PROJECT ON

COMPUTERS
 MS-DOS
MS-DOS (pronounced as, em-es-dos ; short for MicroSoft Disk Operating System) is an
operating system for x86-based personal computers. It was the most commonly used member
of the DOS family of operating systems, and was the main operating system for IBM PC
compatible personal computers during the 1980s to the mid 1990s, until it was gradually
superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user interface (GUI), in particular by
various generations of the Microsoft Windows operating system.

MS-DOS grew from a 1981 request by IBM for an operating system for its IBM PC range of
personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to QDOS (Quick and Dirty
Operating System), also known as 86-DOS, from Seattle Computer Products, and began
work on modifying it to meet IBM's specification. The first edition, MS-DOS 1.0, was
launched in 1982. The version shipped with IBM's PCs was called PC DOS. Although MS-
DOS and PC-DOS were initially developed in parallel by Microsoft and IBM, the two
products eventually went their separate ways.

During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform, and MS-DOS
itself would go through eight versions, until development ceased in 2000. Ultimately it was
the key product in Microsoft's growth from a programming languages company to a diverse
software development firm, providing the company with essential revenue and marketing
resources. It was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions of
Windows ran as a GUI.

Microsoft licensed or released versions of MS-DOS under different names like SB-DOS or
Z-DOS. Competitors released DOS systems such as DR-DOS and PTS-DOS that could also
run DOS applications.
 Versions
 MS-DOS 1.x
o Version 1.12 (OEM) - Compaq release of PC-DOS 1.10
o Version 1.25 (OEM) - Microsoft repackaging of PC-DOS 1.10
 MS-DOS 2.x - Support for 10 MB Hard Disk Drives and tree-structure filing system
o Version 2.0 (OEM)
o Version 2.1 (OEM)
o Version 2.11 (OEM)
o Version 2.2 (OEM)
o Version 2.21 (OEM)
 MS-DOS 3.x
o Version 3.0 (OEM) - Support for larger Hard Disk Drives
o Version 3.1 (OEM) - Support for Microsoft Networks
o Version 3.2 (OEM)
o Version 3.21 (OEM)
o Version 3.25 (OEM)
o Version 3.3 (OEM)
o Version 3.3a (OEM)
o Version 3.3r (OEM)
o Version 3.31 (OEM) - Compaq 3.31 supports FAT16 and larger drives.
o Version 3.35 (OEM)
 MS-DOS 4.x - includes a graphical/mouse interface.
o Version 4.01 (OEM) - IBM patched Version 4.00 before Microsoft released it.
 MS-DOS 5.x
o Version 5.0 (Retail) - includes a full-screen editor. A number of bugs required
reissue.
o Version 5.0a (Retail) - With this release, IBM and Microsoft versions diverge.
o Version 5.0.500 (WinNT) - All Windows NT 32-bit versions ship with files
from DOS 5.0
 MS-DOS 6.x
o Version 6.0 (Retail) - Online help through QBASIC. Disk compression and
antivirus included.
o Version 6.2 (Retail) - Microsoft and IBM alternate versions, IBM has 6.1, 6.3
o Version 6.21 (Retail) - Stacker-infringing DBLSPACE removed.
o Version 6.22 (Retail) - New DRVSPACE compression.
 MS-DOS 7.x
o Version 7.0 (Win95, 95A) - Support for long file names. New editor.
 o Version 7.1 (Win95B-Win98SE) - Support for FAT32 file system
 MS-DOS 8.0
o Version 8.0 (Win ME) - Integrated drivers for faster Windows loading.
o Version 8.0 (WinXP) - DOS boot disks created by XP and later contain files
from Win ME. The internal DOS is still 5.0

Microsoft DOS was released through the OEM channel, until DRI released DR-DOS 5.0 as a
retail upgrade. With PC-DOS 5.00.1, the IBM-Microsoft agreement started to end, and IBM
entered the retail DOS market with IBMDOS 5.00.1, 5.02, 6.00 and PC-DOS 6.10, 6.30, 7.00
and 2000.

