Heat and Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00231-018-2385-4

ORIGINAL

Role of Rayleigh numbers on characteristics of double diffusive

salt fingers
F. Rehman 1 & O. P. Singh 2

Received: 23 February 2017 / Accepted: 14 May 2018 / Published online: 22 May 2018
# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Double diffusion convection, driven by two constituents of the fluid with different molecular diffusivity, is widely applied in
oceanography and large number of other fields like astrophysics, geology, chemistry and metallurgy. In case of ocean, heat (T)
and salinity (S) are the two components with varying diffusivity, where heat diffuses hundred times faster than salt. Component
(T) stabilizes the system whereas components (S) destabilizes the system with overall density remains stable and forms the rising
and sinking fingers known as salt fingers. Recent observations suggest that salt finger characteristics such as growth rates,
wavenumber, and fluxes are strongly depending on the Rayleigh numbers as major driving force. In this paper, we corroborate
this observation with the help of experiments, numerical simulations and linear theory. An eigenvalue expression for growth rate
is derived from the linearized governing equations with explicit dependence on Rayleigh numbers, density stability ratio, Prandtl
number and diffusivity ratio. Expressions for fastest growing fingers are also derived as a function various non-dimensional
parameter. The predicted results corroborate well with the data reported from the field measurements, experiments and numerical
simulations.

NomenclatureSymbol Description ST Salinity of top layer (% of mass fraction)

