Japan - History & Background

The Japanese people consider the love of learning to be one of life's main virtues. That fact has led to
education playing a crucial role in their culture, especially since the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Virtually all
Japanese people complete education through the high school (also called upper secondary) level, and
most go on to further technical or university training. This emphasis on the value of education has
contributed to the success of Japan in the modern world.

Despite its overall exemplary record in education, Japan does face some serious challenges in the new
century. For example, minorities such as the native Ainu and the Korean-Japanese still do not participate
adequately in the educational system. Also, the system has been criticized for focusing too much on test-
taking and not enough on critical-thinking skills. Because many parents believe public school fails to
prepare students adequately, they send their students to juku (private academies), after school and on
weekends, to prepare for the next level within or beyond the public school system. But the Japanese
educational system does satisfy the needs of the vast majority of the population and has helped the
nation compete on the international scene for over 100 years.

The Ancient Period: Formal education in Japan started when the Chinese language system was
introduced into Japan in about 500 A.D. At that time only the aristocracy had access to education through
schools that primarily taught Confucianism and Buddhist thought and practice. The first real school,
the Daigakuryo (the university), was started by Emperor Tenji during this period. Located in the capital of
Kyoto, the Daigakuryo focused mainly on providing prospective government officials with a background in
Confucian practice that would relate to their future jobs. Later the school became an official institution
under the Taiho Code of 701. Young men usually entered the university in their early to mid-teens. When
they graduated, they were placed in government positions at levels that corresponded to their success at
the university. The Taiho Code also called for establishing colleges called kokugaku, located in each of
the country's provincial areas. Besides teaching the Chinese classics, these early provincial schools
provided training in medicine and in divination.

During the Heian Period (794-1185 A.D.), the height of Japan's aristocratic age, educational institutions
continued to be focused on the nobility and were located in the capital of Kyoto. However, the curriculum
of the Daigakuryo made a transition from Confucianism to the arts, reflecting the great emphasis on
aesthetics during the Heian Period. Perhaps more than any other time in Japanese history, this period
placed the highest value on the ideal of courtly love through the medium of poetry, music, visual art,
calligraphy, and dance. Such refinements were of course reserved for those privileged to be educated in
the court. Education also continued to take place in the Buddhist temples, both in the capital and in the
provinces. After completing their training, priests became the primary means for providing education to
those who were not among the aristocracy.

Thus education and religion were intertwined during the ancient period. Two of the most prominent figures
in religious education were Saicho (767-822) and Kukai (774-835). Saicho established the Enryakuji
Temple at Mt. Hiei near Kyoto. Besides being the center during the Heian Period for educating monks in
the Tendai sect of Buddhism, it became a focal point for Japanese religious education for hundreds of
years. Saicho's friend and rival, Kukai, established a monastery on Mt. Koya, which became the
educational center for Shingon Buddhism. Kukai's central role in the history of Japanese education is
evidenced by his having invented Kana, the Japanese alphabet, and by his effort to establish a school
that addressed the needs of commoners, a group not enrolled in the Daigakuryo or the kokugaku. His
private academy, the Shugei Shuchiin, did not exclude the lower classes and promoted the personal,
moral, spiritual, and intellectual development of its students.
Medieval Period: During the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) and the Muromachi Period (1333-1573),
Japanese education paralleled the militarism of the times. With the rise to power of the bushi (warrior
class, made up of samurai) and the shogun (chief lord and military dictator), education in the cities and
countryside added skills for warfare to the religious training. A departure from the aesthetics of the Heian
Period, the medieval education for warriors included training in weaponry and horseback riding—while still
teaching young samurai the importance of good manners and knowledge of their culture. Schooling
revolved around the warrior's home, the estate of his lord, and the local temples. As for
the shogunate and the ruling families, there continued to be educational opportunities unavailable to
commoners.

Rather than start new schools, however, the shogunate established several major learning centers that
contained libraries open to scholars and members of the priesthood. A famous one called the Kanazawa
Library opened in 1275 and remains open today as a museum. Another medieval Japanese educational
center, the Ashikaga School, opened in 1439 and offered curricula in Confucianism and military science.
Thus even schools and libraries for the ruling class focused on traditional Confucian values and on
military education, matching the cultural themes of the age.