 Commands
A partial list of the most common commands for DOS follows.

o 4.1 append
o 4.2 assign
o 4.3 attrib
o 4.4 backup and restore
o 4.5 BASIC and BASICA
o 4.6 Call
o 4.7 cd or chdir
o 4.8 chcp
o 4.9 chkdsk
o 4.10 choice
o 4.11 cls
o 4.12 copy
o 4.13 ctty
o 4.14 defrag
o 4.15 del or erase
o 4.16 deltree
o 4.17 dir
o 4.18 echo
o 4.19 edit
o 4.20 edlin
o 4.21 exe2bin
o 4.22 exit
o 4.23 fastopen
o 4.24 fc or comp
o 4.25 fdisk
o 4.26 find
o 4.27 format
o 4.28 help
o 4.29 intersvr & interlnk
o 4.30 join
o 4.31 label
 o 4.32 loadfix
o 4.33 loadhigh, lh
o 4.34 md or mkdir
o 4.35 mem
o 4.36 memmaker
o 4.37 mode
o 4.38 more
o 4.39 move
o 4.40 msd
o 4.41 path
o 4.42 pause
o 4.43 pcpark
o 4.44 print
o 4.45 rd or rmdir
o 4.46 rem
o 4.47 ren
o 4.48 scandisk
o 4.49 set
o 4.50 setver
o 4.51 share
o 4.52 smartdrive
o 4.53 sort
o 4.54 subst
o 4.55 sys
o 4.56 time and date
o 4.57 tree
o 4.58 truename
o 4.59 type
o 4.60 undelete
o 4.61 Ver
o 4.62 verify
o 4.63 xcopy

Examples:-
1. Append

Display or sets the search path for data files. DOS will search the specified path(s) if the file
is not found in the current path. This had some creative uses, such as allowing non-CD based
games to be run from the CD, with configuration/save files stored on the HD.

append;
append [d:]path[;][d:]path[...]
append [/X:on|off][/E]
 2. assign
The command redirects requests for disk operations on one drive to a different drive.

assign [x[:]=y[:]...
assign /STATUS

Options:

 x The drive letter to reassign.

 y The drive letter that x: will be assigned to.
 /STATUS Displays the current drive assignments.

If typed without parameters then all drive letters are reset to original assignments.
The command is available in MS-DOS 5.00.

3. Attrib
Change or view the attributes of one or more files. It defaults to displaying the
attributes of all files in the current directory.

ATTRIB [+R|-R] [+A|-A] [+S|-S] [+H|-H][drive:][path][filename] [/S [/D]]

Options:

 To add an attribute attach a '+' in front of it.

 To remove an attribute attach a '-' in front of it
 Attributes include
o R - Read-only
o A - Archive
o S - System
o H - Hidden
o /D - Process folders as well.
o /S - Process matching files in the current folder and all subfolders.

Note: Everything inside a brace [option] is an optional item. Roughly equivalent to the UNIX
commands chattr and lsattr.

4. Backup and restore

 Programs to back up and restore files from an external disk. These appeared in
version 2, and continued to PC-DOS 5 and MS-DOS 6 (PC-DOS 7 had a deversioned
check).

In DOS 6, these were replaced by commercial programs (CPBACKUP,

MSBACKUP), which allowed files to be restored to different locations.

5. Cls
Clears the screen.

6. Copy
Copies files from one location to another. The destination defaults to the current
directory. If multiple source files are indicated, the destination must be a directory, or
an error will result.

Syntax:

copy from [source\filename] to [destination\folder]

Files may be copied to devices. For example, copy file lpt1 sends the file to the printer
on LPT1. copy file con outputs file to the screen ("console"), which can also be done
using type file. Devices themselves may be copied: copy con file takes the text typed
into the console and puts it into file, stopping when EOF (Ctrl+Z) is typed.

