Julius Caesar about Shakespearean Theatre
For
Before Shakespeare's time and during his
boyhood, troupes of actors performed wherever
they could in halls, courts, courtyards, and any
other open spaces available. However, in 1574,
when Shakespeare was ten years old, the
Common Council passed a law requiring plays
and theatres in London to be licensed. In 1576,
actor and future Lord Chamberlain's Man, James
Burbage, built the first permanent theatre, called
"The Theatre", outside London city walls. After
this many more theatres were established,
including the Globe Theatre, which was where
most of Shakespeare's plays premiered.
Elizabethan theatres were generally built after
the design of the original Theatre. Built of wood,
these theatres comprised three tiers of seats in a
circular shape, with a stage area on one side of
the circle. The audience's seats and part of the
stage were roofed, but much of the main stage
and the area in front of the stage in the center of
the circle were open to the elements. About
1,500 audience members could pay extra money
to sit in the covered seating areas, while about
800 "groundlings" paid less money to stand in
this open area before the stage. The stage itself
was divided into three levels: a main stage area
with doors at the rear and a curtained area in the
back for "discovery scenes"; an upper, canopied
area called "heaven" for balcony scenes; and an
area under the stage called "hell," accessed by a
trap door in the stage. There were dressing rooms
located behind the stage, but no curtain in the
front of the stage, which meant that scenes had to
flow into each other, and "dead bodies" had to be
dragged off.
Performances took place during the day, using
natural light from the open center of the theater.
Since there could be no dramatic lighting and
there was very little scenery or props, audiences
relied on the actors' lines and stage directions to
supply the time of day and year, the weather,
location, and mood of the scenes. Shakespeare's
1
plays masterfully supply this information .
example, in Hamlet the audience learns within
the first twenty lines of dialogue where the scene
takes place ("Have you had quiet guard?"), what
time of day it is ("'Tis now strook twelf"), what
the weather is like ("'Tis bitter cold"), and what
mood the characters are in ("and I am sick at
heart").
One important difference between plays written
in Shakespeare's time and those written today is
that Elizabethan plays were published after their
performances, sometimes even after their
authors' deaths, and were in many ways a record
of what happened on stage during these
performances rather than directions for what
should happen. Actors were allowed to suggest
changes to scenes and dialogue and had much
more freedom with their parts than actors today.
Shakespeare's plays are no exception. In Hamlet,
for instance, much of the plot revolves around
the fact that Hamlet writes his own scene to be
added to a play in order to ensnare his murderous
father.
Shakespeare's plays were published in various
forms and with a wide variety of accuracy during
his time. The discrepancies between versions of
his plays from one publication to the next make
it difficult for editors to put together authoritative
editions of his works. Plays could be published
in large anthologies called Folios (the First Folio
of Shakespeare's plays contains 36 plays) or
smaller Quartos. Folios were so named because
of the way their paper was folded in half to make
chunks of two pages each which were sewn
together to make a large volume. Quartos were
smaller, cheaper books containing only one play.
Their paper was folded twice, making four
pages. In general, the First Folio is of better
quality than the quartos. Therefore, plays that are
printed in the First Folio are much easier for
editors to compile.
Although Shakespeare's language and classical
references seem archaic to some modern readers,
they were commonplace to his audiences. His
viewers came from all classes, and his plays
appealed to all kinds of sensibilities, from
"highbrow" accounts of kings and queens of old
to the "lowbrow" blunderings of clowns and
servants. Even his most tragic plays include
clown characters for comic relief and to
comment on the events of the play. Audiences
would have been familiar with his numerous
references to classical mythology and literature,
since these stories were staples of the
Elizabethan knowledge base. While
Shakespeare¹s plays appealed to all levels of
society and included familiar story lines and
themes, they also expanded his audiences'
vocabularies. Many phrases and words that we
use today, like "amazement", "in my mind's eye",
"the milk of human kindness", and "It was all
Greek to me" were coined by Shakespeare. His
plays contain a greater variety and number of
words than almost any other work in the English
language, showing that he was quick to innovate,
had a huge vocabulary, and was interested in
using new phrases and words.
JULIUS CAESAR
The only authoritative edition of Julius Caesar is
the 1623 First Folio, which appears to have used
the theatre company's official promptbook rather
than Shakespeare's manuscript. Some anomalies
exist, most notably in Act Four where there is
confusion concerning the parts of the minor
characters. Also, in writings from 1614 and 1625
Shakespeare's contemporary Ben Jonson makes
fun of a line from 3.1 where Caesar says, "Know
Caesar doth not wrong but with just cause." The
First Folio omits the final four words, yet the fact
that Jonson was writing in 1625 appears to
indicate that the words may have been used in
productions of the play even after the publication
of the First Folio. The Oxford edition chose to
add the four words back into the play, arguing
that the apparent contradiction helps to more
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fully portray Caesar's characteristic god-like
aspirations.
Julius Caesar opens in 44 B.C., at a time when
Rome ruled territories stretching from as far
north as Britain to as Far East as Persia.
However, Rome's military success had come at a
serious cost to the political situation in the home
city, which was governed by a senate. Rome's
senators became increasingly factionalized
causing internal disarray, which allowed the
more successful military generals gain power.
Furthermore, the state suffered from class
divisions, and the plebeians had managed to win
the right to elect "tribunes," or representatives,
giving them some political power. However,
women and most of the plebeian men remained
excluded from this franchise. Thus, although the
republic showed some signs of democracy, the
majority did not participate in the general
politics.
Several men attempted to take over the
government during this tumultuous period, most
failing in the endeavour. Julius Caesar was a
Roman general who had made a name for
himself through his successful campaigning of
northwest Europe. His advantage lay not only in
winning battles, but also in his popularity among
the poorer classes in Rome. He possessed innate
talent, charisma, ambition, and luck, which,
when combined, allowed his political power to
increase. Supporters of the traditional form of
government realized that men like Caesar posed
a serious threat to the republic, and when legal
and military attempts failed to stop him,
conspirators led by Caius Cassius and Brutus
assassinated him.
The death of Caesar undermined the very
political institution it was meant to defend. Rome
was soon split by civil war, and the armies of the
conspirators were defeated by Caesar's
friend Antony and his heir, Octavius. The
culmination of these events was the defeat of the
senate and the instalment of Octavius as Emperor
Augustus.
Contemporaries of Caesar quickly grasped the
importance of these events, documenting them
well. Throughout the centuries since, the events
of Caesar’s time have been interpreted and
discussed at length, and continue to be alluded to
even in present day politics. Political
commentators have interpreted the actions of the
main figures differently. For example,
Michelangelo viewed Brutus as a defender of
human liberty, while Dante placed him (and
Cassius) into the deepest circle of hell in his
Inferno. For Shakespeare, this historical drama
presented numerous possibilities for analyzing
and exploring conflicting perspectives of these
events, and thus was a logical choice for one of
his plays.
The story of Caesar's death and the resulting
political upheaval was especially salient in
Shakespeare's time. The play is thought to have
been written in 1599, when Queen Elizabeth was
sixty-six years old. Europe and England were
ruled by monarchs struggling to consolidate their
power. In England, the monarchy ran into
opposition from the established aristocracy and
elected representatives in the House of
Commons. Since Elizabeth had no direct heirs,
many feared England might decay into civil
chaos similar to that of the fifteenth century. Fear
of censorship prevailed in matters relating to
political discourse, and so for Shakespeare, the
story of Julius Caesar provided a safe way to
comment on many of the important questions of
the time.
Shakespeare's main source in writing the play
was Thomas North's English translation of
Plutarch Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans.
Plutarch wrote in the first century A.D. and
recorded his biographies as an historian. His
description of the Roman Republic stated that it
was ruled by at least one or more powerful men,
yet rarely more than a few men. Shakespeare
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adopts this concept of Rome for Julius Caesar,
focusing on the actions and influences of a few
remarkable individuals rather than dealing with
larger social movements. However, this approach
does not imply a limited awareness of Rome's
social problems, as the play's opening scenes
clearly address Rome's social divisions.
Shakespeare condenses the action in Julius
Caesar as in many of his historical dramas,
breaking slightly from historical accuracy. For
example, Shakespeare places Caesar's triumph
over Pompey's sons with the Lupercalia in
February; whereas Plutarch indicates the victory
took place in October. With this time change, the
assassination on the Ides of March appears to be
in response to Caesar's growing influence and
arrogance. Furthermore, in Shakespeare's
version, Brutus and Cassius flee from Rome
immediately after Antony's speech to the Roman
mob, but Plutarch describes them withdrawing
from the city over a year after Caesar's funeral.
These differences cause Roman leaders' personal
flaws and strengths to appear far more important
in shaping the action of the plot.
Shakespeare's Julius Caesar is composed of
several characters, none of whom dominate the
plot; even the titular hero is merely one of the
several personalities in the play. Indeed,
Shakespeare creates only a limited depth to
Caesar's characterization, mainly relying on the
negative reports from those most hostile to him.
However, when onstage, Caesar does not live up
the reputation his enemies claim for him, thereby
undermining his ability to dominate the plot at
any point.
Brutus is a much fuller character. As the friend
and murderer of Caesar, he provides tremendous
insight into his personality through soliloquies in
which he discusses his motives and the
consequences of his actions. Brutus also is
portrayed in many different roles, including
husband, military leader and assassin. These
different roles allow us to see the internal strife
inherent in Brutus' character; he is a man who
must justify his extralegal murder while
simultaneously remaining a faithful and good
husband.