Toward the end of the medieval period, Japan's educational system was subjected to a new influence—
Jesuit Catholic missionaries, beginning with the arrival of Francis Xavier in 1549. These missionaries
established schools and churches that emphasized general education, vocational training, Western
technology, and—of course—Christianity. Although Christianity was banned less than a century after
Xavier came to Japan, and wasn't permitted back into the country for more than two centuries, it did help
shape education in late medieval Japan.

Early Modern Period: The early modern period in Japan comprises the years of the Tokugawa Period
(1600-1868), during most of which Japan remained isolated from the rest of the world. One positive
byproduct of this isolation was that the country could focus on the development of its own culture,
including the educational system. Although the very best education remained open only to the upper
classes, the period did witness the spread of education among the commoners in a way that had not
occurred previously in Japan. By the end of the period, about 40 percent of the boys and 10 percent of
the girls were provided education outside the home. These figures probably meant Japan's education
opportunities and literacy rate were ahead of most countries in the world, with the exception of two or
three nations in the West.

The Tokugawa educational system included several main types of schools such as the hanko, terakoya,
Shoheiko, and shijuku. Established in each of the domains of the daimyo (lords), the hanko mainly
educated the children of the lord's samurai on topics related to Confucianism. Only later in the Tokugawa
Period did the schools enroll a wider range of social classes and expand their curriculum to include non-
Confucian topics such as medicine, Japanese studies, and Western science.

Unlike the hanko, the terakoya were independent schools intended mainly for the children of the
merchants and townspeople—not the samurai. Usually set up in Buddhist temples, they offered
instruction in a wide range of basic subjects such as penmanship, reading, and arithmetic. Children
entered at the age of seven or eight and stayed for about three or four years. In addition to the terakoya
were the shijuku, private academies that often were housed in the homes of the teachers and that
focused on subjects usually considered to be the favorite fields of the teacher. Finally, the Tokugawa
Period also had an official school of the shogunate called the Shoheiko,located in Edo (Tokyo). Here the
children of the nation's leaders were educated by Confucian scholars.
Thus far our discussion of educational opportunity in Japan has mostly included only male children. Girls
generally were not sent to schools and instead were trained at home in matters of homemaking and
etiquette. Although a few girls may have been exposed to education in literature and the arts, most were
not. However, opportunities for girls to receive an education did increase in the closing years of the
period, with an increase in female students in terakoya and even the start of a few schools exclusively for
girls. But the curriculum in these schools was slanted toward nonintellectual subjects such as tea
ceremony, flower arranging, and etiquette.

Modern Period: The modern period in Japan began with the restoration of the emperor in 1868, about 15
years after the country had been "opened" to the outside world by the expeditionary tour of U.S. Admiral
Matthew Perry. This period saw a tremendous amount of educational reform as the country sought to
catch up to the West after more than 200 years of virtual isolation. Although World War II, including its
prelude and aftermath, certainly devastated Japan's educational system, the country has witnessed
unparalleled educational advancement from the Meiji Period to the present.

Educational goals in the modern period were reflected in the Gokajono Goseimon, the Imperial Oath of
Five Articles (or Charter Oath) issued by the emperor in 1868. Article 5 best articulated Japan's
international objectives for education that would become the theme of the modern era: "knowledge shall
be sought all over the world, and the foundations of imperial rule shall be strengthened." The document
also made it clear that "the common people... shall all achieve their aspirations," thus setting out a second
basic theme of education in Japan's modern era: availability of the appropriate level of education to all the
people.

Four years into the Meiji Period, the government issued the Educational Order of 1872 ( Gakusei,) which
formed the basis for the modern public system of education in Japan. The Gakusei called for strong
control of education by the central government and integrated many of the Tokugawa-era schools into the
new system. For example, the terakoya—previously the schools in the provinces for commoners—were
transformed into the new primary schools. These primary schools formed the core of the new public
school system and numbered 25,000 by the mid-1870s. Students throughout the nation were required to
attend primary school. Although schooling was compulsory, the cost still had to be paid by the students'
families. Resentment toward the new system led to several later revisions, including Kyoikurei, the
Education Order of 1879. It permitted more local control of the curriculum and school policies, and it also
relaxed the compulsory requirements.