Ar Aspect ratio of the computational domain = X/Z SB Salinity of bottom layer (% of mass fraction)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) S∗ Non-dimensional salinity = (S-Sb) / ΔS (% of mass
H Total height of the computational domain (m) fraction)
Pr Prandtl number = ν/kT. ΔS Salinity step across the interface (ST − SB % of mass
Sc Schmidt number = ν/kS fraction)
kT Molecular diffusion coefficient for heat or T′ Perturbation from mean value ¼ T−T
thermal diffusivity (m2/s) S′ Perturbation from mean value ¼ S−S
kS Molecular diffusion coefficient for salt or saline w′ Perturbation from mean value ¼ w−w
diffusivity (m2/s) Sz Salinity gradient =dS/dz(%/m)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
N Buoyancy frequency ¼ gβS z Tz Temperature gradient =dT/dz(°C/m)
T Temperature (°C) Hi Height up to which linear gradients of T and S
TT Temperature of top layer (°C) exists (m)
TB Temperature of bottom layer (°C) RaT Thermal Rayleigh number = gαH i 4 T z =vk T
ΔT Temperature step across the interface (TT − TB°C) RaS Salinity Rayleigh number = gαH i 4 T S =vk T
T* Non-dimensional temperature = (T-Tb)/Δ T (°C) Rρ Density stability ratio ¼ αΔT
βΔS ¼ RaT =RaS
S Salinity (% of mass fraction) Rf Flux ratio =αT′/βS′
U Non-dimensional horizontal velocity = u/kT/H
u Dimensional horizontal velocity (m/s)
* F. Rehman
W Non-dimensional vertical velocity = w/kT/H
rehmanfaria@gmail.com w Dimensional vertical velocity (m/s)
t Time (s)
t* Non-dimensional time = t/ H2/ kT
1
School of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology – Mandi,
Mandi, Himachal Pradesh 175001, India x Dimensional horizontal coordinate (m)
X Non-dimensional horizontal coordinate (= x/H)
2
Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology – BHU,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India z Dimensional vertical coordinate (m)
3484
Z Non-dimensional vertical coordinate (= z/H)
p Dimensional pressure (N/mm2)
P Non-dimensional pressure (= p /kT2ρ0/H2)
δf Dimensional horizontal finger wavelength (mm)
Greek symbols
α Coefficient of thermal expansion at constant
pressure and salinity
β Coefficient of saline expansion at constant pressure
and temperature
ν Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
τ Diffusivity ratio = k S=k T
λ Dimensional wavelength (cm)
ρ0 Reference density (kg/m3)
1 Introduction
Double diffusive salt fingers play an important role in trans-
port processes of oceans like vertical mixing and upwelling of
the nutrients, which impact overturning circulation of the
oceans, climatic control of the Earth and support flora and
fauna [1–3]. Besides being widely used in oceanography, this
convective flow has a broad application in various other fields
like geology, geophysics, astrophysics, chemistry, material sci-
ence [4–6]. Evaporation exceeds precipitation in the upper part
of the ocean, results in hot and salty water mass lying over cold
and fresh water. The convection process driven by the pres-
ence of two components with varying molecular diffusivities
in the fluid, that is heat and salt (denoted as T and S) in the
ocean where heat diffuses hundred times faster than salt. Faster
diffusing component stabilizes the system that leads to nega-
tive density gradient whereas slower diffusing component de-
stabilizes the system, contributes to positive density gradient
with overall density remains stable. The convection takes the
form of alternatively rising and sinking cells called as double
diffusive salt fingers [6, 7]. The extent to which temperature
and salinity gradients compensate each other is measured by
density stability ratio (Rρ). Mathematically, Rρ for heat and salt
system is defined as Rρ= αΔT/βΔS, where α is coefficient of
thermal expansion at constant pressure and salinity, β is the
coefficient of saline expansion at constant pressure and tem-
perature. The usual range of salt finger formation is 1 < Rρ
< τ−1, where τ = kT/kS is the diffusivity ratio of thermal and
salinity components. Maximum double diffusive finger activ-
ities have been observed in theory, experiments and numerical
simulations when Rρ → 1 , where most distinctive fingers are
formed [7–9]. Field observations in oceans also suggest the
presence of active fingers where Rρ is near unity [7, 9].
The seminal work by Baines and Gill [10] on predicting
finger characteristics paved the way for understanding the
finger evolution theoretically. Among many other impor-
tant work, Kunze [11] and Schmitt [12] further provided
significant advancement in understanding finger behavior.
Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492
One common aspect of these works is that finger charac-
teristics are generally observed to be strong of function
of Rρ. In the context of recent observations, it would be
difficult to predict finger characteristics from the previous
work where Rayleigh number, plays a strong influencing
role on finger evolution. Mathematically, thermal Rayleigh
number (RaT) is defined as, RaT ¼ gαH i 4 T z =vk T , where g
is the acceleration due to gravity, ν is the kinematic viscos-
ity, kT is thermal diffusivity, T z is the temperature gradi-
ents, Hi is the interface height which varies from few cm to
several meters. It is the height up to which linear gradients
of T exists.
For example, Singh and Srinivasan [13] recently reported
that apart from the parameter Rρ, Rayleigh numbers play a
significant role in the evolution of salt fingers. They reported
the evolution of salt fingers for Rayleigh numbers varying in
the order of 104–1010 for wide ranges of Rρ. Fingers growth
rate, kinetic energy, evolution pattern, finger width etc. were
demonstrated to be a strong function of Rayleigh numbers and
weak dependence on Rρ [14].
Another major aspect of the finger convection is the trans-
port of the fluxes of salt and heat vertically in the oceans,
which has been studied by many researchers over the last
few decades as a function of Rρ alone. However, field mea-
surements of salinity and temperature profiles by Schmitt et al.
[15] showed that height of the mixed layer profile varies as a
function of ocean depth (see Fig. 1) and hence, the effective
Rayleigh number also varies with depth [14]. Recently,
Sreenivas et al. [14] demonstrated that major reason for dis-
agreement with the flux values reported by various investiga-
tors is the omission of Rayleigh numbers as an influencing
parameter since various investigators measured finger fluxes
at effectively different Rayleigh numbers. They concluded that
finger characteristics such as finger wavelength, fluxes etc.
depends on both Rρ and RaT (or RaS) and hence, at least two
of the three governing parameters Rρ, RaT and Ras are needed
to predict attributes of finger convection and to quantify the
fluxes transported by the fingers. Furthermore, Singh and
Srinivasan [13] demonstrated that a finger characteristic such
as growth, width, velocity etc. are significantly influenced by
Rayleigh numbers even if Rρ is held constant. On the other
hand, theoretical prediction for such finger characteristics
would ‘freeze’ if Rρ is held constant and predictions on the
effect of Rayleigh numbers is difficult as the existing theories
incorporate the effect of Rρ alone for a given fluid system [11,
12, 16, 17]. For a given system, e.g. heat-salt system or salt-
sugar system, value of diffusivity ratio (τ) and Prandtl number
(Pr) are known with only variable parameter Rρ. Hence, in-
vestigating the finger characteristics for a given system at fixed
Rρ from previous linear theories would be practically incon-
ceivable. Therefore, the recent findings of Singh et al. [13] and
Sreenivas et al. [14] by numerical simulations motivates us to
look into the advancements in this field.
Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492 3485