In Julius Caesar, Shakespeare utilizes one of his
great techniques, often called "gradual release",
slowly providing pertinent plot information as
the play progresses, forcing the audience to
continually revise its interpretation of the action.
A good example of this is when Antony climaxes
his famous eulogy by reading Caesar's will and
speaking of the generosity Caesar has shown to
the common people, mentioning that Caesar has
left them all some money. However, only two
scenes later we see him trying to minimize the
cost of this generosity by reducing the amount of
money that needs to be given out. The
combination of the two scenes forces the
audience to re-evaluate everything we know
about Antony, and denies us the ability to fix
firm motives on any of the play's characters.
Shakespeare never intended the play to be
historically accurate. In fact, he clearly expected
the actors to appear in Elizabethan dress.
Furthermore, he gives Rome the medieval
invention of the mechanical clock, a notorious
anachronism. However, Shakespeare's Romans
share a distinct cultural heritage and society,
including Roman society's implicit ideals and
assumptions. When Antony calls Brutus, "the
noblest of the Romans," he is referring to the
specific "Roman" virtue, associated with the
Republican government Brutus dies defending.
The protagonists in the plot are never able to
overcome the pressure of the Roman values, and
thus are not completely free to invent
themselves, relying instead on the cultural values
provided.
Act One, Scene One
Two Roman tribunes, Flavius and Murellus, see
the common people parading in the streets
instead of working in their shops. They demand
to know why the men are not working. A cobbler
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informs them that the people are celebrating
Caesar's victory. Murellus is infuriated by this
information, and calls the workers, "you blocks,
you stones" (1.1.34). He then tells them that
Caesar has not defeated an enemy, but rather that
Caesar has killed the sons of Pompey the Great.
Pompey previously ruled Rome along with
Caesar until their alliance fell apart, at which
point they went to battle over the right to rule.
Flavius's speech then causes the commoners to
be ashamed of celebrating Caesar's victory. They
depart in a more sober mood. Flavius and
Murellus then prepare to remove the imperial
crowns placed on all the statues of Caesar and
next decide to drive the commoners back into
their houses in an effort to prevent Rome from
celebrating Caesar's victory.
Act One, Scene Two
Julius Caesar triumphantly returns to Rome on
the festival of Lupercalia, celebrated on February
15. He is followed by Antony and Brutus, their
wives, and many followers. Caesar tells Antony
to strike his wife Calpurnia during the festival
(during which two men, including Antony, run
through the street of Rome and hit those they
meet with goatskin thongs) to rid her of her
sterility. Antony responds with, "When Caesar
says 'Do this', it is performed" (1.2.12).
A soothsayer approaches Caesar and calls out for
attention. Caesar allows him to speak, and the
man tells Caesar, "Beware the ides of March"
(1.2.25). Caesar ignores this warning and calls
the man a dreamer. Caesar then leaves with his
assembled men.
Brutus and Cassius remain on the stage. Cassius
tells Brutus that he has noticed Brutus acting
more serious lately. Brutus tells him that he is
"with himself at war" (1.2.48) and that Cassius
should not worry about it. After a shout and
cheering from offstage, Brutus remarks he is
afraid the people will crown Caesar king. Cassius
is thrilled to hear this, and tells Brutus that they
were both born as free men the same way Caesar
was. He tells Brutus a story in which he and
Caesar were holding a swimming contest across
the Tiber River and Caesar started to drown.
Cassius claims that he rescued Caesar and
carried him to the shore. He then complains that
Caesar has become so powerful that even though
he once saved Caesar's life, he must now bow
before him.
Cassius then tells Brutus that "Brutus" is just as
good a name as "Caesar", and that both names
could just as easily rule Rome. He invokes the
image of Brutus' ancestor who founded the
Roman Republic and expelled the former kings.
Brutus, afraid that Caesar will become a king,
struggles to decide whether to join Cassius in
taking action against Caesar, but ultimately
decides against it.
Caesar returns and accompanied by his
followers. He turns to Antony and remarks, "Let
me have men about me that are fat, / Sleek-
headed men, and such as sleep a-nights. / Yon
Cassius has a lean and hungry look. / He thinks
too much. Such men are dangerous" (1.2.193-
196). Antony dismisses Caesar's concern, but
Caesar is not convinced that Cassius is
completely trustworthy. He tells Antony to come
with him and let him know if there is anything to
be worried about.
Casca remains onstage with Brutus and Cassius
and tells them that the three shouts they heard
were because Antony offered Caesar the crown
three times, but he turned it down each time.
Casca then says that Caesar swooned and fell
down with his mouth foaming at the lips. (Caesar
was considered to be epileptic, called the "falling
sickness".) When Caesar awoke, he begged to be
forgiven for his infirmary. Casca adds that the
people forgave Caesar and worshipped him even
more for turning away the crown. He also
explains that Murellus and Flavius, the public
tribunes, were removed from office for pulling
the decorations off of Caesar's statues. Cassius,
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hoping to lure him into the conspiracy against
Caesar, invites Casca to dinner the next night.
Brutus also takes his leave, but agrees to meet
with Cassius the next night as well. In a
soliloquy, Cassius informs the audience that he
will fake several handwritten notes and throw
them into Brutus' room in an attempt to make
Brutus think the common people want him to
take action against Caesar.
Act One, Scene Three
Casca meets with Cicero, one of the great Roman
orators, and tells him he has seen many strange
things on the streets of Rome that night including
a slave with a burning yet uninjured left hand, a
lion loose in the streets, and an owl hooting in
the daytime. Cicero tells him men interpret
things in their own way, and takes his leave.
Cassius then arrives and tells Casca that there is
a reason behind all of the strange events taking
place in Rome. Casca asks him, "'Tis Caesar that
you mean, is it not, Cassius?" (1.3.78). Casca
tells him that the senators are planning to make
Caesar a king the next morning. At this news,
Cassius draws his dagger and threatens to die
before ever allowing Caesar to achieve so much
power. Casca shakes hands with Cassius and
they agree to work together to prevent Caesar
from seizing power.
Cinna, a co-conspirator, arrives and takes a piece
of paper from Cassius. Together they then leave
to go throw Cassius' handwritten notes through
Brutus' window. Cassius indicates that he is quite
sure Brutus will join them within the next day.
Analysis
Julius Caesar opens with the tribunes of the
people chastising the plebeians for being fickle.
They refer to the masses as "You blocks, you
stones, you worse than senseless
things!"(1.1.34). This imagery of the masses as
stones will continue throughout the play. They
are in fact a fickle group of people, easily
swayed by whoever is speaking to them, as
evidenced later in the play when Antony turns a
hostile crowd into a mob against Brutus and
Cassius.
The play also holds much contemporary appeal.
Calpurnia's means Caesar does not have an heir,
something many English worried about as Queen
Elizabeth also had no heir. However, in the play,
Caesar's desire for an heir has a darker meaning.
He tells Antony, "Forget not your speed,
Antonio, / To touch Calpurnia, for our elders
say / The barren, touched in this holy chase, /
Shake off their sterile curse" (1.2.8-11). Brutus
interprets the importance Caesar places on this
issue as evidence Caesar hopes to create a
dynasty, thus fueling Brutus' reasons for destroy
Caesar.
In these opening scenes, a great deal of
interpretation and misinterpretation occurs.
Cicero refers to this concept, telling Cassius,
"Indeed, it is a strange-disposed time; / But men
may construe things after their fashion, / Clean
from the purpose of the things themselves"
(1.3.33-35). With this statement, he implies that
each man will interpret signs according to what
he believes, and will thus ignore the signs' true
meanings. Caesar proves Cicero correct by
dismissing the soothsayer's warning and later
ignoring Calpurnia's dream of his death. Omens
abound during these scenes, with the
tempestuous weather, an owl screeching during
the day, and a lion is loose in the streets.
The mirror, so often invoked in other
Shakespearean plays, is also a significant image
in Julius Caesar. For example, Cassius asks
Brutus, "Tell me, good Brutus, can you see your
face?" (1.2.53). He continues, "That you have no
such mirrors as will turn / Your hidden
worthiness into your eye / That you might see
your shadow...I, your glass" (1.2.58-60, 70).
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Essentially Cassius tells Brutus that he will be
the mirror who reflects back to Brutus his true
feelings and nature. At this moment, the reader
recognizes Cassius has a private agenda and is
providing Brutus with a false mirror.
Cassius continues to manipulate Brutus by
comparing him to Caesar, asking "Brutus and
Caesar: what should be in that 'Caesar'? / Why
should that name be sounded more than yours? /
Write them together: yours is as fair a
name...Conjure with 'em: / 'Brutus' will start a
spirit as soon as 'Caesar'" (1.2.143-148). Cassius
hopes to incite jealousy and a desire for power in
Brutus, and also reveals that he believes Caesar
is their equal. Furthermore, Cassius invokes
Brutus' ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, a man
famous for expelling the former kings of Rome,
in his attempt to sway Brutus. Brutus accepts this
flattery and in fact refers to it later on when
deciding whether or not to join the conspirators.
Caesar's description of Cassius is clearly
disapproving, and at once shows the reader that
he will be a source of conflict: "Let me have men
about me that are fat, / Sleek-headed men, and
such as sleep a-nights. / Yon Cassius has a lean
and hungry look. / He thinks too much. Such
men are dangerous" (1.2.193-196). Caesar
continues, "He [Cassius] reads much, / He is a
great observer, and he looks / Quite through the
deeds of men. He loves no plays, / As thou dost,
Antony; he hears no music. (1.2.202-205).
Generally, Shakespearean characters that do not
enjoy music or plays are inherently evil. Caesar
fears Cassius because he does not enjoy life,
whereas he trusts Antony who is almost famous
for his ability to have a good time.