Despite these revisions, the trend toward national standards for public education continued throughout
the rest of the modern era, as did the effort to bring basic education to all the people. The end of the
shogunate in 1868 meant an end to the class system that had created significant differences between
education for the lords and samurai families and the common people. Now the four former classes—
samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants—were viewed as equal participants in the new schooling.

Besides the new primary (also called elementary) schools, Japan's modern educational system included
two other main elements: secondary schools and universities. Secondary school was not yet compulsory
and was intended for children deserving of additional training. Then, an even smaller group of highly
qualified candidates would proceed on to the university system. The most distinguished university of the
period was Tokyo University, which had its roots in the elite shogunate institutions of the past. It became
the forerunner of other imperial universities such as those established in Kyoto, Tohohu, Kyusha,
Hokkaido, Osaka, and Nagoya. Private universities that began during the period include Keio, Waseda,
Doshisha, Meiji Gakuin, and Tsudajuku.

During the early years of the Meiji Period, there was a strong and intentional reliance on Western
assistance in the development of all levels of education. The government sent emissaries abroad to learn
as much as possible about all elements of Western culture, including education, so that Japan could
achieve Western-style success in technological advancement. The most famous group to go abroad was
the Iwakura Mission, a large group of high-ranking government officials and students that traveled to the
United States and Europe from 1871 to 1873. Such missions had a strong influence over the curricula
adopted at all levels of schooling in Japan.

Just as important as the Japanese missions to the West were the Western experts who traveled to Japan
in the 1870s and 1880s. David Murray, hired to serve as an advisor to the Ministry of Education, came to
Japan in 1873 and worked on a wide range of new educational initiatives, including the Education Order
of 1872. He also was instrumental in having the government establish the Tokyo Women's Normal
School, as well as being heavily involved in planning Tokyo University. Like other Western experts,
Murray faced the challenge of deciding what combination of Western and native Japanese features would
produce the best educational system for modern Japan. That's the challenge Japan faced throughout the
period during which Western influence was strong.

Another Western contributor to the development of Japanese education was James Curtis Hepburn, a
missionary doctor who came to Japan in 1859, just six years after Admiral Perry's arrival. Hepburn
founded Meiji Gakuin University, became the university's first president, invented a system of Romanizing
the Japanese language, and took part in translating the Bible into Japanese. Many other Western
Christians were instrumental in promoting education in Meiji Japan, including those who established the
so-called "Schools of Western Learning." The three most famous such schools, or "bands" as they were
called, were located in Kumamoto, Sapporo, and Yokohama. The Kumamoto Band was led by an
American teacher, L. L. Janes, who taught a Western curriculum of mathematics, history, and English, but
who also exposed his young sons-of-samurai students to the tenets of Christianity. These young men in
the Western bands learned about Western science, technology, and religion. Some of the early leaders of
modern Japan were Christian, even though Christianity remained a minority religion in Japan, never
gaining more than 1 percent to 2 percent of the population.

Perhaps Japan's best-known private university, Doshisha University, was founded in 1875 by Niijima Jo,
a former member of the Kumamoto Band, and by Jerome Davis, a Congregational minister. Niijima was
one of the first Japanese to be educated in the United States (at Amherst College). Like some other
private universities in Japan, Doshisha adopted curricula similar to that of Western educational
institutions. It has six main academic groupings—theology, law, economics, letters, commerce, and
engineering—with over 25,000 students enrolled.