Examples of usage:

copy /a alpha.txt + beta.txt gamma.txt

copy /b alpha.mpg + beta.mpg gamma.mpg

Equivalent Unix commands are cp (for copying) and cat (for concatenation). Device
files may be copied in Unix as well, e.g. cp file /dev/tty will display a file on the
screen (but cat file is more commonly used here).

Equivalent RT-11/RSX-11/OpenVMS command is copy.

Examples of usage:

copy con filename.extension

7. Defrag
Defragments a disk drive. Options:

 -A – Analyses the fragmentation of a disk drive

 -F – Force defragmentation even if disk space is low
  -V – Verbose output mode
 -H – Defrag hidden files

Example of usage:
defrag drive letter: -a -v
No UNIX equivalent.

8. Del or erase
Deletes one or more files.

This command is used to delete a particular or more files.

Syntax:

del filename
erase filename

Options:

*.* All files in current folder

*.* /s all files in current folder and sub folders,
Equivalent to the Unix command rm.

9. Deltree
Deletes a directory along with all of the files and subdirectories that it contains.
Normally, it will ask for confirmation of such a drastic action.

deltree [/y] directory

The /y parameter, if present, tells the deltree command to carry out without first prompting
for confirmation.

The deltree command is not included in recent Microsoft Windows operating systems.
Deleting a non-empty directory in those versions of Windows where the command is not
included can be achieved by using the rmdir command as in the following example:

Rmdir /s [/q] directory

10. Dir
Lists the contents of a directory.

The dir command typed by itself, displays the disk's volume label and serial number; one
directory or filename per line, including the filename extension, the file size in bytes, and the
date and time the file was last modified; and the total number of files listed, their cumulative
size, and the free space (in bytes) remaining on the disk. The command is one of the few
commands that exist from the first versions of DOS.
dir [drive:][path][filename] [parameters]

Most commonly used parameters of dir include:

 /W : Displays the listing in wide format, with as many as five filenames or directory
names on each line.
 /P : Pause at every page
 /S : Also look in subdirectories
 /Axx: Display files with the specified attributes only
 /Oxx: Modifies sort order
 /B : Uses bare format (no heading information or summary)
 > [drive:][path]filename : To Store Result in a text file;(c:\dir > c:\fileList.txt) (this
is not a parameter, it is output redirection)

11. Print
Adds a file in the print queue.

Options:

 /D device  : Specifies the name of the print devices. Default value is LPT1
 /P filename : Add files in the print queue
 /T : Removes all files from the print queue
 /C filename : Removes a file from the print queue

This command was introduced in MS-DOS version 2. Before that there was no built-in
support for background printing files. The user would usually use the copy command to copy
files to LPT1.

12. Rd or rmdir
Remove a directory, which by default must be empty of files for the command to
succeed. The DELTREE command in DOS removes non-empty directories. In
Windows NT's CMD.EXE, rd /s functions in the same way as deltree.

13. Time and date

Display and set the time and date

When these commands are called from the command line or a batch file, they will
display the time or date and wait for the user to type a new time or date and press
RETURN. The commands time /t and date /t will display output without waiting for
input.
 The Unix command date displays both the time and date, but does not allow the
normal users to change either. Users with super user privileges may use date -s <new-
date-time> to change the time and date.

 MS-WORD
Microsoft Word is a word processor designed by Microsoft. It was first released in 1983
under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Subsequent versions were later written
for several other platforms including IBM PCs running DOS (1983), the Apple Macintosh
(1984), the AT&T Unix PC (1985), Atari ST (1986), SCO UNIX, OS/2, and Microsoft
Windows (1989). It is a component of the Microsoft Office system; it is also sold as a
standalone product and included in Microsoft Works Suite. The current versions are
Microsoft Word 2010 for Windows and 2011 for Mac.

