English For Students of Science PDF

English for Students of
Sciences
Mir Abdullah Miri
Editors:
Dr. Suzane Griffin

Lisa Rogner
Toufiq Sarwarzada
Author: Khalid Ahmad Siddiq
Editors: Dr. Suzane Griffin, Lisa Rogner, Toufiq Sarwarzada
Graphic designer: Hekmatullah Sarwarzada
Publisher: Herat University
Project made possible by a grant from the United States Embassy Kabul
First edition: 2013
Printed by: Silver Star Printing
Preface
Introduction to the Herat University English for Specific Purposes Textbooks
The Herat English for Specific Purposes (ESP) textbooks are the first series of
ESP textbooks produced for Afghan university students in Afghanistan. The Herat
ESP Project was initiated in 2012 by a request of Herat University Chancellor
Husseini Mir Ghulam Osman Barez Bariz Hosseini to the Public Affairs Section of
the United States Consulate in Herat. The first ESP textbooks were completed and
published under the leadership of Chancellor Dr. Abdul Zahir Mortasebzadeh. English
language instructors in two departments of Herat University - the English Language
and Literature Department and the English Language and Computer Learning Center
produced the textbooks under the guidance of Senior English Language Specialist
Dr. Suzanne M. Griffin, ESP Editor Mr. Toufiq, Sarwarzada and English Language
Fellow Lisa Roegner.
The project was initiated because Herat University English instructors and their
students had discovered that commercially available ESP textbooks were inadequate
to the needs of Afghan students in specific departments of the university. English
instructors began developing their skills as ESP materials writers in spring 2012,
through a series of workshops and individual mentoring sessions that focused on
developing lesson plans with sufficient detail to guide the classroom lessons for future
ESP instructors. The goal of their work was to help Herat University undergraduate
students successfully read the textbooks, journal articles and online resources written
in English in nine discipline areas: Computer Science, Economics, Engineering,
Humanities, Journalism, Medicine, Public Administration, Sciences and Sociology.
In autumn 2012 ten instructors combined their efforts and worked in teams to
develop their lessons into textbook materials while four instructors continued to
develop textbook materials individually. The instructors’ work was guided by a
leadership team that consisted of the department heads of the English Language and
Literature Department and the English Language Center, as well as the ESP Section
head and the ESP textbook editor in the English Language and Literature Department
and led by the American English Language Specialist. The English Department Head
of Herat Education University actively participated in the workshops and later joined
the leadership team. The project goal is to produce four books in each discipline area
by 2014.
The spring and autumn activities--workshops, consultant contracts for the English
Language Specialist and printing of the first textbooks--were supported by two grants
from English Language Programs Office in the Public Affairs Section of the United
States Embassy, Kabul. The second grant was administered by the United States
Consulate in Herat. The long range
English instructors who authored the ESP textbooks are:
English Language and Literature Department Instructors

Ms. Muzhgan Azizi—Humanities (for Dari and Arabic Literature Departments)
Mr. Toufiq Sarwarzada—Engineering (ESP Senior Editor)
Ms. Parigul Nabizdah—Computer Science
Mr. Khalid Ahmad Siddiq—Public Administration
Ms. Homaria Baher-Economics
Mr. Mir Abdullah Miri—Sciences
Mr. Wahab Shams—Sociology
Ms. Najlla Azar—Journalism
Ms. Kawita Sarwary—Journalism and Economics
Mr. Fawad Kakar—Medicine
Mr. Shagofah Noor—Sciences
Mr. Toufiq Sarwarzada—Engineering
Other ELLD ESP Project Participants:
Mr. A Rahmani Khosrawi—Engineering ESP instructor and workshop participant
Mr. Khamoosh Zia—ESP Section Head who observes ESP classes
English Language and Computer Learning Center Instructors:

Mr. Wahid Naqshbandi - Journalism
Mr. Asef Monsef - Public Administration
MS. Soraia Sadat - Medicine
Mr. Nasim Tahlsidar - Computer Science
REVISED ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are due to the following persons for support of the Herat University ESP
Project:
Chancellor Husseini Mir Ghulam Osman Barez Bariz Hosseini, Herat University (2009-
Oct. 2012)
Chancellor Dr. Abdul Zahir Mortasebzadeh (Oct. 2012- )
Stephen Hanchey, English Language Programs (ELP) Officer, Public Affairs Section
(PAS) United States (US) Embassy, Kabul
Professor M. Hanif Hamid—ELP Office, PAS, US Embassy Kabul
Mr. Bradford Hanson, US Consul, Herat (2011- Oct. 2012)
Ms. Lisa Roegner, English Language Fellow at Herat University and Herat Education
University—ESP Textbook Editor
Dr. Suzanne Griffin, Project Director, Senior English Language Specialist Consultant to
US Embassy, Kabul
Heads of the English Language and Literature Department:

Mr., Abdul Wahab Shams 2011- summer 2012
Ms. Muzhgan Azizi autumn 2012
Ms. Homaira Baher 2013
Professor Yarmond, English Department Head, Herat Education University

Mr. Najibullah Habibi, English Language Center Director, Herat University
Table of Contents Page
Unit 1. Introduction to Science 7

Unit 2. Heterogeneous Materials 11
Unit 3. Homogeneous Materials 16
Unit 4. How Cells Were Discovered 20
Unit 5. Basic Cell Structure 24
Unit 6. A Short History of Cells 28
Unit 7. Atoms are the Cell’s Smallest Components 32
Unit 8. Atoms Chemically React to Form Compounds 36
Unit 9. Ionic and Hydrogen Bonds 39
Unit 10. Water is a Major Component of Cells 43
Unit 11. Functions of Carbohydrates 48
Unit 12. Functions of Lipids 51
Unit 13. Cellular Activities 56
Unit 14. Nucleic Acids 60
Unit 15. Cell Structure under the Microscope 65
Unit 16. Light Microscopes 69
Unit 17. Electron Microscope 73
Unit 18. Transport of Materials through Cell Membranes 77
Unit 19. The Nucleus 82
Unit 20. Organelles of the Cell 84
1 Introduction to Science
Nicholas Rigg, Getty Images
Introduction to the Lesson
Mind Map
Discussion
1.What is ‘ science’ to you? Work in pairs and make notes, like this: When you are ready,
compare your answers with those of other students in your class. Do you all agree?
2. Now using your notes, write a paragraph about what science is. Add any points as
they come into your mind.
7
Example:
For me, science is the study of truth and the things based on facts and reasons.
Sometimes we deal with some ideas which are not true, then science will help us to find
out the facts and truth. It will also give us a lot of information about our surroundings,
people, animals and plants. It makes our life easier and safer. In future, I would love to
become a scientist and develop new ideas in science.
When you are ready, exchange your paragraph with your partner. Read the paragraph
carefully and if you have any questions, you can ask your partner.
Dictation
Listen to your teacher and write down what you hear. Do NOT add your own words.
Only write what you hear.
Reading
Pre- Reading
Go through the lesson and answer the following questions.
a) What is volcanology?
b) What group does the study of plants belong to?
c) Where does studying energy and forces fit?
d) How would you describe material science?
e) What is a good example of life science?
Reading
What is science?
Science is the search for truth and knowledge. It holds the key to understanding life, the
universe and almost everything. To make it easier to study, scientists divide science into
different areas.
Life science
How do living things survive and grow, where do they live, what do they eat, and how do
their bodies work? Life science seeks to answer such questions about the living world, from
8
microscopic bacteria to plants and animals –including you! The scientific study of plants is
called botany. Life science studies the living world around us.
From atoms to space

Scientists study a huge variety of things, from the tiniest atoms that make up everything
around us to the mysterious of space. Everything you see is made up of microscopic atoms.
Physical Science
This science looks at energy and forces. There are different types of energy, including light,
heat, and sound. Forces are the things that hold everything in place our world. Without the
force of gravity, for example, you would fly off into space. We have learned to send energy
to where it is needed.
Earth and space science