(gm/kg) changed by controlling the concentration of the solution

whereas Rρ is maintained constant. Rhodamine-B is used as
a dye for fluid visualization which is added to salt solution.
Detailed experimental setup and other results have not been
reported here in the view of the scope of the paper. It can be
seen from the Fig. 2a that wide and stable fingers form at low
Rayleigh number (RaT = 4.3 × 103) with almost no or very less
splitting and merging with neighboring fingers whereas, in
Fig. 2b thin fingers form at high Rayleigh number RaT =
4.3 × 105 which merge and split rapidly. Time scale of evolu-
tion, velocity, finger wavelength etc. was observed to be a
strong function of Rayleigh number even if Rρ was held
constant.
In idealized linear theory, finger characteristics of the
fastest growing finger are obtained by solving the finger
growth rate in normal mode equations as discussed subse-
quently. In section 2, we described a finger model that incor-
porates all the non-dimensional parameters such as Rayleigh
numbers, Schmidt number, Prandtl number, diffusivity ratio,
and density stability ratio. In section 3, numerical simulation
and growth rate trend is shown, validation with the published
data is presented in section 4 and conclusion in section 5.
Derivations of power-law equations of maximum growth rate
is shown in appendix.

2 Growth rate as a function of rayleigh

number

We consider the same sets of governing equation used by

Kunze [11], Schmitt [12], and Stern [17]. The conservation
equations for vertical momentum, heat and salinity equations
(under Boussinesq approximation) have following form for
salt fingers,
∂w
þ gðβS−αT Þ ¼ ν∇ 2 w ð1Þ
∂t
∂T
Fig. 1 Ocean temperature and salinity profile reveal the presence of þ wT z ¼ k T ∇ 2 T ð2Þ
staircase structure with large variation in layer depth and hence ∂t
effective Rayleigh numbers [15] ∂S
þ wS z ¼ k S ∇ 2 S ð3Þ
∂t
To investigate the role of Rayleigh numbers on finger evo- Normal modes solution with sinusoidal horizontal structure
lution, we developed an experimental setup using Hele-Shaw for exponentially growing fingers is assumed which is of the
cell, similar to that of Pringle and Glass [18]. Dimension of the following form,
Hele-Shaw cell used for the experiment is 0.8 × 160 × h 0 0 0 i  
240 mm3. T ; S; w ¼ T ; S ; w eλt sinðk x xÞsin k y y ð4Þ
The cell was initially filled with water and then filed with
salt and sucrose solution from the two different inlets. The where λ is the finger growth rate, k = (kx2 + ky2)1/2 = 2π/δf is
initial condition is formed with less dense layer of sucrose finger dimensional wavenumber and δf is finger wavelength.
solution over denser and dyed salt solution. Hundred volumes The underlying assumptions in Eqd. (1), (2) and (3) are that
of solutions passed from Hele-Shaw to develop a well-defined the background hydrostatic balance is unperturbed and the
interface in the cell. Rayleigh numbers are systematically vertical motions are decoupled from horizontal motions [17].
3486 Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492

Fig. 2 Snapshots of the salt finger (a) (b)

structure seen in experimental
study at fixed Rρ = 1.3 and a low
Rayleigh number, RaT = 4.3 ×
103, evolution time (t) = 1 h.
4 min, horizontal wavelength, δf =
2 mm; b High Rayleigh number,
RaT = 4.3 × 105, evolution time
(t) = 2 min 33 s, wavelength, δf =
1.25 mm. Time scale and finger
structures vary tremendously with
Rayleigh number for fixed Rρ.
Dimension of the Hele-Shaw cell
used for the experiment is
0.8x160x240 mm3