 Macros
Like other Microsoft Office documents, Word files can include advanced macros and even
embedded programs. The language was originally WordBasic, but changed to Visual Basic
for Applications as of Word 97.

This extensive functionality can also be used to run and propagate viruses in documents. The
tendency for people to exchange Word documents via email, USB flash drives, and floppy
disks made this an especially attractive vector in 1999. A prominent example was the Melissa
worm, but countless others have existed in the wild. Nearly all anti-virus software can detect
and clean common macro viruses.

These macro viruses were the only known cross-platform threats between Windows and
Macintosh computers and they were the only infection vectors to affect any Mac OS X
system up until the advent of video codec Trojans in 2007. Microsoft released patches for
Word X and Word 2004 that effectively eliminated the macro problem on the Mac by 2006.

Word's macro security setting, which regulates when macros may execute, can be adjusted by
the user, but in the most recent versions of Word, is set to HIGH by default, generally
reducing the risk from macro-based viruses, which have become uncommon
  MAIL MERGE
A mail merge is a method of taking data from a database, spreadsheet, or other form of
structured data, and inserting it into documents such as letters, mailing labels, and name tags.
It usually requires two files, one storing the variable data to be inserted, and the other
containing the information that will be the same for each result of the mail merge and the
instructions for formatting the variable data.

For example, in a form letter, you might include instructions to insert the name of each
recipient in a certain place; the mail merge would combine this letter with a list of recipients
to produce one letter for each person in the list.

You can also print a set of mailing labels or envelopes by doing a mail merge. For labels, for
example, you would construct a source document containing the addresses of the people you
wish to print labels for and a main document that controls where each person's name, address,
city, state, and zip code will go on the label. The main document would also contain
information about how many labels are on a page, the size of each label, the size of the sheet
of paper the labels are attached to, and what kind of printer you will use to print the labels.
Running a mail merge with the two files results in a set of labels, one for each entry in the
source document, with each label formatted according to the information in the main
document.

Most major word processing packages, including Microsoft Word and Corel WordPerfect,
are capable of performing a mail merge.

 Proofing in MS Word
Microsoft Word's Spelling and Grammar checking functions are part of the Proofing
tools. These are found under the Review section on the main toolbar of MS Word 2007.
Proofing is similar to the Edit functions in earlier versions of Word but is more user
friendly and intuitive in the 2007 version.

As its name implies, the Proofing tools enable you to proof your document in regards to
Spelling and Grammar. As well, proofing tools provide reference materials, dictionaries,
translation, word count, and readability indices. Several aspects of the Spelling and
Grammar function merit closer attention.

These include:

1. Language Setting
2. Auto-correct options
 3. Recheck/reset of Spelling and Grammar
4. Readability

 Auto Correct options

Auto Correct permits the user to identify and manage a list of commonly misspelled words
and to have them corrected as the document is typed. This feature can also be used to insert
repetitive words or phrases that would otherwise require many keystrokes. This is done by
assignment of an acronym or code, much as you assign a speed dial button on your phone.

The Auto Correct list can be added to manually in the options screen. It can also be added to
while doing an actual spell check. This is done by selecting AutoCorrect after selecting a
replacement.

Auto Correct also allows the automatic insertion of a suggested spelling from the spell check
dictionaries. To make changes to the Auto Correct settings, activate the Spelling and
Grammar function, and select Options. The first heading is the Auto Correct Options.
Here you can set the Auto Correct features, and edit the Replace text as you type list.

Recheck/reset of Spelling and Grammar

Sometime, we might run a spell check and choose to ignore or leave a misspelled word
unchanged. Once ignored, the spell checker will not identify this word as misspelled again in
any subsequent spell checks. If you need to find and correct these words, using the spell
checker, you need to reset the spell checker. This is done by going to Office - Word Options
- Proofing. In the Proofing pane, select Recheck Document. This resets the spell checker.
  MS-EXCEL
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet application written and distributed by Microsoft for
Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. It features calculation, graphing tools, pivot
tables and a macro programming language called Visual Basic for Applications. It has
been a very widely applied spreadsheet for these platforms, especially since version 5
in 1993. Excel forms part of Microsoft Office. The current versions are 2010 for
Windows and 2011 for Mac.

Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets, using a grid of cells arranged in
numbered rows and letter-named columns to organize data manipulations like arithmetic
operations. It has a battery of supplied functions to answer statistical, engineering and
financial needs. In addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with
a very limited three-dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its
dependencies on various factors from different perspectives (using pivot tables and the
scenario manager). And it has a programming aspect, Visual Basic for Applications, allowing
the user to employ a wide variety of numerical methods, for example, for solving differential
equations of mathematical physics, and then reporting the results back to the spreadsheet.
Finally, it has a variety of interactive features allowing user interfaces that can completely
hide the spreadsheet from the user, so the spreadsheet presents itself as a so-called
application, or decision support system (DSS), via a custom-designed user interface, for
example, a stock analyzer, or in general, as a design tool that asks the user questions and
provides answers and reports. In a more elaborate realization, an Excel application can
automatically poll external databases and measuring instruments using an update schedule,
analyze the results, make a Word report or Power Point slide show, and e-mail these
presentations on a regular basis to a list of participants.

Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in
which Excel starts.

 How to Create a Table in Excel

You can create a table in Excel 2007 (a list or database in previous Excel versions) to help
you manage and analyze related data. The purpose of an Excel table is not so much to
calculate new values but rather to store lots of information in a consistent manner, making it
easier to format, sort, and filter worksheet data. Typically, an Excel table has only column
headings and no row headings.

An Excel table is not the same as a data table that can be used for what-if analysis. You use a
data table to show how changing one or two variables in formulas affects the results of those
formulas.
 1
Enter your table's column headings.

Click the blank cell where you want to start the new table and then enter the
column headings (such as ID No, First Name, Last Name, Dept, and so on) in
separate cells within the same row. Column headings are also known as field
names. The column headings should appear in a single row without any blank
cells between the entries.

2
Enter the first row of data immediately below the column headings
you typed in Step 1.

These entries constitute the first row, or record, of the table.

3
Click the Table command button in the Tables group of the Insert
tab.

Excel displays a marquee around all the cells in the new table. The Create Table
dialog box appears, listing the address of the table in the Where Is the Data for
Your Table text box. (If the address displayed here is incorrect, drag in the
worksheet to select the correct range.)

4
Click the My Table Has Headers check box to select it.

These headers are the column headings entered in the first step.

5
Click OK.
 Excel inserts and formats the new table and adds filter arrows (drop-down buttons) to each of
the field names in the top row.

Another way to insert a table is to click the Format as Table button in the Styles group on the
Home tab and then select a table style of your choice in the gallery that appears. Use this
method if you want to apply a different table style as you create a table.

If you want to convert an existing Excel table back to a normal range of cells, select any cell
in the table and then click the Convert to Range button on the Table Tools Design tab. All
data and formatting is preserved.

 FUNCTIONS
Excel 2007 contains a build-in list of worksheet functions, which are categorised to make it easy to
search for the ones you need. Excel has over 300 built-in functions divided into various function
categories, including:

 Financial
 Logical
 Text
 Date & Time
 Lookup & Reference
 Math & Trigonometry
 Information
 Database
 Statistical
 Engineering
 Cube

Here are some commonly used functions:

AVERAGE: Used to determine the average value of the selected cells
contents.
COLUMNS: Used to return the number of columns within a reference.
COUNT: Used to count how many numbers are in the list.
MAX: Used to return the maximum number from a list.
MIN: Used to return the minimum number from a list.
ROUND: Used to round off numbers to a specified number of decimal
points.SUM: Used to add the contents of selected cells.
  To display all the available
functions
 Open a blank Excel workbook.
 Click on the Formulas tab and within the Function Library group click on the
Insert Function icon.