Two sides of Caesar exist in the play: Caesar as a
concept and as a human being. The human in
Caesar is weak, needs Cassius to save him from
drowning and has epileptic fits. However, the
concept of Caesar, the great general and leader is
all powerful and noble. His every word is a
command, and the people follow him.
Throughout the play, Caesar demonstrates an
inability to effectively communicate, a theme
reflected in much of the plays action. For
example, in the first act the tribunes and
plebeians talk across each other rather than to
one another. Later on, Brutus and Cassius are
constantly interrupted by shouts offstage,
breaking their conversion and distracting Brutus.
Caesar's particular weakness in communication
stems from his being deaf in his left ear. At one
point he requests, "Come on my right hand, for
this ear is deaf, / And tell me truly what thou
think'st of him" (1.2.214-215). Caesar's deafness
is in fact symbolic of his unwillingness to see
danger in the world around him. As such, he
dismisses the soothsayer and his wife Calpurnia's
dream rather than accepting their morbid
predictions.
In Richard II, the fall of Richard is represented
by his constant descent from the throne.
Similarly, Shakespeare foreshadows Caesar's fall
in Julius Caesar when Caesar has an epileptic fit
in the public square. This imagery of falling also
coincides with the decline of language
comprehension immediately thereafter. For
example, Casca describes Cicero's speech saying,
"It was Greek to me" (1.2.178), an expression
that has since become cliché.
The action of the play is mostly focused on
Brutus, a man who dominates the plot and speaks
the most lines. Thus, some might wonder why
the play is titled after Julius Caesar.
Traditionally, Shakespeare named his plays after
rulers (Henry VIII, Richard III, etc.). However,
upon a close read, Julius Caesar does truly
revolve around Caesar. Brutus' internal conflict
is a struggle between his friendship for Caesar
and his loyalty to the Roman Republic. Indeed,
Caesar's influence on the plot continues even
after his death, specifically when his ghost
appears to Brutus, indicating the memory and
myth of Caesar will never die.
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Act Two, Scene One
Brutus is in his garden and has decided that
Caesar must be killed. His reasons for reaching
this conclusion are that Caesar is abusing his
power and that has ascended far too
quickly. Lucius, Brutus' servant, brings him a
letter (planted by Cassius) he has found in
Brutus' private room. The first line of the letter
reads, "Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake, and see
thyself" (2.1.46). Brutus interprets the letter as if
it were a request from all of Rome to slay Caesar
and restore the republic.
Brutus then asks Lucius what day it is, and he
informs his master that it is the ides of March, or
March 15th. A knock sounds on the door and
Lucius leaves to answer it. Alone, Brutus states
he has not slept since Cassius first incited him
against Caesar.
Cassius, Casca, Decius, Cinna, Metellus
and Trebonius, all of them conspirators against
Caesar, have arrived at Brutus' home. Brutus
invites them in and Cassius takes him aside.
Soon Brutus rejoins the group of men and shakes
all their hands, agreeing to join them in their
murderous quest. The men then discuss whether
they should invite Cicero, the great orator, to join
their plot, but Brutus convinces them against it.
Cassius states Mark Antony should be killed
along with Caesar, but again Brutus is against the
plan, fearing they will be perceived as too
bloody.
The group plans to commit Caesar's murder at
the Senate at eight o'clock that morning (it is
only three in the morning at this point).
However, they are worried that Caesar will not
attend the Senate because he has become
increasingly superstitious over the past few
months. Decius tells the group that he knows
how to flatter Caesar, and assures them he will
convince Caesar to go to the Senate. Cassius and
his followers then depart, leaving Brutus alone.
Brutus' wife Portia arrives and tells him he has
left her bed and given her unkind looks. She begs
him to tell her why he is so upset. He lies, telling
her he is sick, to which she responds that it
appears to be a sickness of the mind, not of the
body. A strong woman of brave lineage, she
again begs him to tell her what is wrong, asking
him, "Think you I am no stronger than my sex, /
Being so fathered and so husbanded?" (2.1.295-
6). She then stabs herself in the thigh as proof of
her courage. Brutus finally agrees to tell her what
is concerning him, but sends her away before he
is able to explain, because there is another knock
on the door.
Ligarius enters, pretending to be sick. He tells
Brutus that he could be cured if only Brutus had
a noble undertaking in mind. Brutus tells him
that he does, and Ligarius pledges to follow
Brutus on whatever task he leads him to.
Act Two, Scene Two
Caesar, still in his nightgown, is terrified by a
dream his wife Calpurnia has had in which she
cried out, "Help, ho! They murder Caesar!" He
orders a servant to go to the priests and have
them sacrifice an animal in order to read the
entrails for predictions of the future. Calpurnia
arrives and tells him that he dare not leave the
house that day. Caesar acts brave and tells her
that he fears nothing, and that he will die when it
is necessary for him to die. The servant returns
and tells him that the sacrificed animal did not
have a heart, a very bad omen. Caesar insists on
misinterpreting the omens, but Calpurnia begs
him to blame her for his absence from the
Senate, to which he finally agrees.
However, Decius soon arrives to fetch Caesar to
the Senate House. Caesar tells him to inform the
Senate that he will not come this day. Decius
claims that he will be mocked if he cannot
provide a good reason for Caesar's absence.
Caesar then tells Decius about Calpurnia's
dream, to which Decius replies that the dream
was misinterpreted. The fountains of blood
8
pouring from Caesar's body that Calpurnia saw
reflected the new life Caesar is giving to Rome,
not his death. Decius overwhelms Caesar's
resistance by asking him if the Senate should
dissolve until a better time when Calpurnia has
more favorable dreams. Caesar tells Calpurnia
that he was acting foolishly, and agrees to go to
the Senate. Cassius and the other conspirators
then arrive to accompany him to the Senate.
Antony also appears and joins the group of men
who then escort Caesar out of his house.
Act Two, Scene Three
Artemidorus has written Caesar a letter in which
he names all of the conspirators against Caesar.
He stands on a street near the Capitol and waits
for Caesar to pass by on his way to the Senate so
that he can hand Caesar the note.
Act Two, Scene Four
Portia orders the servant Lucius to go to the
Senate House. He asks her what he should do
there, but she is so distracted that she is unable to
tell him the purpose. She remarks to the
audience, "I have a man's mind, but a woman's
might. / How hard it is for women to keep
counsel!" (2.4.7-8). She is alluding to the fact
that she knows what Brutus is planning to do to
Caesar, and is unwilling to keep it a secret. The
soothsayer who previously warned Caesar sees
her and speaks with her, informing Portia that he
will try to once again warn Caesar about his fate.
Analysis
Throughout the play, Brutus alone suffers from a
lack of sleep. Brutus says that, "Since Cassius
first did whet me against Caesar / I have not
slept" (2.1.61) He adds to this that his mind,
"Like to a little kingdom, suffers then / The
nature of an insurrection" (2.1.68-9). His
insomnia represents an internal struggle over
whether to betray his friend or act in what he
believes to be the best interests of Rome. His
personal struggle is a microcosm for the civil war
that eventually occurs. In 4.3 Brutus again
suffers from a bout of insomnia during which he
encounters Caesar's ghost.
Women are marginalized in Julius Caesar. Portia
and Calpurnia are the women in the play, and are
confined to the domestic household. However,
there are important differences between them.
Portia is the first of the two to appear, and she
struggles to convince Brutus that she is worthy of
his confidence. She first kneels, begging him to
share his secrets, and then stands up
dramatically, stating, "Think you I am no
stronger than my sex, / Being so fathered and so
husbanded?" (2.1.295-6), and stabs herself in the
thigh to prove her strength. Brutus capitulates to
Portia, acknowledging her strength. In contrast,
Caesar ignores and spurns his wife Calpurnia's
warnings against attending Senate. At first, her
dream of his death keeps him home, but Decius
is able to convince him tha this wife is silly in
her concern. Clearly, Calpurnia is not as
powerful a woman as Portia. However, both
women go to extreme actions to attempt to sway
their husbands.
Ironically, Calpurnia's dream of a Caesar statue
bleeding from a hundred holes with which
Romans bath their hands, is an accurate
prediction of Caesar's death, which occurs in the
Act 3. Decius first mocks the dream, saying,
"Bring up the Senate till another time, / When
Caesar's wife shall meet with better dreams"
2.2.98-99). He then brilliantly creates an
alternate interpretation of the dream, saying,
"Your statue spouting blood in many pipes, / In
which so many smiling Romans bathed, /
Signifies that from you great Rome shall suck /
Reviving blood" (2.2.85-88).
Brutus, contrary to the way he tries to present
himself, is a vain man, easily manipulated by
Cassius. Cassius first compares Brutus to Caesar
by comparing their names, and subsequently tells
Brutus he represents the best qualities of Caesar
without the flaws. Next, Cassius drafts letters to
9
Brutus which he has Cinna deliver by tossing
them through the window or leaving them where
Brutus will find them. Brutus' fatal flaw is
revealed when he interprets the first letter he
receives according to his personal bias. Thus,
like Malvolio in Twelfth Night, Brutus
misconstrues the letter's meaning to fulfill his
desire for power.
"Give me much light that I may read by them.
[He] opens the letter and reads
'Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake, and see thyself.
Shall Rome, et cetera? Speak, strike, redress.'
'Brutus, thou sleep'st. Awake.'
Such instigations have been often dropped
Where I have took them up.
'Shall Rome, et cetera?' Thus must I piece it out:
Shall Rome stand under one man's awe? What,
Rome?