Here, T′ and S′ are finger-induced temperature and salinity k

M ¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi −1=2 ð9Þ
anomalies, w′ is the perturbed velocity, ν is the molecular υ RaT =N
viscosity, kT the molecular diffusivity of heat, and kS the mo- λ
lecular diffusivity of salt. Normal modes solution with sinu- σ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð10Þ
N RaT
soidal horizontal structure for exponentially growing fingers is
assumed which is of the form [17]. Where, W′, M, and σ are the dimensionless velocity, wave
At time t = 0, the initial condition is of the system is quies- number and growth rate. Other dimensionless parameters are
cent i.e. perturbations about a background state of no motion defined as, thermal Rayleigh number, RaT ¼ gαH i 4 T z =vk T ,
(i.e., w ¼ 0 ). An infinite horizontal layer saturated with fluid density stability ratio, Rρ=αT z =βS z buoyancy frequency
confined between the rigid and stress free boundary planes, pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
N ¼ gβS z . The symbol g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z = 0 and z = Hi is assumed with unperturbed temperature (Tz)
ν is the kinematic viscosity, kT is thermal diffusivity, α is
and salinity gradients (Sz) between the planes. The tempera-
coefficient of thermal expansion at constant pressure and sa-
ture difference ΔT and concentration difference ΔS are main-
linity, β is the coefficient of saline expansion at constant pres-
tained between the lower and upper boundaries. Thermal and
sure and temperature, T z and S z are the temperature and sa-
concentration boundary conditions are:
linity gradients respectively, Hi is the interface height which
varies from few cm to several meters. Hi is the height up to
T ¼ T 0 at z ¼ 0; T ¼ T 0 þ ΔT at z ¼ Hi ; which linear gradients of T, S exists
With introduction of these non-dimensional numbers, Eqs.
S ¼ S 0 at z ¼ 0; T ¼ T 0 þ ΔS at z ¼ Hi ;
(5), (6) and (7) become,
Substituting the normal modes (4) in the linearized system 0  0 
W RaT σ þ M 2 ¼ −βS 1−R f ð11Þ
of Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we have,
0  0
0   0 0
 R f βS RaT σ þ Pr−1 M 2 ¼ −RaT Rρ W ð12Þ
w λ þ vk 2 ¼ −g βS −αT ð5Þ 0  0
βS RaT σ þ Sc−1 M 2 ¼ −RaT W ð13Þ
0  0
T λ þ k T k 2 ¼ −w T z ð6Þ
Equations (11)–(13) contain other non-dimensional param-
0  0
S λ þ k S k 2 ¼ −w S z ð7Þ eters that define the properties of the finger system are
ν ν kS
Now, the following new non-dimensional parameters are Pr ¼ ; Sc ¼ ; τ ¼
introduced as, kT kS kT

0 where, Pr, Sc, and τ are Prandtl number, Schmidt number and
0 Nw
W ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð8Þ diffusivity ratio respectively. Note that any two of the three
g RaT above parameters would be needed as they are related as τ =
Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492 3487

Pr /Sc. Flux ratio Rf is another important non-dimensional In a larger range of Rayleigh numbers, for example, from
parameter. It is the ratio of heat and salinity fluxes, defined RaT = 105 to RaT = 1010 i.e. a five-order change in RaT (as seen
as, Rf = αT′/βS′. Flux ratio Rf is introduced in Eqs. (11), (12) in Fig. 4a and b) results in a three order of magnitude change
and (13) by eliminating αT′. Since Rf is a dependent variable, in maximum growth rate at a fixed Rρ = 1.5. A similar obser-
which depends on Rρ and RaT [13, 14], therefore eliminating vation was made in the corresponding maximum finger wave-
Rf and W from the Eqs. (11), (12) and (13) we get a cubic length variation (see appendix). Such variations in growth rate
eigenvalue equation which has the following form for a given Rρ is difficult to predict from the previous theories.
On the other hand, when Rρ was varied over an order of mag-



nitude i.e. from Rρ = 1.5 to Rρ = 10 at a fixed Rayleigh number
M2 M2 M2 e.g. RaT = 1010, maximum growth rate changes only by 3.6
σþ σþ σþ ð14Þ
RaT PrRaT ScRaT times, which clearly demonstrate that maximum growth rate