Earth is a dot in a vast universe filled with planets and moons, stars, and galaxies. As far
as we know, earth is special because it is the only place that supports life. Earth and space
science is the study of the structure of our planet—and everything that exists beyond it. The
scientific study of volcanoes is called volcanology.
Materials science
Our universe is filled with atoms and elements, molecules, mixtures, and compounds.
Materials science is the study of these things, how they behave, how we use them, and how
they react with one another. One branch of science studies how materials can change.
All about change

People always want to make, life better, and that is what puts us on the road to scientific
discovery. Whether it is inventing the wheel, or sending rockets into space, science drives
us onward, changing the world we live in. Pictures of Earth from space help scientists
understand Earth better.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary in Context
A. Circle the letter of the answer that best matches the meaning of the italicized
word as it is used in each of these sentences.
1. It holds the key to understanding life, the universe and almost everything.
a. Keeps
b. Gets
2. To make it easier to study, scientists divide science into different areas.

a.Parts
b. Locations
9
3. How do living things survive and grow?
a. Continue to live
b. Stay
4. Life science seeks to answer such questions about the living world, from microscopic
bacteria to plants and animals
a. Have
b. Searches
5. Scientists study a huge variety of things.

a. Types
b. Quality
B. Find words in the text that means the same as the words or expressions below.
a) Enormous
b) The cosmos
c) The force that attracts a body toward the center of the earth
d) The basic unit of a chemical element
e) An influence tending to change the motion of a body or produce motion or stress in
a stationary body
Discussion Points
1) What is life science? Is it important to study this field? Why?
2) What do we learn in Earth and Space Science?
3) Why are we always in the process of change?
4) Why is Earth important for scientists?
Unit 1 Introduction to Science 10

2 Heterogeneous Materials
Discussion
Read these questions and discuss your answers in small groups.
1. How are the things that are around you made in the universe?
2. Can we recognize all the components/materials of all the complex structures after
breaking them into pieces?
3. If we mix milk and oil, will they dissolve into each other? If yes, how? If no, why not?
Unit 2 Heterogeneous Materials 11

Vocabulary
Word Focus
A. Look at the list of technical terms in the box, match each word and term with a
definition in the opposite column. Write the letter of each sentence in front of the
word in the given column.
Words # Definition
A. A solid inorganic substance of natural
1. Minerals
occurrence.
B. An attribute, quality, or characteristic of
2. Feldspar
something
C. An abundant rock-forming mineral typically
occurring as colorless or pale-colored crystals
3. Uniform
and consisting of aluminosilicates of potassium,
sodium, and calcium.
4. Suspended D. A small round particle of a substance; a drop
5. Globules E. Remaining the same in all cases and at all times
6. Properties F. Be dispersed throughout the bulk of a fluid
B. Match the words from column A with their antonyms column B according to their
antonyms: Write the letter of each word in front of the word in the given column.
Column A # Column B
Remove Same
Crush Add
Different Construct
Necessary Drop
Pick Useless
Dictation

Activity
Choose the best word to fill each gap from the alternatives given below. Put a circle around
the letter (A, B or C) of the word you choose.
It is very common to see substances changing from one (1) ………….. of matter
to another by the form of physical changes (i.e. heat), but water is the only one
which can be found in all three stages: (2)………….. (water), solid (ice), and gas
(steam). Due to water's unique (3)………….., it is used to study and describe the
three different states of matter. In order to differentiate the state of matter, at
least at a particle level, we must look at the behavior of the (4)………….. within
the substance. Before we look at the states of (5)………….., we must know some
background of the classification of matter.
1 A: state B: way C: steam