Doshisha also was the first university in Japan to admit women. Private universities served an important
role in coeducation in that the government, in 1879, restricted coeducation to the primary (or elementary)
schools. It was only through the support of private groups that high schools and university-level education
became available to women. Christian missionaries were particularly active in supporting coeducational
and women's high schools and colleges. Also serving an important role in the development of women's
education during the Meiji Period was Tsuda Umeko, who had been a student member of the Iwakura
Mission in 1871 and became one of the first Japanese women to study in the United States. After
completing studies at Bryn Mawr College and also working as a tutor and teacher of young women in
Japan for many years, Tsuda founded the Women's English School (now called Tsuda College) in Tokyo
in 1900. The government did strongly support coeducation in primary schools in the Meiji Period, but it
took support from many dedicated individuals and private groups to maintain educational opportunities for
women at the high school and postsecondary levels.

Notwithstanding the efforts Japan was making to pattern much of its modern education after Western
content and procedures, by 1890 there was strong sense among many leaders that the nation also
needed to emphasize "moral education" that was unique to Japan. The document that resulted from this
concern for morality in education was the Imperial Rescript on Education, issued on October 30, 1890, in
the name of the Emperor Meiji. Written with the advice and counsel of the Confucian scholar, Nagazane
Motoda, the Rescript made clear the essential connection between the education of the people and the
tenets of Confucian thought and loyalty to the emperor. A few excerpts from the 315-word document
follow:

Know ye, Our subjects: Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a broad basis and
everlasting... Our subjects, ever united in loyalty and filial piety, have from generation to generation
illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein lies
the source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and
sisters; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true; bear yourselves in modesty and
moderation; extend your benevolence to all; pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop
intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore advance public good and promote common
interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws... and thus guard and maintain the
prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth.

The promulgation of this document served as a corrective measure to the more liberal Western influences
on education since the beginning of the Meiji Restoration. Distributed throughout the country by the
Ministry of Education, the Rescript reminded the populace that education was inextricably connected to
the nation's needs, to traditional Confucian values, and to an Imperial House descended from Heaven. It
was read during ceremonial events in schools throughout the nation, with the appropriate bowing
required. Though generally accepted by the people, one famous incident of an inappropriate response
remains well known in Japan even today. Uchimura Kanzo, a high school teacher who had been
educated in Japan and in the United States, apparently failed to bow deferentially enough to the
Emperor's signature on the Rescript when it was read at his school. This incident led to his leaving the
school, after which he became a famous journalist and religious figure until his death in 1930. In about
1900 Uchimura founded what became the largest branch of indigenous Christianity in
Japan, Mukyokai, or nonchurch Christianity.

By the end of the 1900s, Japan had seen considerable development of all parts of its education system—
both under the influence of Western experts and under the watchful eye of nationalists who made certain
the country retained its Confucian and imperial focus. With direction from the Ministry of Education—and
its influential first minister, Mori Arinori—the country had a compulsory primary school system throughout
the country; about 500 secondary schools throughout the country, with some providing technical training
and others providing traditional academic subjects; and an elite system of public and private universities
that prepared students for teaching, medicine, law, government service, and other professions.

In the early years of the twentieth century, attendance in primary schools continued to rise to over 90
percent, and in 1907 the years of compulsory education were increased from three to six. From the 1890s
to the start of World War I, Japan's rush to industrialize and to create a strong military led to a greater
focus on industrial education and training than in the past. Victories in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-
1895) and Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) had stimulated this change in direction. Japanese
education came somewhat under the influence of the democratic, socialistic, and related worldwide
movements that were "in the air" after World War I and after the Russian Revolution. One example was
the Shin Kyoiku Undo (New Education Movement), which emphasized the individuality of children and
encouraged each child's effort to demonstrate initiative in ways that were largely not reflected in
conventional Confucian education. Although this movement lost favor when a more conservative climate
returned during the militarism of the 1930s, it did significantly influence the direction of Japanese
education during the Taisho Period (1912-1926). Another noteworthy trend of the period after World War I
was the expansion in the number of colleges and universities. The University Order of 1918 stimulated
this growth by extending government recognition to postsecondary institutions that were not associated
with the government. Students surged into the private schools as a result of this change.