varies in a narrow range as a function of Rρ [11]. This feature
Rρ −1 1−τRρ
þ σ− M2 ¼ 0 with Rρ variation has also been observed by previous investi-
RaT PrRaT 2
gators [11, 12, 16, 17]. Clearly, the effect of Rayleigh numbers
on the finger characteristics is dominant in comparison to Rρ,
For instability to occur, Re(σ) > 0 for finite values of which is consistent with the findings of Singh et al. [13] and
wavenumbers (M). Equation (14) is an important new eigen- Sreenivas et al. [14]. Also, in experimental study (Fig. 2a and
value expression which makes salt finger’s growth rate and b) it was seen that changing the RaT (at fixed Rρ) effect the
wavenumber a function of RaT, Pr , Sc, Rρ and τ. It is evident finger structure and evolution time scales.
from Eq. (14) that even if Rρ is held constant for a given fluid Double diffusion convection at neutral buoyancy ration is
system (properties Pr, Sc and τ are fixed), growth rate or an emerging field of study [7]. Distinctive fingers are ob-
finger wavenumber can still vary as a function of Rayleigh served when Rρ → 1 and hence it is an important to investigate
numbers. Interestingly, in the limit of parameters value ap- this range of finger formation. However, singularity is ob-
proaching unity i.e. (RaT, Rρ)→1, the growth rate variation served in the past theories at neutral buoyancy ratio [11]. It
predicted by Eq. (14) and that predicted from Schmitt’s [12] is worth mentioning that growth rate – Rayleigh number for-
theory collapses into a single curve. Equation (14) being a mulation eliminates the singularity present in the previous
cubic equation has three roots out of which the positive and theory when Rρ → 1 (as shown in Fig. 5). To determine a
real root is given by the following expression, simple functional relation for σmax an order of magnitude anal-
  ysis is performed in Eq. (15). It observed that σmax~q11/3 and
r1−p12 since q1~p13 for σmax, we have σmax~M2/RaT~RaT−1/2. The
σ ¼ T1 − þ p1 ð15Þ
T1 derivation for the σmax with RaT by maximization principle
is shown in appendix.
where,

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3 Numerical simulation: effect of rayleigh

 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
3  ffi
2 3
number
T 1¼ q1 þ q1 þ r1−p1 2
;
M2 Numerical simulations have been carried out for understand-
p1 ¼ − ðPr þ Sc þ PrScÞ; ing the impact of governing parameters on the finger struc-
3Ra T PrSc

 
3p1r1 M6 M2 1−τRρ tures and growth rate. The 2D, unsteady equations that govern
q1 ¼ p1 −
3
− − and the double-diffusive systems are continuity Eq. (16), momen-
2 2RaT 3 PrSc 2PrRaT 2

tum equations in X (17) and Z directions (18), heat Eq. (19)
Pr þ Sc þ 1 Rρ −1
r1 ¼ M4 2
þ and salt concentration (20) conservation equations, which are
3PrScRaT 3RaT presented below in the non-dimensional form under
Boussinesq approximation are:
Figure 3a and b shows the variation of growth rate for heat-
salt and salt-sugar system respectively, as a function of wave-
∂U ∂W
length plotted using Eq. (15) for different Rayleigh numbers, þ ¼0 ð16Þ
∂X ∂Z
RaT = 106 to 9 × 106 for a fixed Rρ = 1.5. The significant var-
iation in growth rate magnitude is seen even for a narrow
range of Rayleigh numbers for a given Rρ. 2

∂U ∂U ∂U ∂P ∂ U ∂2 U
þU þW ¼− þ Pr þ 2 ð17Þ
∂t * ∂X ∂Z ∂X ∂X 2 ∂Z
3488 Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492

Growth Rate
Growth Rate

Fig. 3 Growth rate variation as a function of finger wavelength for different Rayleigh numbers at constant Rρ (see legend) for a heat-salt system; b salt-
sugar system. Significant variation in growth rate can be seen at fixed Rρ

The scaling parameters used to develop the non-

dimensional governing Eqs. (16–20) are X = x/H, Z = z/H,
∂W ∂W ∂W ∂P
þU þW ¼− U = u/kT/H, W = w/kT/H, T* = (T-Tb)/Δ T, S* = (S-Sb) / Δ S,
∂t * ∂X ∂Z ∂Z P = p/kT2ρ0/H2and t* = t/H2/kT for length scales in the hori-