2 A: firm B: liquid C: air like
3 A: ability B: complexity C: state
4 A: liquid B: particles C: gas
5 A: earth B: universe C: matter
Reading
Activity
Scan the text below and complete these sentences:
1. Sometimes it is necessary to use a ……………. to distinguish between these different

materials.
2. Milk appears to be ………………
3. Ice and water are different …………….. of the same material.
4. Fat globules can be …………….. by cream separator.
Reading
Most of the things we see around us contain two or more different materials.
Sometimes it is necessary to use a microscope to distinguish between these different
materials. Wood, granite, concrete, and milk are examples. If we look closely at granite,
we can see at least three minerals. These minerals are quartz, biotite, and feldspar. If a
piece of granite is crushed into sand-sized particles, it is possible to pick out the quartz,
biotite, or feldspar. Milk appears to be uniform. Under a microscope, however, we can see
particles suspended in water. Milk is not uniform. Such non-uniform materials are called
heterogeneous (het uh roh jee nee uhs) materials. One type of material can be separated
from the other material in milk. Fat globules can be removed by cream separator.
Heterogeneous materials contain more than one phase. A phase is physically separate
part of a material having a uniform set of properties. A heterogeneous material is not
uniform throughout.
Any physically separate part of a material is called a phase. A phase is any region with
a uniform set of properties. We can distinguish between different phases of the same
material. For example, ice and water are different phases of the same material. All the
material in the water region has the same set of properties. Likewise, all the material in
the ice region has the same set of properties. Ice and water are different states (solid and
liquid) of the same material.
We may now define a heterogeneous material as one that is composed of more than
phase. The different phases in a heterogeneous material are separated from each other
by definite boundaries called interfaces. In the two-phase system of ice and water, the
surface of the ice and water are the interfaces.
Activity
Go through the passage and define the following terms. (Write the definition of each
term in your own words.)
Phase:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
Heterogeneous material:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
Interface:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
Spelling Check
Select the letter for the correctly spelled word.
1) A (a) phaes, (b) phase, (c) phas is any region with a uniform set of properties. …………
2) (a)Heterogeneous, (b) Hetrogenous, (c) Heterogenus materials contain more than
one phase. …………
3) We may now (a) difene (b) define (c) difine a heterogeneous material as one that is
composed of more than one phase.. …………
4) Milk (a) appirs, (b) apears, (c) appears to be uniform. …………
5) If we look closely at (a) geranite, (b) garanite, (c) granite, we can see at least three
minerals. …………

Activity
As the teacher is demonstrating and explaining the process, describe the process of
making or breaking a material into its heterogeneous elements.

3 Homogeneous Materials
Discussion
1. What is the importance of the homogeneous materials in our daily lives?
2. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous materials?
3. Can we separate the constituents of a homogeneous material?
Unit 3 Homogeneous Materials 16

Vocabulary
Activity
Fill in the blanks with the words given below as the teacher reads the passage:
Grams Materials Mixtures Classified Phase Kind Material

Homogeneous ……………, or solutions, have variable compositions. For example, we may
add 5, 10, or 15 ………..of salt to 100 grams of water. In each case, the resulting ……………
is homogeneous. A solution may also be defined as a single ………… which can vary in
composition. Some homogeneous matter can be ………………. as mixtures. A mixture
contains more than one …………..of material. Heterogeneous matter is always composed
of more than one phase and is always a …………… .
Word Focus
In this unit, you will learn these new words:
Word Definition
Particles a very small piece of something
Composition the different parts that something is made of
Uniform the same in all parts and at all times
Volume the amount of space that an object or substance fills
Pure not mixed
Scatter to throw or drop tings in different directions
Reading
Reading
Homogeneous Materials
Material which consists of only one phase are called homogeneous (hoh moh jee nee
uhs) materials. Since they are homogeneous, there must be a uniform distribution of the
particles within the material. If you break a piece of homogeneous matter into smaller
pieces, each piece will have the same properties as every other small piece. If you look
at one of the pieces under a microscope,
it is impossible to distinguish one part as
being a different material from any other
part. Examples of homogeneous materials
are sugar, salt, seawater, quartz, and window
glass.
Some homogeneous matter can be