The militarism of the 1930s and the beginning of World War II ended Japan's brief period during which
progressive ideas had been promoted in education. Now the schools could best be characterized as tools
of the state. Even the name of primary schools was changed to kokumin gakko, or national people's
schools, reflecting their mission of training loyal subjects for the Japanese empire. Graduates of the
kokumin gakko were obligated to attend seinen gakko, schools that emphasized the kinds of vocational
skills that would serve the country in its effort to marshal a major militaristic expansion. Even textbooks
were used during the wartime period to reinforce the ultranationalistic objectives of the state. One set of
texts, called the Kokutai No Hongi (Cardinal Principles of the National Entity), served the government's
purpose to control the people's thinking and their access to a full range of historical information.

After its defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Forces under the command of the
Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), General Douglas MacArthur. From 1945 until 1952,
the Occupation forces aimed to transform Japan into a democracy and to demilitarize the country. A
significant part of the plan involved altering the educational system that had been part of the prewar and
wartime culture. The socalled "moral education," central to the ultranationalism of the wartime period, was
ended. The major catalyst for all changes was the United States Educational Missions to Japan, which
took place from 1946 to 1950. The recommendations of these missions formed the plans by which
education was reformed after the War.

The centerpiece of the postwar educational transformation in Japan was a series of reforms that took
place in 1947. They were overseen by SCAP and by the Education Reform Council, consisting of
Japanese civilians. At the core of the reforms was the Fundamental Law of Education, which replaced the
1890 Imperial Rescript on Education that had been issued by the Emperor Meiji. Consisting of a preamble
and 11 articles, the law replaced the former emphasis on training to be a loyal subject of the emperor with
a new focus on the following principles: equal opportunity to education for all citizens, coeducation, the full
development of one's personality, an appreciation and respect for truth and justice, and a new emphasis
on academic freedom for faculty. Following are some specific features of the reformed system:

1. The 6-3-3-4 structure with six years of primary school (also called elementary school), three years
of lower secondary school (also called middle school or junior high school), three years of upper
secondary school (also called high school), and four years of university
2. Compulsory education for nine years—that is, both for primary and lower secondary school
3. Education of handicapped persons
4. Replacement of government-produced textbooks with texts that were published privately, with
less involvement by the government than in the past
5. New emphasis on the training of public school teachers at the university level
6. Shift from total central control of education to much greater autonomy in villages, cities, and
prefectures
7. Permission to have teacher unions and other support organizations such as parent-teacher
groups

Most reforms were retained after the Occupation ended, but there was some backtracking when a
conservative government came to power in 1956. For example, the government increased its efforts to
review textbooks, influence appointments to local school boards, place restrictions on leftist teachers'
unions, and reestablish some level of moral education in the school system.

The decades since the 1950s have brought few structural changes to Japanese education. However, a
number of social and political events have related to education, such as the following: criticism of
government influence on textbooks in the 1960s; student demonstrations in 1968 against rising costs of a
university education; the introduction in 1979 of a common general admission exam for public
universities; and concern that private academies are needed to supplement a child's public education if
he or she is to have a good chance of being accepted to a university.
China Ancient Education

Ancient Chinese education began with classic works, namely, the Four Books and the Five Classics
(Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Analects, and Mencius; Classic of Poetry, Book of Documents,
Book of Rites, I Ching, and Spring and Autumn Annals), regarded as cardinal texts that one had to learn,
in order to understand the authentic thought of Confucianism. Beginning from the time of the Xia dynasty
(2070-1600 BC), it was traditional for ancient kings and emperors to select well-educated officials to
assist them in administering their kingdoms.

The civil service examination system for selecting officials was established by Emperor Yang (569-618
AD) of the Sui dynasty (581-618). It was further refined by Emperor Taizong (598-649) of the Tang
dynasty (618-907). It was not until the late Qing dynasty (1644-1911) that the civil service examination
system was dismantled by Yuan Shikai (1859-1916), and replaced by a more western education system.
Since the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese education system has been
modeled on the Russian system, with perhaps more spoon-feeding and rote-learning than in some other
countries.

The History of Ancient Education

In primitive society, knowledge was passed on orally by elders to their children. As hieroglyphic writings
emerged 3,000 years or so ago, professional institutions emerged aiming to teach knowledge. These
were called chengjun, the predecessors of schools.