∂2 W ∂ 2 W zontal and vertical directions for the fluid of undisturbed den-

þ Pr þ −RaS PrS *
∂X 2 ∂Z 2 sity ρ0 in 2D layer of H depth.
The component forms the position vector is (x; z), where
þ RaT PrT * the x direction is horizontal and the z-direction is vertical,
ð18Þ while u = (u; w) is the corresponding velocity vector, also t
is the time and p is the pressure. Here Tb and Sb are the bottom
layer temperature and salinity. ΔT and ΔS are the temperature
2 *
and concentration differences between the top and bottom
∂T * ∂T * ∂T * ∂P ∂T ∂2 T *
þ U þ W ¼ − þ Pr þ ð19Þ layers. For obtaining dimensional values presented in the pa-
∂t * ∂X ∂Z ∂X ∂X 2 ∂Z 2
per, the following physical properties are used: thermal
diffusivity kT = 1.4 × 10−7m2/s, salinity diffusivity kT = 1.4 ×
2 *
10−9m2/s, kinematic viscosity υ = 1 × 10−6m2/s, salinity ex-
∂S * ∂S * ∂S * ∂P ∂S ∂2 S * pansion coefficient β ¼ 8  10−4o =oo −1 and thermal expan-
þU þW ¼− þ Pr þ ð20Þ
∂t * ∂X ∂Z ∂X ∂X 2 ∂Z 2 sion coefficient α = 2 × 10−4 ° C−1, and H = 0.15 m.
Growth Rate

Growth Rate

Fig. 4 Growth rate variation as a function of finger wavelength for different Rρ (see legend) at a constant Rayleigh numbers for a RaT = 105; b RaT =
1010. Significant variation in maximum growth rate can be seen for any constant Rρ
Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492 3489

1203 × 301 on 1:1 aspect ratio. For low Rayleigh number

(RaT = 7 × 104) Fig. 6c and d, grid points used are 201 × 101
for aspect ratio of 0.5 and a time step of 0.05, gives accurate
result. Grid independence test, convergence criterion and
computational method is discussed in Sreenivas et al. [14].
For the initial condition at t = 0, we considered a stationary
fluid with a step profile of temperature and concentration
across a horizontal interface at z = 0:5 [7].

ðΔT ; ΔS Þ for z≥ 0
u ¼ 0; 0; ðT ; S Þ ¼
ð0; 0Þ for z < 0:5

For t > 0, the boundary conditions used are slip velocity at

Fig. 5 Comparison between Kunze theory [11] and new formulation. The the side walls and no-slip at the top z and bottom walls. No
solution of Kunze [11] didn’t predict a finite finger wavelength at low Rρ heat and salt fluxes can cross the boundary of the entire sys-
and gives unbounded solution at Rρ = 1 tem. Hence an adiabatic boundary condition is applied on the
four walls for temperature and a similar condition is applied
Equations (16–20) were solved numerically by using for the salinity as well [7, 13, 14]. For aspect ratio 2, boundary
SIMPLER algorithm along with alternate direction implicit conditions are defined as,
method for the chosen aspect ratio (Ar = X/Z) and grid points
(Nx, Ny). ∂w ∂T ∂S
u¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0 at x ¼ 0; 2 for 0 < z < 1
In general, large number of grids points and low time steps ∂x ∂x ∂x
was required for high RaT systems [13]. For high Rayleigh
number (RaT = 7 × 108) (Fig. 6a and b), grid points 401 ×
301 for aspect ratio of 0.333 and a time step of 0.005 s gives ∂T ∂S
u¼w¼ ¼ ¼ 0 at z ¼ 0; 1 for 0 < x < 2
reasonably satisfactory results. This grid is equivalent to ∂z ∂z

(a) (b) (c) (d)