classified as mixtures. A mixture contains more
than one kind of material. Heterogeneous
matter is always composed of more than one phase and is always a mixture. Heterogeneous
matter composed of more than one material is called a solution.
Solution such as seawater, window glass, and gold-silver alloys vary in composition from
sample to sample. If we put a small amount of pure salt into pure water and let it stand, we
get a solution, or homogeneous mixture. If we add a large amount of pure salt to the same
amount of pure water, we again get a solution. The composition of the second sample
would differ from the first. The second sample contains more salt in an equal volume of
water. Homogeneous mixtures, or solutions, have
variable compositions. For example, we may add 5, 10,
or 15 grams of salt to 100 grams of water. In each case,
the resulting material is homogeneous. A solution may
also be defined as a single phase which can vary in
composition. Solutions are not necessarily liquid. Air is a
homogeneous material composed of nitrogen, oxygen,
and smaller quantities of other gases. Its composition
varies from place to place. However, each sample of air
is a homogeneous mixture. Different types of window
glass have different compositions, yet each type is
homogeneous. Both air and glass are solutions.
A solution consists of a solute (dissolved material)
in a solvent (dissolving material). In the case of two
liquids in solution, the solvent is the component which
is the larger proportion of the whole solution. The solute is scattered in the solvent in very
small particles (molecular or smaller). Because of this scattering, the solutions uniform,
even under the most powerful optical microscope. Since the scattering of particles appears
to be completely uniform, solutions are classified as homogeneous materials.
If your laboratory work, you will be using solutions labeled with a number followed by
the letter “M.” the symbol represents the term molarity. Molarity is used to indicate the
amount of solute in a specific amount of solution. A 6M (six molar) solution contains 60
times as much solute as a 0.1M (tenth molar) solution of the same volume.
True or False
a) Each broken piece of homogeneous material will have the same ..............
properties as every other small piece.
b) Air is a heterogeneous material composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and ..............
smaller quantities of other gases.
c) Heterogeneous matter is always composed of more than one phase ..............
and is always a mixture.
d) Materials which consist of more than one phase are called ..............
homogeneous materials.
e) The solute is scattered in the solvent in very small particles. ..............

Oral Questions:
1) Name the constituents of solution.
2) Are all the solutions in liquid form?
3) What is the difference between solute and solvent?
4) What is the symbol of molarity?
5) Define solution in your own words.
Activity
Write HT for heterogeneous mixture and write HM for homogeneous mixtures:
a) A piece of lumber …………
b) A glass of soda pop …………
c) Shaving cream …………
d) Seawater ………...
e) Air ………….
Activity
Match the terms with their definitions:
Look at the list of technical terms in the box. Match each word and term with a
Words # Definition
1. Mixture a. amount of solute in a specific amount of solution
2. Solvent b. dissolved material
3. Homogeneous c. contains more than one kind of material
4. Solute d. dissolving material
5. Molarity e. material consist of only one phase
Activity
Write a paragraph about the importance of homogeneous mixtures in our daily life:
For example:
Homogeneous mixtures are very important in our life; we are always surrounded by
homogeneous mixtures. All the essential and necessary things in our life are homogeneous
for example air is a homogeneous mixture of gases. Furthermore, water, our blood
plasma, seawater, rain water, even natural products like milk and honey are examples of
colloidal solutions.

4 How Cells Were Discovered
En.Wikipedia.org
Discussion
The teacher will demonstrate how your view of something will change when you are
changing the distance. Follow the directions, and then share your ideas with your
classmates.
Unit 4 How Cells Were Discovered 20

Vocabulary
Word Focus
A. Have a quick look at the passage and underline the words that are new for you. Now
work in pairs and try to guess the meaning of the words.
B. Look at the list of technical terms in the box. Match each word and term with a
definition in the opposite column. Write the letter of each sentence in front of the word
in the given column.
Words # Definition
1. Cell G. Marvelous
H. An individual animal, plant, or single-celled life
2. Typical
form.
I. Having the distinctive qualities of a particular type
3. Microscope
of person or thing.
J. The smallest structural and functional unit of an
4. Sand
organism, typically microscopic.
K. The main body or stalk of a plant or shrub, typically
5. Stem
rising above ground but occasionally subterranean.
M. Rock material that has been eroded (gradually
6. Organism
destroyed) into tiny grains.
Listen to your teacher read the passage, and number the sentences (1-7) in the order
you hear. After numbering, share your answers with your partner.
a. All living things are made of one or more cells. ....................