The Establishment of Schools

Formal schools were established during the Xia dynasty (2070 BC-1600 BC). They were called Xiao
during the Xia, Xiang during the Shang dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) and Xu during the early Zhou
dynasty (1046 BC-221 BC).

Xu were divided into East Xu and West Xu. East of the capital of the Zhou kingdom stood the East Xu.
These were the precursors of college, where the children of nobility were educated. West of the capital
stood the West Xu. These were the precursors of elementary schools, where the children of ordinary
citizens studied. The East Xu only recruited children of the nobility, and were just a dream for children of
the ordinary people.
With the expansion of productive forces and the prosperity of culture during the Zhou dynasty (1046-221
BC), more and more schools were established. During the Western Zhou dynasty (1046-771 BC) slave
society was at its peak. Schools were divided into state schools and village schools.

State schools were established just for children of the nobility; and consisted of elementary schools and
higher-level colleges. Village schools, also known as local schools, were divided into four levels: shu,
xiang, xu and xiao. Generally speaking, students who studied well in shu could enter the next level and
proceed upwards. If determined and persistent, they even stood a chance of studying in college.

Jixia Academy was established in the State of Qi, in 360 BC during the Warring States Period (475-221
BC). The king at the time sought out able men (including Mencius, Hsun Tzu, Zou Yan and Lu Zhonglian)
across his kingdom to lecture regularly on various topics, leading to 100 schools of thought contending
with each other.

After the unification of the Qin Empire (221-206 BC) in 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang (the first emperor of China,
who reigned from 259-210 BC) forbade private schools of any form in his kingdom, so that he could exert
strict control over the common people. Following the advice of Li Si, secretary of the Qin Empire (221 BC-
206 BC), Qin Shi Huang ordered the promulgation of legalist education. He forbade the common people
to read privately or collect Confucian classics, and he even gave orders to burn books and to bury
Confucian scholars alive.

Imperial Colleges

Emperor Wu (156-87 BC) of the Western Han dynasty (206 BC-9 AD) established government-sponsored
imperial colleges, and teachers were selected from among learned and accomplished officials, who were
called boshi (present-day doctors). The chief boshi was given the title pushe in the Western Han dynasty
(206 BC-9 AD) and jijiu in the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 AD). Students from the imperial colleges
were called boshi disciples. The number of boshi disciples (roughly equivalent to present-day college
students) reached over 30,000 during the Shundi Emperor's (115-144 AD) reign.

Emperor Wen, Cao Pi (the son of Cao Cao), who reigned from 220 to 226 AD, developed further the
imperial college system in Luoyang in 224. The Imperial Academy was established by Emperor Wu (Sima
Yan reigning from 236 to 290) during the Western Jin dynasty (265-317), and it was explicitly stipulated
by Emperor Hui (259-307) that only children of 5th-rank officials or higher were allowed to study in the
Imperial Academy. The Confucian Academy was established by Emperor Wen (422-453) in 438 AD, in a
suburb of Jiankang (presently Nanjing of Jiangsu Province), followed by the Metaphysics Academy,
History Academy and Literature Academy.

Classification of Ancient Chinese Education

Generally speaking, ancient Chinese education was divided into official school
education and private school education. These supplemented each other to train talent
for the ruling classes.

Ancient Official School Education

Ancient official school education refers to a whole set of education systems sponsored by central and
local governments of slave and feudal societies. It aimed to train talent of various kinds for the ruling
classes, whose rise and fall was related to social and political developments in ancient China.

Legend has it that official school education emerged during the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC).
According to historical documents, however, central official school education was only initiated in the
Western Han dynasty (206 BC-9 AD), and it waxed and waned during the Wei (220-265), Jin (265-420),
and Northern and Southern (420-589) dynasties, owing to changes in the political situation. It was not
until the Tang dynasty (618-907) that the central official school education reached its peak under the
advocacy and encouragement of the ruling classes. Official school education was run down from the time
of the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127), and during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) existed in name only,
as an instrument of the national examination system.