 From the Insert Function dialog box displayed, under Or select a category: section,
select a particular category function, the related functions will displayed.

 To enter functions directly

into the worksheet cell
 Select the cell into which the formula will be entered.
 Insert an equal (=) sign to begin the formula. The formula toolbar buttons will appear.
 Enter the name of the function [e.g. SUM], followed by an opening parenthesis [(],
any arguments required for the function [e.g. E2:E5], and closing parenthesis [)].
 Press Enter. If there are no errors in the formula, the result of the function will be
entered in the cell. If you activate the cell again, the function will be displayed in the
formula bar.
  MS-POWERPOINT
Microsoft PowerPoint, usually just called PowerPoint, is a presentation program developed
by Microsoft. It is part of the Microsoft Office suite, and runs on Microsoft Windows and
Apple's Mac OS X operating system. The current versions are Microsoft PowerPoint 2010 for
Windows and 2011 for Mac.

PowerPoint changed significantly with PowerPoint 97. Prior to PowerPoint 97, presentations
were linear, always proceeding from one slide to the next. PowerPoint 97 incorporated the
Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) language, underlying all macro generation in Office 97,
which allowed users to invoke pre-defined transitions and effects in a non-linear movie-like
style without having to learn programming (or even having to be aware of the existence of
VBA).

PowerPoint 2000 (and the rest of the Office 2000 suite) introduced a clipboard that could
hold multiple objects at once. Another noticeable change was that the Office Assistant, whose
frequent unsolicited appearances in PowerPoint 97 (as an animated paperclip) had annoyed
many users, was changed to be less intrusive.

 SLIDESHOWS
A slide show is a display of a series of chosen pictures, which is done for artistic or
instructional purposes. Slide shows are conducted by a presenter using an apparatus, such as a
carousel slide projector, an overhead projector or in more recent years, a computer running
presentation software. The term originates from the use of slides which have been around for
many years. Slides originally were projected on a screen, for example in a theater by magic
lanterns, a practice that later evolved into moving picture shows.

A well organized slide show allows a presenter to fit visual images to an oral presentation.
The old adage "A picture is worth a thousand words" holds true, in that a single image can
save a presenter from speaking a paragraph of descriptive details. As with any public
speaking or lecturing, a certain amount of talent, experience, and rehearsal is required to
make a successful slide show presentation.
Presentation software is most commonly used for instructional purposes, usually with the
intention of creating a dynamic, audiovisual presentation. The relevant points to the entire
presentation are put on slides, and accompany a spoken monologue.

PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of individual pages or "slides". The "slide"

analogy is a reference to the slide projector, a device that can be seen as obsolete, within the
context of widespread use of PowerPoint and other presentation software. Slides may contain
text, graphics, movies, and other objects, which may be arranged freely on the slide.
PowerPoint, however, facilitates the use of a consistent style in a presentation using a
template or "Slide Master".

The presentation can be printed, displayed live on a computer, or navigated through at the
command of the presenter. For larger audiences the computer display is often projected using
a video projector. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.

PowerPoint provides three types of movements:

1. Entrance, emphasis, and exit of elements on a slide itself are controlled by what
PowerPoint calls Custom Animations
2. Transitions, on the other hand are movements between slides. These can be animated
in a variety of ways
3. Custom animation can be used to create small story boards by animating pictures to
enter, exit or move

How to Create a Custom Slide Show in

PowerPoint
1. Open your PowerPoint presentation.
2. Go to the Slide Show menu and select Custom Shows.
3. Click New and type the name of the first custom show in the Slide Show
Name field.
4. Hold down the Control key (Windows) or Shift key (Mac OS) and select
each slide that will be part of this custom slide show in the sequence in
which they will appear.
5. Click OK.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 to create additional custom slide shows.
7. Click Close when you have created all of your custom slide shows.