'Speak, strike, redress.' Am I entreated
To speak and strike? O Rome, I make thee
promise,
If the redress will follow, thou receivest
Thy full petition at the hand of Brutus."
Brutus is so focused on his inner turmoil that
when he reads the letter, he fills in the blanks
with, "Shall Rome stand under one man's awe?"
He further misunderstands the letter by
attributing it to Rome, as if this were a call from
the people rather than a note written by Cassius.
Brutus has been looking for a reason to act, and
the letter provides that stimulation. To this point,
Brutus has hesitated to act against Caesar
because he feels that needs the support of the
Roman citizenry. However, the letter, which he
believes to be from Roman citizens, provides
him with an excuse to act.
Brutus' greatest error is in through the murder
wanting to uphold the republic while
simultaneously breaking the fundamental rules of
the republic. He tells Cassius:
Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers, Caius.
We all stand up against the spirit of Caesar;
And in the spirit of men there is no blood:
O, that we then could come by Caesar's spirit,
And not dismember Caesar! But, alas,
Caesar must bleed for it! And, gentle friends,
Let's kill him boldly, but not wrathfully;
Let's carve him as a dish fit for the gods,
Not hew him as a carcass fit for hounds:
And let our hearts, as subtle masters do,
Stir up their servants to an act of rage,
And after seem to chide 'em. This shall make
Our purpose necessary and not envious:
Which so appearing to the common eyes,
We shall be call'd purgers, not murderers.
Yet "murderers" is exactly what Antony will call
the conspirators. Brutus falsely tries to divide the
indivisible by pretending killing Caesar is not
murder, when it clearly is.
Caesar's greatest achievement is his ability to
outlive his mortal death. He alludes to this
through his use of the third person: "Caesar
should be a beast without a heart" (2.2.42), "And
Caesar shall go forth" (2.2.48). This contrasts
with Brutus' use of "I", and his eventual defeat:
"That you do love me I am nothing jealous.
What you would work me to I have some aim.
How I have thought of this and of these times
10
I shall recount hereafter. For this present,
I would not, so with love I might entreat you"
Caesar's use of the third person creates a sense of
permanence, as do the images Caesar involes of
Mount Olympus and the Colassus. These
references foreshadow the power Caesar will
continue to hold, even after his death.
Act Three, Scene One
Caesar is headed to the Senate House with all of
the conspirators surrounding him. He sees the
soothsayer and tells the man that the ides of
March have come. The soothsayer responds with,
"Ay, Caesar, but not gone" (3.1.2). However,
Caesar is not concerned and continues to the
Senate. Next Artemidorus attempts to hand
Caesar his letter, explaining its contents affect
him personally, but Decius responds quickly,
telling Caesar the Trebonius has a document for
him to read instead. Caesar tells Artemidorus
that, "What touches us ourself shall be last
served" (3.1.7).
As they approach the Senate House, Trebonius
manages to pull Mark Antony aside and away
from Caesar, thus making him more vulnerable
to attack. Caesar takes his seat in the Senate and
proceeds to allow Metellus Cimber to petition
him. The man throws himself down at Caesar's
feet begging for his brother's release from
banishment, but is ordered to stand. Caesar tells
him that fawning will not win him any favors,
and that, "Know Caesar doth not wrong but with
just cause" (3.1.47). At this Brutus comes
forward, to Caesar's great surprise, and pleads for
the man's brother. Cassius soon joins him. Caesar
tells them his decision is, "constant as the
Northern Star" and that he will not remove the
banishment. Cinna approaches and Caesar tells
him, "Hence! wilt thou lift up Olympus?"
(3.1.73). Decius and Ligarius come forward and
kneel before him as well. Finally Casca also
kneels and says, "Speak hands for me" (3.1.76),
and stabs Caesar. All the conspirators continue to
stab him as he falls saying, "Et tu, Brute? - Then
fall Caesar" (3.1.77).
Cinna immediately starts crying out, "Liberty!
Freedom! Tyranny is dead!" (3.1.78) The other
senators all run out of the Senate House in
confusion while the conspirators stay together to
protect themselves. Brutus finally tells them to,
"Stoop, Romans, stoop.
And let us bathe our hands in Caesar's blood
Up to the elbows, and besmear our swords;
Then walk we forth even to the marketplace,
And, waving our red weapons o'er our heads,
Let's all cry out 'peace, freedom, and liberty!'"
(3.1.106-111).
Cassius continues this exultation of their deed,
saying, "How many ages hence / Shall this our
lofty scene be acted over, / In states unborn and
accents yet unknown!" (3.1.112-114). Cassius
further adds that they will be known as, "The
men that gave their country liberty" (3.1.118).
The servant of Mark Antony arrives and falls
prostrate before Brutus, telling Brutus that
Antony wishes to meet with him to learn why
Caesar had to die. Brutus promises Antony will
not be harmed and tells the servant to bring him.
Cassius tells Brutus that he still has misgivings
about Antony even though he has promised to
not hurt him.
Antony arrives and laments the death of Caesar,
begging the murderers, specifically Brutus, to
explain why Caesar had to be killed. Brutus tells
him that Caesar was destroying the republic and
had to be removed from power. Antony pretends
to be convinced by this and asks the conspirators
to, "Let each man render me his bloody hand"
(3.1.185). He then shakes hands with each of
them, naming them as he faces each man. The
last hand he takes is that of Trebonius, who
11
actually did not commit the murder, but
distracted Mark Antony so he would not be able
to protect Caesar.
Antony quickly recants his agreement with the
murderers, and tells Cassius that he almost joined
them after shaking their hands, was swayed at
the sight of Caesar's body. He asks them if he
may have permission to take the body to the
marketplace and show it to the crowds. Brutus
gives him permission to do this, but Cassius
warns, "You know not what you do. Do not
consent / That Antony speak in his funeral. /
Know you how much the people may be moved /
By that which he will utter?" (3.1.234-237). As a
compromise, Brutus decides to give his speech
first, and to allow Antony to speak afterwards,
provided that Antony only says positive things
about the conspirators. Antony agrees.
Left alone with the body of Caesar, Antony says,
"O pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth /
That I am meek and gentle with these butcher"
(3.1.257-258). He continues, becoming ever
more violent in his speech, "Domestic fury and
fierce civil strife / Shall cumber all the parts of
Italy" (3.1.266-267). A servant sent
from Octavius Caesar arrives and sees the body.
Antony tells him to stay for the funeral eulogies
in the marketplace and report back to Octavius
on the state of affairs in Rome. Together they
carry out Caesar's body.
Act Three, Scene Two
Brutus and Cassius tell the plebeians to follow
them in order to hear an explanation for the
murder. They split the multitude into two parties
and Cassius leaves to speak to one group while
Brutus speaks to the other. Brutus tells the
masses that he loved Caesar more than any of
them, but that he killed Caesar because he loved
Rome more. He says, "As Caesar loved me, I
weep for him. As he was fortunate, I rejoice at it.
As he was valiant, I honor him. But as he was
ambitious, I slew him" (3.2.23-25). Brutus then
asks them if they wish him to die for his actions,
to which the crowd replies, "Live, Brutus, live,
live!" (3.2.44). Lastly, he begs them listen to
Mark Antony and to let him depart alone. Thus,
he leaves Mark Antony alone to give his oration.
Antony's speech begins with the famous lines,
"Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your
ears" (3.2.70). His speech continually praises
Brutus as "an honourable man" who has killed
Caesar for being ambitious yet also describes
Caesar as the most honorable and generous of
men. In this way, Antony appears to praise his
friend while respecting the men who murdered
him, when in fact, Antony is inciting hte crowd
against Brutus, Cassius and the conspirators.
The plebeians are easily swayed and conclude
that Caesar was not ambitious, and was wrongly
murdered. Next, after the plebeians beg, Antony
reads Caesar's will after descending into the
masses and standing next to Caesar's body. He
shows them the stab wounds and names the
conspirators who gave Caesar the wounds. The
crowd starts to surge away in anarchy, crying,
"Revenge! About! Seek! Burn! Fire! Kill! Slay!"
(3.2.196). Antony stops them and finally reads
the will, in which Caesar has given every Roman
citizen seventy-five drachmas and the freedom to
roam his land. The plebeians react in a frenzy of
anger against the men who killed Caesar, and
carry away the body. Antony says, "Now let it
work. Mischief, thou art afoot. / Take thou what
course thou wilt" (3.2.248-249). The servant of
Octavius arrives and tells Antony that Octavius
is already in Rome and is waiting for him at
Caesar's house.
Act Three, Scene Three
Cinna the poet (not Cinna the conspirator) is
unable to sleep that night and wanders through
the streets of Rome. Some plebeians find him
and demand to know who he is and what he is
doing on the street. He tells them that he is going
to Caesar's funeral as a friend of Caesar. When
they ask him his name, he tells them Cinna, at
which the plebeians cry, "Tear him to pieces!
12
He's a conspirator" (3.3.27). Cinna responds by
saying, "I am Cinna the poet, I am Cinna the
poet" (3.3.28), but they attack him anyway and
carry him away.
Analysis
The images of Caesar throughout the play are
those of constancy and greatness. Caesar himself
exclaims, "But I am constant as the northern star"
(3.1.60), "Hence! wilt thou lift up Olympus?"
(3.1.73). Cassius even angrily compares Caesar
to the Colossus, saying, "Why, man, he doth
bestride the narrow world / Like a Colossus, and
we petty men / Walk under his huge legs and
peep about" (1.2.136-138). Thus when Caesar
falls, the world falls into chaos. There is no one
able to replace Caesar's power immediately after
his death, and so anarchy reigns until Octavius
eventually seizes power in the final lines of the
play.
