ECE 571

Optical Fiber Communication

Chapter 2:
Fundamentals of Optics

Dr. Lamia Khashan & Dr. Mohamed Asaad

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Notes: “ Dr. Saleh Hussien” Page 1

 Ray Transmission Theory

• The optical energy in a wave follows narrow paths,

called rays. Because these rays are used to describe
optical effects geometrically, ray theory is called
geometrical optics.
• Light travels in a straight path, so we represent it using a
single line or ray.
• Rays are carried the beam energy, travelled at certain
speed or are reflected by objects. That means the
energy in the wave is traveling at that speed or is
reflected by the object.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 2

 Ray Transmission Theory

• Light can change directions under certain conditions:

1. Reflection from a surface

2. Refraction as the ray travels from one transparent medium to

another.

Refraction
Reflection

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 3

 Ray Transmission Theory

• In a vacuum, rays travel at a velocity of

c = 3 X108 m/s.
• In any other medium, it’s travel at a slower speed, given
by
𝑐 3 × 108
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 = =
𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
• Where n = 1 for free space, while n = 1.5 for silica glass.
• The velocity of light in a medium depends mainly on the
refractive index of that medium.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 4

 Geometric Optic
• At a plane boundary between two media, a ray is reflected
at an angle equal to the angle of incidence.

𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟
Where
𝜃𝑖 : incident angle
𝜃𝑟 : reflected angle

• Note that the angles are measured with respect to the

boundary normal that is, the direction perpendicular to the
surface.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 5

 Bending of a Light Ray

• The only angles having physical significance in the

preceding paragraphs are those lying between 0° and
90° .
• Snell’s Law is used to describe the relationship between
the angles of incidence and refraction, when referring to
light or other waves passing through a boundary
between two different isotropic media, such as water,
glass, or air.

sin 𝜃𝑡 𝑣2 𝑛1
= =
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 6

 Bending of a Light Ray

• If 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 , Snell’s law yields

sin 𝜃𝑡 > sin 𝜃𝑖 & 𝜃𝑡 > 𝜃𝑖
• The ray is deflect away from the normal, as shown in figure.
• The transmitted ray is deflect away from the normal when
traveling from a medium having a high refractive index into a
medium with a lower refractive index.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 7

 Example 1

1. A light ray proceeds from air (𝑛1 = 1) into glass (𝑛2 =

1.5). Find the transmission angles (𝜃𝑡 ) when 𝜃𝑖 = 0° and
when 𝜃𝑖 = 15° .
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃𝑡
𝑛1
sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑛2
If 𝜃𝑖 = 0°
1
sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 0 = 0 𝜃𝑡 = 0°
1.5
If 𝜃𝑖 = 15°
1
sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 15 = 0.17 𝜃𝑡 = 9.94°
1.5

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 8

 Example 2
• Consider the situation illustrated in figure, find the
incident angle from air to glass 𝜃𝑖 , and the transmitted
angle from glass to air 𝜃𝑡

𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃
𝑛2 1.5
sin 𝜃𝑖 = sin 𝜃 = sin 9.94
𝑛1 1
sin 𝜃𝑖 =0.26 𝜃𝑖 = 15°

𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑡 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃
𝑛2 1.5
sin 𝜃𝑡 = sin 𝜃 = sin 9.94
𝑛1 1
sin 𝜃𝑡 =0.26 𝜃𝑡 = 15°

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 9

 Critical Angle
• It is the incident angle at which the transmitted angle
equals = 90° , i.e, the transmitted ray is parallel to the
boundary.
Substituting in Snell’s low
sin 𝜃𝑡 𝑛1
= ⇒ 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑛2
𝑛2 −1
𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐 = sin 𝜃𝑖 = ⇒ 𝜃𝑐 = sin
𝑛1 𝑛1

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 10

 Propagation of Light in Optical Fiber

• Optical fiber is basically a solid glass rod. The diameter

of rod is so small that it looks like a fiber.
• Optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide. The light travels
like an electromagnetic wave inside the waveguide. The
dielectric waveguide is different from a metallic
waveguide.
• The light gets guided inside the structure, through the
basic phenomenon of total internal reflection (TIR).
• The optical fiber consists of two concentric cylinders; the
inside solid cylinder is called the core and the
surrounding shell is called the cladding.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 11

 Total Internal Reflection

• For the light to propagate inside the fiber through total

internal reflections at core-cladding interface, the
refractive index of he core must be greater than the
refractive index of the cladding. 𝑛1 > 𝑛2

(optical fiber with core, cladding and total internally reflected ray)