Central Official Schools

The highest institutions of learning were called Taixue (Imperial Colleges) or Guozijian (Imperial
Academies).

The ruling classes emphasized development of official schools during the Han Dynasty (206-220 BC),
especially of Taixue. There were only 50 boshi disciples when Emperor Wu established Taixue in 124 BC,
rising during the Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) to 3,000 during Emperor Chengdi’s reign and 30,000
during Emperor Zhidi’s (138-146) reign.
In addition, a number of professional academies were also established by the government to train
specialized talents for the ruling class, such as the History Academy of the Southern and Northern
Dynasties （420-589）, the Calligraphy Academy of the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the Law Academy of
the Song Dynasty （960-1279） and the Painting Academy of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

Guozijian were established by Emperor Yang in the Sui Dynasty (581-618), and served as educational
institutions until the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

In addition, a number of professional academies were established by government to train specialized

talent for the ruling classes, such as the History Academy of the Northern and Southern dynasties (420-
589), the Calligraphy Academy of the Tang dynasty (618-907), the Law Academy of the Song dynasty
(960-1279) and the Painting Academy of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

Local Official Schools

Ancient local official schools started with Shujun Academy established by Wen Ong (156-101 BC) in the
Shu Prefecture (presently Sichuan Province) during Emperor Jingdi's (188-141 BC) reign of the Western
Han dynasty (206 BC-9 AD). Other prefectures across the country soon opened their own schools.

The local official school system was completely established in the 1st year of Emperor Pingdi's reign (9
BC-6 AD) during the Western Han dynasty (206 BC-9 AD), but it was in decline during the Wei (220-265),
Jin (265-420), and Northern and Southern (420-589) dynasties, owing to unceasing wars.

Local official schools developed on an unprecedented scale during the early Tang dynasty (618-907), and
were inherited and developed on a larger scale during the Song (960-1279), Liao (916-1125), Jin (265-
420), Yuan (1271-1368), Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties.

Ancient Private School Education

Over against the ancient official school education, ancient private school education also played an
important part in the educational history of China. It was first initiated by Confucius in the Spring and
Autumn Period (770-476 BC) and exercised a great influence on the Chinese people.

The Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC) and Warring States Period (475-221 BC) were periods of
transition from a slave society to a feudal society, during which education went through dramatic changes
along with the prevailing economic and political situations. Ancient private schools emerged under such
circumstances. Scholars served different rulers and created various schools, among which the most
famous included the Confucian School, Mohist School, Taoist School and Legalist School, leading to the
phenomenon of 100 schools contending with one another to dominate the realm of thought.

Confucius (551-479 BC), the founder of the Confucius School, gave lectures on ethics in Qufu (Shandong
Province) during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC), and Mo-tse (468-376 BC), the founder of
the Mohist School, discoursed on politics in Jixia Academy of Linzi (in Shandong Province) during the
Warring States Period (475-221 BC). They both had a substantial influence on traditional Chinese culture,
especially Confucius.

As mentioned above, however, Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259-210 BC) forbade private schools, burned
books and even buried Confucian scholars alive.

Emperor Wu (156-87 BC) of the Western Han dynasty (206 BC-9 AD) carried out a policy of proscribing
all non-Confucian schools of thought and espousing Confucianism as the orthodox state ideology, but
private schools were permitted during his reign.

Private schools overwhelmed official ones during the late Eastern Han dynasty (25-220), and a number of
Confucian-classics masters, such as Ma Rong and Zheng Xuan, recruited disciples widely and trained
lots of talent. The study of Confucian classics emphasized textual research of names and objects, later
known to the world as sinology.

Although official school education was on the wane, private school education prospered during the Wei
(220-265), Jin (265-420), and Northern and Southern (420-589) dynasties. Private education broke out of
the mold of traditional Confucianism, and it also included metaphysics, Buddhism, Taoism and
technology.