Caesar's greatest flaw is his refusal to
acknowledge his mortality. Often referring to
himself in the third person, he develops a sense
of greatness and godliness that distracts him
from taking appropriate precautions.
Artemidorus tries to hand him a note warning
him about the dangers of the conspirators, but
Caesar refuses because Artemidorus informs him
that the note is personal. "What touches us
ourself shall be last served" (3.1.7).
The moments immediately following Caesar's
death are highly ironic, as the murderers cry out,
"Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead!" (3.1.78)
They have committed an extralegal act and yet
now cry out in the name of liberty. Next, they dip
their hands in Caesar's blood:
"Stoop, Romans, stoop.
And let us bathe our hands in Caesar's blood
Up to the elbows, and besmear our swords;
Then walk we forth even to the marketplace,
And, waving our red weapons o'er our heads,
Let's all cry out 'peace, freedom, and liberty!'"
(3.1.106-111).
Cassius remarks, "How many ages hence / Shall
this our lofty scene be acted over, / In states
unborn and accents yet unknown!" (3.1.112-
114). These lines, alluding to Shakespeare's
retelling of Julius Caesar's story, were used even
during the French Revolution, due to their
simultaneous expression of grotesque death and
the rallying cry of "peace, freedom, and liberty!".
Brutus and the other conspirators fail to grasp the
hypocrisy of their actions.
Mark Antony does not believe the conspirators
are justified in crying "peace", and is the first to
condemn their actions. When Antony states, "Let
each man render me his bloody hand" (3.1.185),
he is marking them for revenge rather than
celebrating their actions. Even Trebonius, who
did not stab Caesar, but prevented Antony from
protecting him, is marked by Antony. Antony
shakes hands with Trebonius last, transferring
Caesar's blood, collected from his previous
handshakes, to his clean hands.
At this moment, Antony symbolizes anarchy,
blaming the conspirators and marking them for
revenge. He shows his taste for chaos when
finally left alone with Caesar, saying, "O pardon
me, thou bleeding piece of earth / That I am
meek and gentle with these butchers" (3.1.257-
258). His final words indicate his goals, stating,
"Domestic fury and fierce civil strife / Shall
cumber all the parts of Italy" (3.1.266-267).
Indeed, Anarchy does rule by the final scene of
Act III, in which innocent Cinna the poet is
killed because his namesake was one of the
murderers. This scene, in which the plebeians are
unwilling to listen to Cinna, expresses the death
of not only order but also of literature and
reason. Cinna cries out, "I am Cinna the Poet"
(3.3.28), at which the crowd simply changes its
charges against him to, "Tear him for his bad
verses" (3.3.29). The death of Cinna is an attack
on men of words and literature, and marks the
13
first time a poet, often an icon of political
rebellion, is ignored. Later on in the play, a poet
tries to separate Brutus and Cassius during a
great argument, but is ignored and sent away.
Perhaps, with these examples, Shakespeare is
asking the audience to give more weight to the
work of poets and writers in the affairs of the
world.
Critics often point out Brutus' tactical errors
which lead to his eventual loss. Brutus' first
grave mistake is allowing Mark Antony to live.
However, his greatest mistake is allowing
Antony to speak to the crowds. Cassius' fears are
justified when Antony turns the crowd against
the conspirators. Furthermore, Brutus leaves
Antony alone with the crowd, thereby losing all
control of the situation.
Antony realizes the nature of the people he is
dealing with, and tells the crowd, "You are not
wood, you are not stones, but men" (3.2.139).
This contrasts with Murellus in the very first
scene who calls the crowd, "You blocks, you
stones, you worse than senseless things" (1.1.34).
Antony is able to influence the crowd because he
flatters them and uses repetition and poetry to
drive his points home. With this careful
manipulation, Antony overcomes Brutus, who
instead addressed the crowd in prose, syllogisms
and logic. However, although a powerful
speaker, Antony relies on Caesar's body and will
to win the crowd over. Thus, the audience sees
the continual influence Caesar maintains over
events, even after his death. Antony says that he
would, "put a tongue / In every wound of Caesar
that should move / The stones of Rome to rise
and mutiny" (3.2.219-221).
Act Four, Scene One
Antony, Octavius and Lepidus have banded
together in a counter-conspiracy to destroy the
men who killed Caesar. Antony has a paper with
names on it and he says, "These many, then,
shall die; their names are pricked" (4.1.1). The
men then mark more names of people who must
die, including the brother of Lepidus and the son
of Mark Antony's sister. Antony states that, "He
shall not live. Look, with a spot I damn him"
(4.1.6).
Antony then sends Lepidus to Caesar's house to
fetch the will. He hopes to somehow reduce the
amount of money that needs to be paid to the
beneficiaries. After Lepidus leaves, Antony tells
Octavius that Lepidus was a poor choice to form
the second triumvirate with. Octavius says, "You
may do your will; / But he's a tried and valiant
soldier" (4.1.28). Antony implies in his speech
that he will eventually remove Lepidus from
rule, but that they should keep him a while
longer.
Act Four, Scene Two
Brutus has brought his armies to Sardis (now
Western Turkey) and has set up camp. A
messenger whom he sent to Cassius informs him
that Cassius is not as friendly anymore. Brutus
remarks, "Thou hast described / A hot friend
cooling" (4.2.18-19). At that moment Cassius'
army arrives and Cassius himself appears. He is
angry with Brutus and starts to accuse him of
wronging him, but Brutus makes him enter the
tent so that they do not appear to be fighting in
front of their men.
Cassius is upset that Brutus publicly disgraced a
friend of his for taking bribes from the Sardians.
Apparently Cassius had sent several letter to
Brutus urging for the man's release, but Brutus
refused. Brutus is furious that Cassius would
even consider defending a man for taking bribes,
arguing that Caesar was killed for exactly such
behavior. He states, "What, shall one of us, /
That struck the foremost man of all this world /
But for supporting robbers, shall we now /
Contaminate our fingers with base bribes"
(4.2.73-76). Cassius and Brutus end up
threatening each other, with each man convinced
he is better able to lead the armies than the other.
14
The two men continue arguing, and Brutus
finally tells Cassius that he is upset that Cassius
refused to send him gold with which to pay his
soldiers. Brutus says, "I did send / To you for
gold to pay my legions, / Which you denied me"
(4.2.130-132). Cassius denies it, and in
exasperation pulls out his dagger and offers it to
Brutus. He tells Brutus to kill him if he is such an
terrible man, but Brutus recants and they finally
embrace in friendship.
A poet forces his way into the tent and demands
that the generals (Cassius and Brutus) not be left
alone. He argues that there is a grudge between
them. However, having already resumed their
friendship, they order him away.
Brutus finally informs Cassius that Portia is
dead. Cassius, is surprised by the news and asks
how she died. Brutus explains that Portia, left
alone in the city after he fled, was upset that
Octavius and Antony had seized control of
Rome. She therefore took live embers and
swallowed them, killing
herself. Titinius and Messalaarrive and Brutus
immediately changes the subject. Cassius takes
him aside and asks, "Portia, art thou gone?"
(4.2.218). Brutus tells him not to speak of her
anymore.
Brutus and Messala compare letters they have
received informing them that Antony and
Octavius are marching towards them from
Greece. Messala tells Brutus that over one
hundred senators have been put to death, but
Brutus says his letter only mentioned seventy,
including the orator Cicero. Messala then asks
Brutus if he has heard anything about Portia, to
which Brutus replies, "Nothing, Messala"
(4.2.236), and asks Messala for news of her,
pretending to hear of her death for the first time.
Brutus and Cassius then decide whether to wait
for Antony and Octavius in Sardis or march to
meet the opposing army in Philippi. Cassius
prefers to wait and keep his men fresh, but
Brutus thinks that the enemy is gaining in power
every day and therefore must be stopped as soon
as possible. Cassius finally agrees with him and
leaves for his tent to rest before leaving in the
morning.
Brutus remains awake with his servant Lucius.
He orders two men, Claudio and Varrus, to enter
his tent and sleep there in case he needs to send
them on an errand during the night. Brutus then
asks Lucius to play him a song on his stringed
instrument, which he does until he falls asleep
with his instrument in his hands.
Brutus starts reading a book, but the ghost
of Julius Caesar appears, causing the flame to
dim. Brutus demands to know who has entered
the room, and the ghost tells him, "Thy evil
spirit, Brutus" (4.2.333). Brutus then asks the
ghost why he has come, and is told that the ghost
will see him again at Philippi. The ghost leaves,
and Brutus immediately wakes up everyone else
in the room. He orders Lucius to go back to
sleep, and tells Varrus and Claudio to inform
Cassius that he should take his army and March
ahead.
Analysis
Antony, Octavius and Lepidus differ
significantly from the original conspirators. They
wish only to avenge Caesar's death and are
willing to murder each of them, stating "These
many, then, shall die; their names are pricked"
(4.1.1). In their counter-conspiracy, they are
willing to include relatives and friends on the list
of those to die, demonstrating they are most
serious and dedicated to the task of eradicating
those who conspired against Caesar. Antony's
statement, "He shall not live. Look, with a spot I
damn him" (4.1.6) brings to the forefront the
calculating nature of the new rulers.
Brutus stands out as an example of Republican
stoicism on the battlefield. He describes the
cause of Portia's death as, "Impatience of my
absence" (4.2.204). His calmness when speaking
about his wife's death frightens even Cassius,
15
who remarks that, "How scaped I killing when I
crossed you so?" (4.2.202). He is further taken
aback by the ease with which Brutus dismisses
the topic when Titinius and Messala arrive.