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 12

 Total Internal Reflection

• A light ray is launched in a plane containing the axis of the

fiber. We can then see the light ray after total internal reflection
travels in the same plane i.e., the ray is confined to the plane in
which it was launched and never leave the plane. In this
situation the rays will always cross the axis of the fiber. These
are called the Meridional rays.
• Meridional rays: The rays which always pass through the axis of
fiber giving high optical intensity at the center of the core

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 13

 Total Internal Reflection
• The other possibility is that the ray is launched at some angle
such that it does not intersect the axis of the fiber, then after
total internal reflection it will go to some other plane. We can
see that in this situation the ray will never intersect the axis of
the fiber. The ray essentially will spiral around the axis of
fiber. These rays are called the Skew rays.
• Skew Rays : The rays which never intersect the axis of the
fiber, giving low optical intensity at the center and high
intensity towards the rim of the fiber.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 14

 Total Internal Reflection

• A ray is launched from outside (air) at an angle 𝜃𝑜 from the

axis of the fiber. The ray is guided inside the core due to
total internal reflections at the core cladding boundary.
• Let the ray makes an angle 𝜃1 with the axis of the fiber
inside the core, and let the ray make an angle ∅1 with core
cladding interface. let ∅2 be the angle of refraction in the
cladding

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 15

 Total Internal Reflection

• If ∅1 < critical angle the ray is refracted in cladding. The

ray which goes to cladding is lost and is not useful for
communication. The ray which is confined to the core is
useful for optical communication.
• Now as we increase the launching angle 𝜃𝑜 the angle 𝜃1
also increases.
𝜋
𝜃1 + ∅1 =
2
• ∅1 decreases and at some point becomes less than the
𝜋
critical angle. When ∅1 = the critical angle, ∅2 = .
2
𝜋
• The maximum launching angle then corresponds to ∅2 =
2

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 16

 Total Internal Reflection
• Let us apply Snell's law at the launching point and at the
core-cladding interface for the maximum launching angle
𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , for this case let 𝜃1 = 𝜃ሗ1 & ∅1 = ∅ሗ1
𝜋
ሗ ሗ
𝑛1 sin ∅1 = 𝑛2 sin ∅2 , ሗ
∅2 =
2
𝑛2
ሗ
𝑛1 sin ∅1 = 𝑛2 ⇒ ሗ
sin ∅1 =
𝑛1
For air core1 interface
𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃ሗ1
𝜋
𝜃1 = − ∅ሗ1
ሗ
2
𝜋
𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 sin( − ∅ሗ1 )
2
𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ሗ1

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 17

 Total Internal Reflection

n sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ሗ1 = 𝑛1 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ሗ1

2
𝑛2
𝑛 sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 1−
𝑛1

𝑁𝐴 = n sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
&n=1
𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
• The quantity of sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is called the numerical aperture
(NA) of the optical fiber.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 18

 Numerical Aperture

• The numerical aperture is a measure of the ability to collect

light incident over a wide range of angles.

• Light rays incident at angles outside this cone (out of the

acceptance angle) will not propagate along the fiber but
instead will attenuate rapidly.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 × 𝜃

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 19

 Light Propagation
• For an incident ray to be totally reflected at the
core/cladding boundary. the incident angles have to be
within the acceptance cone.
• Acceptance cone : the imaginary light cone with twice
the acceptance angle as the vertex angle.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 20

 Light Propagation

• Axial rays doesn’t undergo total internal reflection (TIR)

and moves in a straight line.
• It should be noted that the fiber core will propagate the
incident light rays only when it is incident at an angle
greater than the critical angle ∅𝑐 . ∅1 > ∅𝑐
• For the light signal to enter the glass via the air-glass
interface. any ray which is incident at an angle greater
than 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 will be transmitted into the core – cladding
interface at an angle less than ∅𝑐 and hence will not
undergo total internal reflection.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 21

 Example
• Consider the situation illustrated in figure, find the
incident angle from air to glass 𝜃𝑜 , that insures total
internal reflection within the fiber cable. Provided n = 1;
𝑛1 = 1.5; 𝑛2 = 1.46
& compute cone acceptance angle
To ensure that total internal
reflection
sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.52 − 1.462 =0.344
𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20.13°
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 × 𝜃 = 40.26°

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 22

 Example
• Given a step index optical fiber cable, having a core radius of
35 m, cladding radius 125  m, and operating at 1.5 m
wavelength. Let 𝑛1 = 1.49; 𝑛2 = 1.44, and cable length is 5500
km long.
a) Compute the numerical aperature.
b) Compute the maximum entrance angle 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 if the coupling media is air
(𝑛 = 1).
c) Compute the telephone call time delay over this fiber cable.
• Sol.:
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛sin 𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = (1.49)2 −(1.46)2 = 0.38
𝜃𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin−1 0.38 = 22.5°
𝑐 3 × 108 8
𝑚
𝑣= = = 2 × 10
𝑛1 1.49 𝑠
𝑙 5500 × 103
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = = = 27.5 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 2 × 108

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 23

 Lenses
• A lens is used to focus the light onto the fiber cable.
• A parallel (Collimated) beam of light is focused to a point.