x
∗
Fig. 6 Evolution of 2D concentration field, S and the corresponding
temperature, T∗ field at fixed density ratio, Rρ = 2 and variable Rayleigh
number is shown in this figure. Thermal Rayleigh number and elapse time
of convection for the above set of figures are a, b RaT = 7 × 108, t = 20
sec, where a represents the concentration field and b represents the
corresponding temperature field. Similarly, for another set of figure c, d
RaT = 7 × 104, t = 3 hr. and 6 min, c represents the concentration field and
d represents the corresponding temperature field. Thin fingers evolve at
high RaT (a, b) and at low Rayleigh number (c, d) wide fingers evolve and
dominated by thermal diffusion
3490
Figure 6 shows the salt finger structures at low and
high Rayleigh number for constant Rρ. It is seen from
Fig. 6a and b that thin figures form at high Rayleigh
number whereas wide fingers form at low Rayleigh num-
ber (Fig. 6c and d). Finger structures and evolution time
change tremendously with Rayleigh number keeping Rρ
constant. Same kind of results was seen in experimental
study (Fig. 2a and b) also.
Growth rate (G) of salt fingers, obtained from numerical
simulation is calculated using a relation [19],
Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492
4 Validation
Now we validate the Rayleigh number formulation (Eq. 14)
with published data from field measurements, laboratory ex-
periments, theory and numerical simulations. Though there
are numerous salt finger characteristics that can be validated,
finger wavelength and flux ratios are most commonly reported
parameters. The condition of thermohaline staircase in the
Caribbean east of Barbados reported from the field measure-
ments [6, 11] are as follows: ν = 10−6m2/s, kT = 1.4 × 10−7m2/
s, kS = 1.1 × 10−9m2/s, α = 2 × 10−40C−1, β = 7.5 × 10−4%0−1,
 
1 j Wðt Þj
G¼ log ð21Þ
t jW ð0Þj
where, W(t) is an average velocity of fingers measured at
time t and W(0) at t = 0. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that
growth rate variation with Rayleigh number (at fixed Rρ =
2), calculated from above relation Eqs. (21) and (15) fol-
low the same trend. However, there is a difference in
values as both the systems have different initial condi-
tions. It is to be noted from the Fig. 7 that growth rate
oscillates between the Rayleigh numbers of the order 106
to 108. One reason for this oscillatory behavior could be
explained on the basis of results presented by Singh and
Srinivasan [13]. They reported that finger system transi-
tions from diffusion-dominated to convection-dominated
system when the Rayleigh number is of the order of
107. This transition leads to changes in system velocities,
which could result in growth rate variations in Eq. (21).
However, further investigations need to be done to sub-
stantiate the effect of transition zone on finger growth
rate.
Fig. 7 Growth rate variation with thermal Rayleigh number at a fixed
density stability ratio ( Rρ = 2 ). Growth rate is directly proportional to
Rayleigh number. Numerical (Eq. 27) and analytical (Eq. 15) study show
the same trend of growth rate
T z ¼ 0:3°C/m, S z ¼ 0.05%0/m, ΔS = 0.1%0, Rρ = 1.6 and
Hi = 2m. The corresponding Rayleigh number based on these
values is RaT = 6.72 × 1010. For this system, dimensional fin-
ger wavelength calculated from Eq. (15) is 3.18 cm which is
very close to the wavelength of 3.15 cm (an error of less than
1%) as predicted by Kunze [11] and Schmitt [12].
Many investigators have reported flux ratio from experi-
ments [20–24], numerical simulation [6, 14, 25–28] and ana-
lytical analysis [16] at high Rayleigh numbers for different
fluid systems having different diffusivity ratio. Figure 8 shows
the flux ratio, Rf variation as a function of diffusivity ratio
varying from τ = 1/3 (salt-sugar system) to τ = 1/100 (heat-
salt system) at high RaT. Predictions from the new formulation
capture the trend of earlier reported data very well. The two
limiting ends that are generally studied is heat-salt (diffusivity
ratio, tau =1/100) and salt-sugar system (tau = 1/3). For heat-
salt system, the maximum relative percent error is 3.9%. For
salt-sugar system, the maximum relative percent error is 4.4%.
Considering the wide variability in experimental or numerical
setup of various researchers, error from the present theoretical
model is quite reasonable. Moreover, it is seen from
Fig. 8 Flux ratio (Rf) as a function of inverse diffusivity ratio at Rρ = 2,
obtained from the new formulation (15) and those reported by various
investigators. The new equation captures the trend and values of Rf
variation reasonably well in the diffusivity ratio from salt-sugar system
(τ = 1/3) to heat-salt system (τ = 1/100)
Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492 3491