Brutus immediately changes the subject, forcing
Cassius to take him aside and ask, "Portia, art
thou gone?" (4.2.218). Brutus tells him not to
speak of her anymore. Later, when Messala asks
Brutus if he has heard anything about Portia,
Brutus replies, "Nothing, Messala" (4.2.236).
Stoicism and honor mean everything to Brutus,
and like Hotspur in Henry IV, Brutus refuses to
show weakness to his troops.
Letters and poetry appear a great deal throughout
this play, possibly more than in any other of
Shakespeare's plays. In the first act, Cassius
writes anonymous letters to Brutus to convince
him to joint he conspiracy, Artemidorus writes
an ignored letter warning Caesar of the plot
against him, and Cinna the poet is murdered. In
this act, a poet again takes the stage, but Brutus
orders him removed from his tent. In addition,
both Brutus and Messala have letters regarding
the state of Rome after Antony's speech. Brutus
states, "Mine [a letter] speaks of seventy senators
that died / By their proscriptions, Cicero being
one" (4.2.229-230). This mention of perhaps the
greatest orator Cicero, a man identified closely
with words, is almost an afterthought. Even
Brutus, when trying to read his book, is unable to
continue reading because the ghost of Caesar
interrupts him. We therefore see first the
manipulative power, and then the destruction and
dismissal of literature and poetry after Caesar's
death.
Act Five, Scene One
Octavius and Antony, located on a battlefield in
Philippi, have just learned that Brutus and
Cassius are marching towards them. A
messenger arrives and tells both generals that the
enemy is so close that they must do something
quickly. Antony orders Octavius to, "lead your
battle softly on / Upon the left hand of the even
field" (5.1.16-17). Octavius contradicts him, and
decides to march on the right hand side. Antony
is annoyed by this, asking, "Why do you cross
me in this exigent?" (5.1.19). Octavius replies, "I
do not cross you, but I will do so" (5.1.20).
Brutus and Cassius arrive at the head of their
army. Octavius asks if he should give the sign of
battle, and Antony says, "No, Caesar, we will
answer on their charge" (5.1.24). The generals all
meet and converse, but only to insult each other.
Antony accuses Brutus and Cassius of being
"villains," whereas Cassius tells Brutus that they
would not have to listen to Antony now if he had
been allowed to kill him as he originally wanted
to. The men refuse to back down and are forced
to return to their armies and prepare for battle.
Cassius calls Messala over and tells him that this
battle is similar to the one Pompey fought and
lost against Caesar. He points out that although
not normally superstitious, he is upset by the fact
that two eagles who accompanied the army all
the way from Sardis have been replaced by
crows and ravens, symbols of bad things to
come. He ends his speech by stating, "Our army
lies ready to give the ghost" (5.1.88).
Cassius then talks to Brutus and asks him what
he will do if they should lose the battle. Brutus
rejects suicide, but also tells Cassius that he will
never be dragged through the streets of Rome as
a bound prisoner. The two generals say a
dramatic farewell and return to their respective
armies to prepare for battle.
Act Five, Scene Two
The battle begins and Brutus gives Messala
orders to bring to Cassius. He tells Messala to
inform Cassius that he needs to advance faster in
order to catch Octavius' flank which is not
fighting very well.
Act Five, Scene Three
16
Cassius is upset because he is afraid his men are
running away from the field of battle. He
tells Titinius that he personally killed his
standard-bearer who was trying to run away and
took up the banner himself. Titinius informs him
that Brutus "gave the word too early" (5.3.5) and
that his soldiers quickly started looting the
enemy camp once they captured it. In the
meantime, Antony's army has been able to
surround Cassius.
Pindarus arrives and tells Cassius to run further
away. He informs his general that the tents have
been taken and are burning in the distance.
Cassius sends Titinius to check on some soldiers
and find out if they are his men or not, and
simultaneously sends Pindarus up a hill to watch
and see what happens. Pindarus misinforms him,
telling him Titinius is captured and killed by the
troops.
Cassius calls Pindarus back down from the hill
and hands him the sword with which he stabbed
Caesar. He tells Pindarus to take the sword and
stab him with it. Pindarus obeys, kills Cassius on
the spot, and runs away.
Titinius and Messala return to where Cassius is
lying. Titinius has a wreath of laurels on his
head, a sign of victory, and is telling Messala
that Brutus has defeated Octavius but Antony has
conquered Cassius' army. He sees Cassius on the
ground and realizes that Cassius misunderstood
what happened on the battle field. Titinius sends
Messala to Brutus to tell him what has happened.
He then turns to Cassius' body and says, "Alas,
thou hast misconstrued everything" (5.3.83).
Titinius then picks up Cassius' sword and kills
himself.
Brutus arrives and sees the two dead bodies lying
on the ground. He remarks, "Oh Julius Caesar,
thou art mighty yet" (5.3.93). Brutus quickly
recovers from the loss of his confederate and
immediately orders the soldiers to prepare for
another battle, this time against Antony.
Act Five, Scene Four
Brutus appears again, still leading his troops. He
tells his men to continue fighting and leaves
them in the midst of battle. Cato valiantly fights
but is killed. Lucillius pretends to be Brutus and
challenges the soldiers, but is quickly captured.
The soldiers send for Antony, thinking they have
finally captured Brutus. Antony arrives and
recognizes Lucillius and tells his soldiers that
although they did not get Brutus, they still
captured a nobleman. He orders his soldiers to
continue fighting.
Act Five, Scene Five
Brutus arrives accompanied by several stragglers
from his defeated army. He first asks Clitus and
then Dardanius to kill him so that he will not be
captured. They both refuse and stand away from
him. He then asks Volumnius to kill him as a
friend, but Volumnius tells him, "That's not the
office for a friend, my lord" (5.5.29). At the
sound of another call to battle, Brutus hastily
gets up and orders his men to flee ahead of him.
He keeps Strato with him, and finally convinces
Strato to hold the sword while he impales
himself on it.
Antony and Octavius arrive with their army.
They find Brutus dead on the ground and Strato
nearby. Strato informs them how Brutus died,
and Antony states, "This was the noblest Roman
of them all" (5.5.67). He says that of all the
conspirators only Brutus believed that he was
killing Caesar to uphold the Roman Republic;
the others were simply jealous and power
hungry. Antony continues, saying, "his life was
gentle, and the elements / So mixed in him that
nature might stand up / And say to all the world
'This was a man'" (5.5.74). Octavius orders the
body placed in his tent and to cease fighting. The
play ends with Octavius stating, "So call the field
to rest, and let's away / To part the glories of this
happy day" (5.5.79-80).
Analysis
17
For the first time in the play Octavius emerges as
a new leader. It has been said that each act of the
play belongs to a different man. Thus the first act
belongs to Cassius, the second to Brutus, the
third to Caesar, the fourth to Antony, and the last
act to Octavius. When Antony orders Octavius
to, "lead your battle softly on / Upon the left
hand of the even field" (5.1.16-17), he is
contradicted for the first time. Octavius decides
to march on the right hand side instead. Antony,
annoyed by this challenge to his power, asks,
"Why do you cross me in this exigent?" (5.1.19).
Octavius replies, "I do not cross you, but I will
do so" (5.1.20). This statement also foreshadows
how Octavius will eventually cross Antony by
removing him from of power. By the end of Act
5, Octavius rules singly. Unlike Caesar, with
whom the audience saw a personal side, Octavius
is depicted as ruthless, barely human, and a
politician without moral scruples or emotional
conflict.
This shift in power from Antony to Octavius is
signified through the use of names. Up until the
point where Octavius challenges Antony, he is
referred to as "young Octavius". Only after
Octavius asserts his authority is he referred to
without the demeaning modifier. After asking
Antony if he should give the sign of battle,
Antony replies to Octavius, "No, Caesar, we will
answer on their charge" (5.1.24). For the first
time, Octavius is called only "Caesar", and for
the rest of the play is referred to similarly, even
by Cassius.
The omens first seen in Act 1 reappear here as
well. In fact, Cassius is so overwhelmed by the
omens that he compares this battle to the one that
Pompey fought and lost. Cassius speaks of the
noble eagles being replaced by kites and ravens,
a change considered to be a very bad sign. This
superstition leads him to believe that he will lose
the battle, and he remarks, "Our army lies ready
to give the ghost" (5.1.88). The ghost, of course,
is that of Caesar, whose presence and memory is
the reason for battle.
The deaths of Cassius and Brutus demonstrate
that Caesar, even in death, is as strong as ever.
His spirit dominates in the battle. Cassius' last
words are, "Caesar, thou art revenged, / Even
with the sword that killed thee" (5.3.44-45).
Brutus also invokes the image of Caesar, not
only when dying, but also when he sees Cassius
dead on the ground. He says, "Oh Julius Caesar,
thou art mighty yet" (5.3.93). As he commits
suicide he again mentions Caesar, saying,
"Caesar, now be still. / I killed not thee with half
so good a will." (5.5.50-51).
Titinius, when he discovers Cassius, recalls the
words of Cicero in the beginning about men
construing the plot as they saw fit. He speaks to
Cassius and says, "Alas, thou hast misconstrued
everything" (5.3.83). This remark, meant to
imply that Cassius killed himself because he was
too quick to assume defeat, also is a comment on
the fact that Cassius killed Caesar. It can easily
be interpreted as stating that Cassius
misconstrued the facts about Caesar, allowing
him to convince Brutus to join the conspirators
through his plots. This further implies that even
the necessity of killing Caesar was misconstrued,
thus giving it a literal meaning, "thou hast
misconstrued everything."