• All the rays converge to the position shown, known as the

focal point.
• It lies a distance 𝑓 (called the focal length) away from the
lens.
• The lens itself has two spherical surfaces.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 24

 Lenses
• The radii (or curvatures) of these spheres are 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 .
The lens has diameter D and refractive index n. Its focal
length is found from
1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1)( + )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑓
𝑖𝑠 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
𝐷
𝐷
• For complete spherical lens: 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
2
𝐷
𝑓=
4(𝑛 − 1)
𝐷
• If 𝑛=1.5⇒ 𝑓 = severe spherical aberrations
2
• Therefore, 𝑓 > 0.5 𝐷
Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 25
 Lenses
• Collimation: A thin lens can collimate a beam that
emerges from a point. If the light source is located at the
focal point, then the transmitted beam travels parallel to
the lens axis.

• The central ray (a ray directed toward the center of the

lens) is undeviated by a thin lens because the ray enters
and leaves at surfaces that are nearly parallel.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 26

 Lenses

• Parallel rays of light that are incident at some angle

relative to the lens axis are focused in the focal plane.
• The position of the focal point is determined by the
intersection of the central ray with the focal plane.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 27

 Lenses

• The rules for tracing rays through a thin lens are:

1. Rays traveling through the center of the lens are
undeviated.
2. Incident rays traveling parallel to the lens axis pass
through the focal point after emerging from the lens.
3. An incident ray traveling parallel to a central ray
intersects that ray in the focal plane after transmission
through the lens.
4. An incident ray passing through the focal point travels
parallel to the lens axis after it emerges from the lens.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 28

 Graded Index (GRIN) Rod Lens

• The graded-index rod has a refractive index that decreases

with distance from its axis. This causes light rays to travel
in sinusoidal paths.
• The length of one complete cycle is called the lens pitch P.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 29

 Graded Index (GRIN) Rod Lens

• If a length of rod is cut equal

to a quarter pitch. The light
from a point source located
at the center of this rod will
be collimated.

• Collimated Light entering

this lens will be focused

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 30

 Numerical Aperture
• An important characteristic of an optic system is its ability
to collect light incident over a wide range of angles.

𝜃𝑖 =0,< 𝜃𝑜 𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃𝑜 𝜃𝑖 > 𝜃𝑜

• An optic receiver consisting of a lens and a photodetector.

The lens is much larger than the detector surface, so it
intercepts more rays than the detector would by itself.
• The lens focuses this light onto the detector.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 31

 Numerical Aperture

• It is easy to locate the position on the detector where the

light is focused by extending the incident ray passing
through the center of the lens until it hits the detector.
• The photodetector placed in the focal plane of the lens.
– In (a), ray passing through the center of the lens will be collected at
the center of photodetector. Light is incident parallel to the lens
axis.
– In (b), the rays incident angle is varied, but still the focused rays is
collected at the lower part of the photo detector. The light rays are
at the extreme angle for reception (acceptance angle).
– In (c), the rays incident angle is varied more, the focused rays is
collected at out of the surface of the photo detector. The incident
rays are beyond the system acceptance angle.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 32

 Numerical Aperture

• The extreme angle for reception ( maximum acceptance

angle 𝜃𝑜 )
𝑑
tan 𝜃 =
2𝑓
where 𝑑 is the diameter of the photodetector, 𝑓 is the lens
focal point distance.
• The numerical aperture (NA) is defined to be
𝑁𝐴 = n sin 𝜃
where n is the refractive index of the material between the
lens and the photodetector.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 33

 Example

• A receiver has a 10-cm focal length, a 1-cm

photodetector diameter, and air between the lens and
detector. Compute the receiver’s NA and cone
acceptance angle.
• Sol.:
𝑑 1
tan 𝜃 = =
2𝑓 2 × 10
𝜃 = 2.86°
𝑁𝐴 = n sin 𝜃 = 1sin2.86 = 0,05
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 × 𝜃 = 5.72°

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 34

 Diffraction
• It is the deviation of rays from the
predicted path due to the geometrical
optics.
• As a result of diffraction
– focusing a collimated uniform light beam is
not actually a strict point, instead it is a
wide spot.
• Transverse plane:
– is the plane perpendicular to the ray
direction.
• Uniform beam
– The beam having the same intensity
(power) over the transverse plane

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 35

 Diffraction

1. Uniform light beam

– The central spot has diameter of
2.44𝑓
d=
𝐷
where :  : wavelength , 𝑓 : The focal length, & 𝐷 : The lens diameter