Private schools existed throughout rural and urban areas during the Tang dynasty (618-907), and
Confucian masters were represented by Yan Shigu (581-645) and Kong Yingda (574-648). The private
schools took two forms in the Song (960-1279), the Yuan (1271-1368), the Ming (1368-1644) and the
Qing (1644-1911) dynasties: academies sponsored by country gentlemen and sishu (predecessors of
present private elementary schools) run by scholars. Methods of Teaching Kids written by Yi Jun (1783-
1854) from the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) was a monograph giving a broad overview of the methods of
formative education.

Civil Service Examination System - Ke Ju

The civil service examination system for selecting government officials was established and came into
force during the Sui dynasty (581-618). It not only served as an education system, but as the standard of
selection for talented people across the nation.

The system comprised an examination convened by local governments, plus the final imperial
examination (palace examination) held by emperors. Scholars passing the county-level examination were
called Xiucai, and the first-ranked Xiucai received the title of Anshou. Scholars passing the provincial-
level examination were called Juren, and the first- and second-ranked Juren received the titles of Jieyuan
and Huiyuan respectively. The first-ranked scholar in the palace examination received the title of
Zhuangyuan, the second Bangyan and the third Tanhua. All scholars who passed the examination were
conferred different official positions according to their results.

The system was improved during the Tang dynasty (618-907). Some scholars from poor and humble
families held office at court, greatly easing the class discrepancies in society. During the Tang dynasty
(618-907), the national examination system played a substantial role in training qualified officials and
promoting cultural prosperity, and it was adopted as a legacy by subsequent feudal rulers.

During the Song dynasty (960-1279), it was a national policy to emphasize literature and restrict military
force. The Song emperors inherited the national examination system and ordered the establishment of
many famous academies throughout the kingdom, such as Bailudong, Yuelu, Yingtianfu, and Songyang
(see below). These academies perfectly combined educational activity and academic research, and led to
the publication of many famous books, including Three-Character Scripture, One Hundred Family Names,
One Thousand Character Primers and Golden Treasury of Quatrains and Octaves.

Unlike during the Song dynasty (960-1279), the Mongolian ruling classes of the Yuan dynasty (1271-
1368) took strict control over academies, for fear that the Han people might unite and rebel. The rulers of
the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties exerted more control over the thoughts of the
common people. During this time the national examination system became ossified, and scholars were
even persecuted due to ‘heretical ideologies’.

Ancient Chinese Academies

The ancient academies emerged during the Song dynasty (960-1279) and waned during the Qing dynasty
(1644-1911). They were an important educational institution in ancient China. Many ancient academies
have been well-preserved as historical sites up to today, and below are some famous ones for your
reference.
Bailudong Academy

Built in 940 and expanded by Zhu Xi (1130-1200) during the Song dynasty (960-1279), Bailudong
Academy was the cradle of neo-Confucianism. It has become a famous attraction on Mount Lu in Jiangxi
Province, owing to its picturesque location at the foot of the Five Old Man Peaks of Mount Lu, about 30
kilometers from Jiujiang.

Yuelu Academy

Yuelu Academy

Yuelu Academy has a history of over 1,000 years. It was built in 976 AD, the 9th year of the Kaibao
Period of the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127), having been used as Hunan Higher Education Academy
since 903. In 1926, Yuelu Academy was renamed Hunan University. It's located in Changsha, the capital
of Hunan Province, in the Yuelushan Mountain Scenic Area. Read more on Yuelu Academy. Read more
on Yuelu Academy

Yingtianfu Academy

Yingtianfu Academy was built by a merchant, Yang Que, during the Five Dynasties Period (907-960). It
was the top academy during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127). Now Yingtianfu Academy is part of
the famous cultural landscape near Shangqiu Ancient Town, in Shangqiu of Henan Province.

Songyang Academy

Songyang Academy is at the foot of Songshan Mountain, 3 kilometers north of Dengfeng town, in Central
China's Henan Province. The academy was built during the North Wei dynasty over 1,500 years ago.

In addition, Jiangnan Gongyuan (Jiangnan Examination Hall) in Nanjing and Beijing Guozijian (Imperial
Academy) are famous historical heritages of ancient Chinese education, and China Highlights can tailor-
make a private tour to any of these ancient Chinese academies.