At Brutus' death, Strato comments, "For Brutus
only overcame himself" (5.5.56). This represents
the fact that for Brutus this play is a tragedy, a
play about dealing with the internal struggle of
whether to support Caesar as a friend or kill him
as a dictator. It is this internal struggle which
causes the civil war between Brutus and Antony,
and the deaths of so many Romans.
Brutus' inability to overcome his internal struggle
allows Antony to say, "This was the noblest
Roman of them all" (5.5.67). He is implying that
only Brutus really believed that he was killing
Caesar to uphold the Roman Republic. However,
the audienve must remember how easily Cassius
manipulated Brutus into murdering Caesar.
Despite his seeming eagerness to achieve power,
18
Brutus is the only conspirator to maintain his
humanity and dignity throughout the play. He
stands as a symbol of honor against the
dishonorable Cassius who lies, manipulates, and
wishes to take bribes, and Brutus' rhetoric
implies that he would never have killed Caesar
except to defend the Roman Republic. Thus
Antony continues his epilogue for Brutus,
saying, "his life was gentle, and the elements / So
mixed in him that nature might stand up / And
say to all the world 'This was a man'" (5.5.74)
Brutus' tragic ending is, however, mirrored by
the ascension of Octavius. Thus, the play's
conclusion combines the sad defeat of the
"noblest Roman" with the victorious emergence
of a new Caesar. It is therefore Octavius, not
Antony, who ends the play with the lines, "So
call the field to rest, and let's away / To part the
glories of this happy day" (5.5.79-80). Happy is
hardly the words the audience would use to
describe what has taken place. Yet, for Octavius,
this is the day that begins his rule over Rome and
is worthy of celebration.
Julius Caesar Summary
Julius Caesar opens with a scene of class
conflict, the plebeians versus the tribunes. The
plebeians are celebrating Caesar's victory over
the sons of Pompey, one of the former leaders of
Rome. The tribunes verbally attack the masses
for their fickleness in celebrating the defeat of a
man who was once their leader.
Caesar enters Rome accompanied by his
supporters and a throng of citizens. It is the feast
of Lupercalia, February 15, a day when two men
run through the street and strike those they meet
with goatskin thongs. Caesar orders Mark
Antony to strike his wife Calpurnia in order to
cure her barrenness.
A soothsayer calls out to Caesar as he passes and
warns him against the ides of March, March 15.
Caesar ignores the man and dismisses him as a
dreamer. Upon seeing Cassius, Caesar informs
Antony that he would rather be surrounded by
men who are fat and happy than thin men like
Cassius. He is worried that Cassius is dangerous
because he "thinks too much" (1.2.193-196).
Antony tells him not to worry about Cassius.
Meanwhile, Brutus and Cassius meet and talk
about how much power Caesar has gained.
During their conversation they are interrupted
three times by cheers from the crowd. Cassius
informs Brutus that he is forming a plot against
Caesar and wants Brutus to join it. Brutus tells
him he cannot commit to anything
immediately. Casca soon joins them, and informs
them that the cheers they heard were Caesar
turning down the crown. According to Casca,
Antony offered Caesar a crown three times, and
three times he refused it.
Casca meets with Cicero and tells the orator that
there are many strange things happening in
Rome that night, such as a lion in the streets and
an owl screeching during the day. Cicero tells
him that men construe omens the way they see
fit. Cassius eventually arrives and learns from
Casca that the senators are planning on making
Caesar a king the next morning. He starts to tell
Casca about the plot to kill Caesar,
but Cinna shows up and interrupts him. He hands
Cinna some letters to plant anonymously in
Brutus' home and invites Casca to dinner that
night in order to convince him to join the
conspiracy.
Brutus discovers the letters from Cinna, not
knowing who wrote them. He reads one of the
letters and interprets it as a request to prevent
Caesar from seizing power. Brutus attributes the
letter to Rome as a whole, saying, "O Rome, I
make thee promise" (2.1.56), implying that he
will carry out what he perceives as the will of the
Roman people.
Brutus meets with Cassius and the other
conspirators and shakes all their hands, agreeing
to join their plot. He convinces them to only kill
Caesar, and not his most loyal friend Antony,
19
because he does not want them to "seem too
bloody" (2.1.162). After the other men leave,
Brutus is unable to sleep. His wife Portia finds
him awake and begs him to tell her what is
troubling him. At first he refuses, but after she
stabs herself in the thigh to prove her strength
and ability to keep a secret he agrees to inform
her.
Meanwhile, Caesar's wife Calpurnia dreamt of a
statue of Caesar bleeding from a hundred
wounds. Caesar, naturally superstitious, orders
the priests to kill an animal and read the entrails
to see if he should go to the Senate that day. The
priests tell him that the animal did not have a
heart, a very bad sign. However, Decius, one of
the conspirators, arrives and reinterprets
Calpurnia's dream to mean that all of Rome
sucked the reviving blood of Caesar for its
benefit. Caesar finally agrees with him that it is
laughable to stay home on account of a dream.
The other conspirators, including Brutus and
Cassius, arrive at his house to escort him to the
Senate House.
On the way to the Senate House Caesar is
approached by the same soothsayer that
previously warned him about the ides of March.
He again refuses to listen to the man and
continues. A man named Artemidorus then
comes up to him and tries to give him a letter
revealing the entire conspiracy, but Decius
cleverly tells Caesar the Trebonius has a suit he
would like Caesar to read instead. Caesar refuses
to look at what Artemidorus offers him on
account of its being personal. He explains, "What
touches us ourself shall be last served" (3.1.7).
The conspirators arrive at the Senate House and
Caesar assumes his seat. A man named Metellus
kneels before him and petitions to have his
banished brother returned to Rome. Caesar
refuses, but is surprised when Brutus and then
Cassius come forward and plead for the brother
as well. However, he continues to refuse to
change the sentence even as all of the
conspirators gather around him. On Casca's
comment, "Speak hands for me" (3.1.76) the
group attacks Caesar, stabbing him to death.
The conspirators, now led by Brutus and Cassius,
dip their hands in Caesar's blood and prepare to
run to the streets crying out "peace, freedom, and
liberty" (3.1.111). Antony arrives and begs them
to let him take the body and give Caesar a public
eulogy. Brutus agrees, overriding Cassius'
misgivings about allowing Antony to speak.
They move out into the streets of Rome and
Cassius and Brutus split up in order to speak to
the plebeians.
Brutus defends his murder of Caesar on the
grounds that he was removing a tyrant who was
destroying the freedom of all Romans. He ends
his speech by asking the crowd if they want him
to commit suicide for what he has done, to which
they reply, "Live, Brutus, live, live!" (3.2.44).
Next, Brutus allows Antony to speak and returns
home.
Antony takes full advantage of his speech and
informs the crowd that Caesar was a selfless man
who cared for Rome above everything. The
highlight of his speech is when he pulls out
Caesar's will and reads from it, telling the
citizens that Caesar has given every Roman a
part of his inheritance, in both land and dachmas.
The plebeians now believe Caesar to have been
great and good, seize his body and vow revenge
upon Brutus and the rest of the conspirators.
Their rioting develops into pure anarchy. Antony
comments that he has done his part in creating
social upheaval, and now must wait to see what
happens.
Brutus and Cassius are forced to flee the city,
and in the meantime the young general Octavius
Caesar, loyal to Julius Caesar, arrives and allies
with Antony. He, Antony and Lepidus form a
second triumvirate and prepare to purge the city
of anyone who is against them. They map out
their plans to scour the city and make a list of
20
names of those whom they wish to kill, including
relatives and friends.
Cassius and Brutus set up camp in Sardis,
located in what is now western Turkey. Cassius
arrives with his army at the campsite where
Brutus is waiting for him, but is furious with
Brutus for having ignored letters he sent asking
Brutus to release a prisoner. Brutus has instead
punished the man for accepting bribes, an act
which provided one of the reason's for Caesar's
murder. Cassius and Brutus argue until Cassius,
in exasperation, pulls out his dagger and asks
Brutus to kill him if he hates so. Of course,
Brutus refuses. The two men embrace and forget
their differences.
Next, Brutus sadly informs Cassius that his wife
Portia is dead. She swallowed live embers after
Antony and Octavius assumed power. When two
underlings enter the tent, Brutus stops talking
about Portia and focuses on the military matters
at hand. In fact, when one of the men asks him
about his wife, he denies having heard any news
about her. Brutus convinces Cassius during the
strategy meeting that it would be best for them to
march to where Antony and Octavius are located
in Philippi (near modern Greece) in order to
defeat them before they get too strong, gaining
additional soldiers on their march. Cassius
reluctantly agrees to Brutus' plan and departs for
the night.
Brutus calls some men into his tent in case he
needs to send them away as messengers during
the night. He makes them go to sleep. He himself
stays up reading, but he is disturbed by the ghost
of Julius Caesar who appears. The ghost tells
Brutus that he is his "evil spirit" (4.2.353) and
that he will be on the battlefield at Philippi.
Brutus is so shaken by this image that he wakes
up all the men in his tent and sends them to
Cassius with orders that Cassius should depart
before him the next morning.
On the battlefield at Philippi, Antony and
Octavius agree to their battle plans. They meet
with Brutus and Cassius before entering battle,
but only exchange insults. Battle is imminent.
All four men return to their armies to prepare for
war.