• Example: find spot diameter for uniform light beam if 𝑓 =

2𝐷 & 𝜆 = 1𝜇𝑚
• Sol.:
2.44𝑓 2.44 × 10−6 × 2𝐷
d= = = 4.88 𝜇𝑚
𝐷 𝐷

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 36

 Diffraction

• Is the above value of spot diameter acceptable in fiber

communications? Why?
• If a fiber core having a diameter less than d . The
coupling efficiency will be low, because the focused spot
is larger than the fiber. Then, the fiber core must be
larger d to increase coupling efficiency.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 37

 Diffraction

2. Nonuniform light beam:

• Actually, light sources dose not produce uniform beams; It
produce nonuniform light beam.
• Intensity (I) of the light beam is Gaussian distribution.
−2𝑟2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝑤𝑜 2 𝑰
𝑰𝒐
𝐼𝑜 : Intensity at the spot center(r = 0)
𝑟: Radial distance from the spot center
𝑤𝑜 : Radius of the incident beam spot

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 38

 Diffraction

• If 𝑟 = 0, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 is the intensity at the center of the beam

(maximum). This pattern appears to be a circle of light.
Continuous spot circles

1
• If 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 0.135 𝐼𝑜 , the radial distance is called spot size.
𝑒2 𝑜
• If 𝐼 = 0.5𝐼𝑜 , it will be at full width at maximum half (FWMH).

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 39

 Diffraction

• Focusing a Gaussian light beam with a lens yields a

distribution of light in the focal plane that is also
Gaussian shaped.
• There are no surrounding rings like those that appear
when focusing a uniform beam.
• The focus spot size in the focal plane is
𝑓
𝑤𝑜 =
𝜋𝑤
• The shape of the incident nonuniform beam does not
greatly change the degree to which uniform light can be
concentrated. How??

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 40

 Diffraction
3. Divergence of Spot Beam
– The diffraction theory showed that when Gaussian small light
source is located at the focal point of convex lens, the rays will
go parallel direction only for a limited distance, then, the beam
will diverge at a constant full angle 𝜃.
2
𝜃= rad.
𝜋𝑤
At large distance z >> f, the spot size will increase, the Gaussian
beam intensity will be
−2𝑟2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝑤𝑜 2

And spot size is

𝑧
𝑤𝑜 =
𝜋𝑤

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 41

 Example
• Consider a Gaussian beam whose incident spot size (𝑤) is
1mm when collimated. The wavelength is 0.82 m.
Compute the divergence angle. Also find the spot size at
10 m, 1 km and 10 km.
• Sol.:
2 2 × 0.82 × 10−6 −3 rad = 0.03°
𝜃= = = 0.522 × 10
𝜋𝑤 𝜋 × 10−3
𝑧
𝑤𝑜 =
𝜋𝑤
If 𝑧 = 10𝑚 ⇒ 𝑤𝑜 = 2.6 𝑚𝑚
If 𝑧 = 1 𝑘𝑚 ⇒ 𝑤𝑜 = 2.6 𝑐𝑚
If 𝑧 = 10 𝑘𝑚 ⇒ 𝑤𝑜 = 2.6 𝑚

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 42

 Beam Divergence Characteristics

• A very small divergence angles 𝜃 are obtained when the

spot size 𝑤𝑜 is much larger than the wavelength  (𝜃 ↓↓

𝑖𝑓 ↓↓).
𝑤𝑜
• Optic wavelengths are so small that this condition is
easily achieved.
• The divergence of a beam radiated at any wavelength is
1
inversely proportional to the size of the radiator (𝜃 ).
𝑤
• Transmitter emits narrow wavelength beams at a very
high frequency with small size antenna.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 43

 Atmospheric Communication System

• Because of divergence over a long path, the beam at the

receiver may be quite large.
• Much of the transmitted power will be lost in this case.
• Although atmospheric systems perform acceptably over
short paths, the desirability of more efficient power transfer
over long distances is apparent.
• Poor weather conditions decrease system performance.
• Over short paths they may be preferable to fiber systems.
• For long paths in which waveguides (fiber) cannot be
installed (for example, communications between satellites).

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 44

 Assignment

• Light traveling in air strikes a glass plate at an angle 𝜃1 =

33°, where 𝜃1 is measured between the incoming ray
and the glass surface. Upon striking the glass, part of the
beam is reflected, and part is refracted. If the reflected
and refracted beams make an angle of 90° with each
other, what is the refractive index of the glass? What is
the critical angle of this glass? Comment

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 45

 It is your task to summarize the key
points presented in this chapter.

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 46

 Thanks for your attention

Ch 2: Fundamentals of Optics Page 47