation and processing methods are properly environment. The analysis touches on multiple effects

chosen for industrial production settings. related to biofuel production and use; such as the need for

Economics and Policies. Franko et al. (2016) guaranteeing energy security and supply, environmental

conducted a techno-economic analysis to assess the protection and land-use change, the expansion of rural

feasibility of using forestry residues with different bark areas and food safety, and the increasing institutional

contents for bioethanol production. The study showed raw support for biofuel policies, including the contribution of

materials differ in their theoretical ethanol potential and these policies to climate change mitigation.

also in their overall ethanol yield depending on the bark Neupane and Rubin (2016) discussed current

content of the feedstock, and their prices also vary drop-in biofuel production technologies and assessed

considerably based on their typical end uses and the current relevant biofuel policies in the U.S., particularly those

demand. However, ethanol production from hog fuel, impacting forest biomass in Maine and the Northeast. In

containing 80% bark, was found not to be feasible, as the this context, authors have examined the Renewable Fuel

net present value (NPV) was still negative at the same Standard (RFS) policy and its definition of biomass which

sugar yield as for white wood. favors biomass from plantations regardless of actual

Gonzalez-Salazar et al. (2016) described the ecological impacts on biodiversity, soil quality, and water

process of developing a technology roadmap for deploying quality. Finally, it is argued that the Environmental

bioenergy technologies at a country level. A method for Protection Agency (EPA) should consider revising the

energy technology roadmapping adapted tfor developing definition of biomass eligible for renewable fuel credits to

countries was proposed. The proposed method combines an include sustainably managed natural forests.

acknowledged roadmapping framework from prior art, a Yeh et al. (2016) compared transportation fuel

new strategy to build consensus based on the Delphi carbon policies in terms of their economic efficiency, fuel

method, and a strong focus on analytical modeling for price impacts, greenhouse gas emission reductions, and

supporting expert judgment. The proposed method was incentives for innovation. The study also discusses key

applied to Colombia for creating a plan to deploy regulatory design features of low carbon fuel standard

sustainable bioenergy technologies in Colombia until 2030. (LCFS) policies, and it provides an update on the

Finally, the relevance of the process of developing a implementation status of LCFS policies in California, the

technology roadmap for bioenergy exploitation in European Union, British Columbia, and Oregon. The

Colombia in other developing countries is discussed. authors conclude that output subsidies results in an

Lucia (2016) illustrates and discusses the main intensity standard being inferior to a carbon tax, although

objectives of biofuels policies viewed under

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Water Environment Research, Volume 89, Number 10 - Copyright © 2017 Water Environment Federation
the inefficiency can be corrected with a properly designed Sustainable Feedstock for Bioethanol Production. Appl

consumption tax. Energy., 162, 49-57.

Bello, M., Ranganathan, P., Brennan, F. (2016) Dynamic

Paschalidou et al. (2016) discussed the dilemma
Modelling of Microalgae Cultivation Process in High
of using “energy crops for biofuel production or for food,”
Rate Algal Wastewater Pond. Algal Res., Available
as evaluated in two alternatives, based on the analysis of
online.
the Strengths/Weaknesses and Opportunities/ Threats
Bhuiya, M.M.K., Rasul, M.G., Khan, M.M.K., Ashwath, N., Azad,
(SWOT)in Greece. Results of the first alternative show A.K. (2016) Prospects of 2nd Generation Biodiesel as a

strengths including the creation of direct and indirect jobs, Sustainable Fuel-Part: 1 Selection of Feedstocks, Oil

a diversity of energy supply, and a positive contribution to Extraction Techniques and Conversion Technologies.

reducing the greenhouse effect. Weaknesses include Renewable and Sustain Energy Rev., 55, 1109-1128.

Baskar, G., Aiswarya, R. (2016) Trends in Catalytic Production of

environmental impacts and dependence on land
Biodiesel from Various Feedstocks. Renewable and
availability. Conversely, results of the second option show
Sustain Energy Rev., 57, 496-504.
the strengths including food security and a low risk of
Barcelos, C.A., Maeda, R.N., Santa Anna, L.M.M., Pereira Jr. N.
deforestation in order to find new land.
(2016) Sweet Sorghum as a Whole-crop Feedstock for
Future of the Topic Ethanol Production. Biomass and Bioener., 94, 46-56.

Alternative energy plays a crucial role in the sustainable Berglund, L., Noel, M., Aitomäki, Y., Oman, T., Oksman, K.

energy development, and alternative energy related (2016) Production Potential of Cellulose Nanofibers

literature attracted growing attention in research. In from Industrial Residues: Efficiency and Nanofiber

Characteristics. Ind Crops and Prod., 92, 84-92.

addition, bioenergy and solar energy gained more attention
Baicha, Z., Salar-García, M.J., Ortiz-Martínez, V.M., Hernández-
in the alternative energy field. Future reviews are
Fernández, F.J., de los Ríos, A.P., Labjar, N., Lotfi,
anticipated to cover issues related to new methods for mass
E., Elmahi, M. (2016) A Critical Review on Microalgae
culturing of algae. Algal cell harvesting and oil extraction
as an Alternative Source for Bioenergy Production: A
techniques will be reviewed through the latest research Promising Low Cost Substrate for Microbial Fuel Cells.

published along with the policy and economics of other Fuel Process Techno., 154, 104-116.

alternative bioenergy resources. Cheng, K.C., Kuo, P.C., Hung, H.Y., Yu, K.H., Hwang, Po-Chuen

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