In the middle of the battle Brutus sees a chance
to destroy Octavius' army and rushes away to
attack it. He leaves Cassius behind. Cassius, less
militarily adept, quickly begins losing to
Antony's forces. Even worse, Pindarus misleads
him, telling him Titinius has been taken by the
enemy near Cassius' tents. Upon hearing this
news, Cassius orders Pindarus to kill him. After
completing the task, Pindarus flees. Brutus
arrives, finds his friend dead and remarks, "O
Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet" (5.3.93).
Cato is quickly killed, and Lucillius, a man
pretending to be Brutus, is soon captured and
handed over to Antony. Antony recognizes him
and tells his soldiers to keep attacking until they
capture Brutus. Brutus, now almost completely
defeated, begs several of his soldiers to kill him.
They all refuse and leave him rather than
carrying his blood on their hands.
Finally, Strato accepts Brutus' request. Brutus
runs into his sword as Strato holds it for him,
killing himself.
Antony and Octavius arrive and find Brutus dead
upon the ground. Antony remarks, "This was the
noblest Roman of them all" (5.5.67). Octavius,
unemotional through all of the carnage, merely
ends the play with the lines, "So call the field to
rest, and let's away / To part the glories of this
happy day" (5.5.79-80).
Julius Caesar Character List
Julius Caesar
the titular character. When the play starts, he is
the only man capable of giving orders and
ensuring they are carried out. Caesar fails to
understand the many signs indicating a plot
against him and is killed by a conspiracy led by
Cassius and Brutus. His ghost haunts the
21
remainder of the play, and his name is invoked
by both Cassius and Brutus before they commit
suicide in the final act.
Calpurnia
the wife of Caesar. She has a dream in which she
sees a statue of Caesar bleeding from multiple
wounds, and begs him to stay at home the day he
is killed. Caesar ignores her and goes to the
Senate House anyway.
Marcus Brutus
a noble Roman opposed to Caesar. He is an
idealist who upholds honor above everything
else. Brutus only agrees to kill Caesar after
becoming convinced that it is necessary for the
Roman Republic. He dies on the battlefield by
impaling himself on his own sword.
Portia
the wife of Brutus. She proves her courage and
strength by stabbing her thigh with a dagger in
order to force Brutus to tell her about the plot to
kill Caesar. She kills herself by swallowing hot
coals from the fire after Mark Antony and
Octavius assume power in Rome.
Lucius - a servant to Brutus.
Caius Cassius: a man opposed to Caesar. He
assembles the conspirators and is the man who
convinces Brutus to kill Caesar. He commits
suicide at the battle of Philippi after falsely
thinking his army has been defeated.
Casca: a man opposed to Caesar.
Trebonius: a man opposed to Caesar.
Decius Brutus: a man opposed to Caesar. He
misinterprets Calpurnia's dream in order to
convince Caesar to go to the Senate House on the
ides of March.
Metellus Cimber: a man opposed to Caesar.
Cinna: a man opposed to Caesar.
Caius Ligarius: a man opposed to Caesar.
Mark Antony: a ruler of Rome after Caesar's
death. Antony is Caesar's friend from the
beginning and he gives a rousing speech to the
masses which causes riots in Rome. Brutus and
Cassius are chased out of the city in the ensuing
chaos, and Antony forms the second triumvirate
with Octavius and Lepidus.
Octavius Caesar: a ruler of Rome after Caesar's
death. Octavius is a young general who joins the
second triumvirate. He and Antony fight against
Brutus and Cassius; he historically becomes the
future emperor of Rome.
Lepidus: a ruler of Rome after Caesar's death.
Flavius: a tribune of the people. He is removed
from office after derobing the statues of Caesar.
Murellus: a tribune of the people. He is removed
from office after derobing the statues of Caesar.
Cicero: a senator. He tells Casca that men
construe omens the way they want to. He is later
killed by Antony and Octavius when they purge
the Senate.
Publius: a senator.
Popillius Laena: a senator.
A Soothsayer: a man who tells Caesar to beware
the ides of March (March 15) but who is ignored.
Artemidorus: a man who tries to give Caesar a
letter in which he describes the plot against him.
Caesar ignores his letter.
Cinna the Poet: a poet who is beaten and
possibly killed because he has the same name as
one of the conspirators.
Pindarus: the bondsman to Cassius.
Titinius: an officer in Cassius' army. He kills
himself when he finds Cassius dead on the
battlefield.
22
Lucillius: an officer and soldier in Brutus' army.
Messala: an officer and soldier in Brutus' army.
Varrus: an officer and soldier in Brutus' army.
Claudio: an officer and soldier in Brutus' army.
Young Cato: an officer and soldier in Brutus'
army.
Strato: an officer and soldier in Brutus' army.
Volumnius: an officer and soldier in Brutus'
army.
Dardanius: an officer and soldier in Brutus'
army.
Clitus: an officer and soldier in Brutus' army.
A Poet: a man who bursts into Brutus' tent and
tries to warn the army that Brutus and Cassius
are angry with each other. Brutus orders him to
be taken away.
The Ghost of Caesar: a ghost of Julius Caesar
who speaks to Brutus at Sardis.
A Cobbler
A Carpenter
Plebeians
Commoners
A Messenger
Servants, senators, soldiers, and attendants
Julius Caesar Themes
Heroes vs. Villains
Both Cesar and Brutus are perceived to be heroes
and villains in Julius Caesar. At the opening of
the play, Caesar is hailed for his conquests and is
admired for his apparent humility upon refusing
the crown. However, once murdered, Caesar is
painted (by Brutus et al) as a power hungry
leader with the intentions of enslaving all of
Rome. Brutus' speech, which follows Caesar's
death, successfully manipulates the plebeian
perspective. By the end of his speech, the crowd
is hailing Brutus for killing Caesar, whom they
now perceive as a great villain. But, the crowd is
easily swayed once again when Antony speaks.
Following Brutus' remarks, Antony gives
Caesar's eulogy, manipulating the crowd with
stories of Caesar's kindness, and sharing the
details of Caesar's will, which leaves money to
every Roman. At the end of Antony's speech, the
crowd is once again supportive of Caesar,
mourns his death, and seeks to kill Brutus,
Cassius, and the other murderers. The swaying
opinions of the plebeians, and the great
differences in opinion that the play presents
leave the audience to determine who, if anyone,
is the hero of the play, and who, if anyone, is the
villain.
Omens
The seriousness with which Romans looked to
omens is evident throughout Julius Caesar;
however ominous warnings and negative omens
are often overlooked or misinterpreted. For
example, Caesar ignores the soothsayer's
warning to "beware the ides of March",
ignores Calpurnia's detailed dream of his death,
and ignores the negative omen of the sacrificial
animal who has no heart. After ignoring these
omens, Caesar dies.
In addition, after the festival of
Lupercalia, Casca sees many strange omens,
such as a man with a burning hand, a lion
roaming the streets, and an owl screeching
during the day time. Cicero, with whom Casca
confers regarding these matters, explains that
people with interpret omens as they see fit,
inventing their own explanations. True to form,
Casca interprets these strange omens as warnings
of Caesar's wish to rule all of Rome with an iron
hand, and to destroy the Republic.
23
Other omens that play important roles in the play
include the appearance of Caesar's ghost and
when eagles abandon Cassius' and Brutus' camp
and are replaced by vultures.
Idealism
Brutus wishes for an ideal world. He is happily
married, lives in a beautiful home, and is
successful according to all measures of Roman
living. However, Brutus wishes for perfection in
his life, and although he loves Caesar, Brutus
fears Caesar is too power hungry, and might
possibly destroy the Republic. Cassius
understands Brutus' idealism and takes advantage
of it in order to manipulate Brutus into joining
the conspiracy against Caesar. At heart, it is
Brutus' idealism that causes his ultimate
downfall. Antony recognizes this fact when
addressing Brutus' dead body at the conclusion
of the play, saying "This was the noblest Roman
of them all".
Identities, both Public and Private
In Julius Caesar, the audience is able to see both
the private and public sides of Caesar and
Brutus. Caesar is a powerful confident man who
leads great armies and effectively rules the
Roman empire, yet he is not without weakness.
He is highly superstitious, suffers from epilepsy,
and ultimately proves to be human when
murdered by his closest friends. Similarly,
Brutus is strong and refuses to show weakness
when in public, whether it be speaking to the
plebeians or leading an army into battle.
However, we see through his intimate
conversations with his wife Portia and with
Cassius, that Brutus is often unsure and greatly
pained. Specifically, after fleeing Rome, Brutus
learns that his wife has committed suicide, and is
heartbroken when discussing it with Cassius.
However, as soon as soldiers enter his tent, he
pretends to not know of her death, and when told
of it, does not react with great emotion.
Ambition and Conflict
Caesar is a great man, and an ambitious man. His
ambition is what worries Brutus, and ultimately
leads to Brutus joining the conspiracy to murder
Caesar. Cassius is also a very ambitious man,
and because he is so jealous of Caesar's power,
wishes to kill him to gain more power for
himself. Ultimately, the ambition of these two
men leads to their downfalls and to virtual
anarchy in the streets of Rome. Great ambition
leads to great conflict.

Power of Speech

Speech plays a very important role in the plot

developments of Julius Caesar. The plebeians are
easily swayed into greatly opposing viewpoints
through Brutus' and Antony's speeches. Antony's
great manipulation of the crowd causes anarchy
in the streets of Rome and creates the support for
a mission to avenge Caesar's death.

In addition, Brutus is hesitant at first to join the

conspiracy against Caesar, but after speaking
with the highly manipulative Cassius, Brutus is
more convinced. Then, after receiving an
anonymous letter (actually written by Cassius)
that decries the rule of Caesar, Brutus is
convinced he must take action and agrees to join
Cassius' murderous plot.

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