experimental results (Fig. 2a and b) and a simulation result
(Fig. 6) that Rayleigh number has an important role in salt
finger evolution and time scales. Also Fig. 7 shows the simi-
larity in the trend of growth rate calculated from analytical
study (Eq. 14) and numerical simulation Eq. (21).
5 Conclusion
A functional form of fastest growing salt fingers growth rate
with explicit dependence on Rayleigh numbers along with
other important governing parameters such as Prandtl
number (Pr), Schmidt number (Sc), density stability ratio
(Rρ) and diffusivity ratio (τ) is derived. The model predicts
the finger characteristics reasonably well such as wavelength
and fluxes reported by previous investigators. In the limit of
parameter value approaching unity i.e. (RaT, Rρ) → 1, the
growth rate model collapse into a single curve and follow
Schmitt’s theory [12]. Experimental and numerical results also
corroborate the fact that finger characteristics are a strong
function of Rayleigh numbers. The Rayleigh number formu-
Appendix: Power law for growth rate
We have derived a simple functional relationship for maxi-
mum growth rate and wavelength variation as a function of
RaT and Rρ and other system parameters. It is to be mentioned
here that value of maximum growth rate obtained from exact
solution (15) agrees within 1% of the value predicted by sim-
ple functional form in Eq. (6). In linear stability models the
unstable mode with the largest finger growth rate is investi-
gated. This approach is based on a sensible assumption: if a
weak initial perturbation contains a full spectrum of normal
modes, then the fastest growing mode is more likely to reach
the level of nonlinear equilibration first and thereby determine
the pattern of fully developed instability [3]. To find the max-
imum growth rate, we first note that there are three dimension-
2 2 2
less timescales in the formulation (14). Since, MRa > MRa > MRa .
Simplification result in M2v > M2kT > M2kS. To find positive
growth rates, |σ| ≤ M2kT implies that |σ| ≪ M2v. This implies
steady state fingers [11]. Hence, we obtain the eigenvalue
equation as

lation open up a new avenue to explore variety of double- M2 M2 Rρ −1 M4

σ2 þ þ þ σ þ ð22Þ
diffusive systems apart from oceanography, metallurgy, geol- PrRaT Sc RaT M2 PrScRaT 2

ogy, chemistry, meteorology and other research fields where 1−τRρ

these parameters play a significant role. For example, Pr, Sc − ¼0
PrRaT
and RaT play an important role in the study of transition from
finger convection to convection rolls in double-diffusive con- The positive root for the above equation is
vection [29, 30], however, the dependencies of finger instabil- 0vu
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

1
ity limit on these parameters are not known as linear stability u M4 1−τRρ

B u 4 − C
1 M2 M2 Rρ −1 B u 2 PrRaT C
analysis rely on single parameter [10]. The Rayleigh number σ¼ þ þ Bu1− PrSc RaT  −1C
2 PrRaT Sc RaT 2 B t 2 C
M @ M2
þ M2
þ
Rρ −1 A
formulation could provide valuable insights into such phe- PrRaT Sc RaT M2

nomena. It would be interesting to further investigate the con-

ditions suitable for finger formations using the Rayleigh num- ð23Þ
ber formulation in variety of double-diffusive systems.
The value of M which maximizes σ in Eq. (9) is obtained
by ∂σ/∂M=0, we get,

2  
 
3
M 2
M 2 Rρ −1 M M Rρ −1 8M 3
   6 þ þ þ − − 7
M M Rρ −1 6 2PrRaT 2ScRaT M2 PrRaT ScRaT M3 PrScRaT 2 7
− − þ 6
þ6 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 7 ¼ 0 ð24Þ
PrRaT ScRaT M3
2
7
4 ðRρ −1Þ 4M 4
1−τRρ 5
M2 M2
PrRaT þ 2ScRaT þ 2M 2
− 2
þ 4
PrScRaT PrRaT

It is observed that the second square bracketed term in   1=4

equation (318) is always negative for various range of M, M Max ¼ C 1 Rρ −1 RaT ð25Þ
Sc, Pr, Rρ and RaT, hence the first bracketed term has to be   −1=4
positive to satisfy the equality. Therefore, δnf ¼ C 2 Rρ −1 RaT ð26Þ
h i PrScRa ð R ρ −1 Þ
− PrRa − PrRa þ PrRa > 0 or M <
M M M 4 T
T T T PrþSc which where, δ n f is a dimensionless finger wavelength,
gives an expression for maximum wavenumber, as C1 = [PrSc(Pr + Sc)]1/4 and C2 = 2π[PrSc(Pr + Sc)]−1/4 are
3492 Heat Mass Transfer (2018) 54:3483–3492

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