b. A typical human body cell is many times smaller than a grain of sand! ....................
c. In organisms, cells are the basic units of structure and function. ....................
d. Robert Hooke used one of the first microscopes to observe a thin slice of cork. ..................
e. Robert Hooke named the little boxes “ cells”. ....................
f. In 1838, the German botanist Matthias Schleiden concluded that cell compose not only
the stems and roots but also every part of a plant. ....................
g. In 1858, a German Scientist observed that cells come only from other cells. .................
Reading
Activity
Look at the above sentences. Which ones do you think are the main ideas? Why? Share
your ideas with the class.
Most cells are too small to see with the naked eye. A typical human body cell is many
times smaller than a grain of sand! Scientists became aware of cells only after microscopes
were invented in the 1600s. When the English scientist Robert Hooke used one of the first
microscopes to observe a thin slice of cork in 1665, he saw a lot of little boxes. These little
boxes reminded him of the small rooms in which monks live, so he called them cells. Later,
Hooke observed the same pattern in the stems and roots of carrots and other plants. What
Hooke still did not know, however, was that cells are the basic unit of living things.
Ten years later, the Dutch scientist Anton Van Leeuwenhoek focused a microscope on
what seemed to be clear pond water and discovered a wondrous world of living creatures!
He named them “animalcules, “ or tiny animals. Today we know that they were not animals,
but single-celled protists, among the most diverse of all living things.
It was the English scientist Robert Hooke who first coined the term cell. Hooke used a
simple microscope to view a slice of cork. The “ little boxes” that he saw reminded him of
the monastery cells that served as individual living quarters for monks, and a new biological
term arose as a result. Although Hooke did not know it, all living things are made of one or
more cells.
Formation of the Cell Theory

It took scientists more than 150 years to fully appreciate the discoveries of Hooke
and Leeuwenhoek. In 1838, the German botanist Matthias Schleiden concluded that cell
compose not only the stems and roots but also every part of a plant. A year later, the
German zoologist Theodor Schwann made the same claim about animals. And in 1858, a
German physician, Rudolph Virchow, observed that cells come only from other cell. The
observations of Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow form what is known today as the cell
theory. The cell theory is usually stated in three parts:
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.

2. In organisms, cells are the basic units of structure and function.
3. Cells are produced only from existing cells.
Vocabulary in context
Circle the letter of the answer that best matches the meaning of the italicized word as it
is used in each of these sentences.
a. Scientists became aware of cells only after microscopes were invented.

i. Merely
ii. Finally
b. Hooke observed the same pattern in the stems and roots of carrots and other plants.
i. Model or design
ii. Weight and size
c. It was the English scientist Robert Hooke who first coined the term “cell”.
i. Invented
ii. Discovered
d. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
i. Made of
ii. Form of
Activity
Write the answers to these questions in your own words.
a. What are the parts of a cell theory? ………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………..……………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..…………
………………………....................................................................................................................
b. What did Robert Hooke use one of the first microscopes for? ……………………………………
………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………..……………………
………………………………..……………………………………………………………………..………………………………
………………………..…………………………………..............................................................................
c. What is a “cell” and who discovered it? ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..………………………………………………………………………………….........…………….
……..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………….............................................
Activity
Pretend you are going to teach someone what a cell is and how it was discovered. How
will you explain it? Write your explanation in the given space below.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………
……………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………..................

5 Basic Cell Structure
Figure 1.1
Discussion
Look at the pictures. Based on what you studied last session about cells, discuss these
questions:
1. What is the importance of cells?

2. Are all the cells of all living things the same?
3. What do you find most interesting or surprising about figure 1.2?
Unit 5 Basic Cell Structure 24
Reading
Activity
Basic cell structure
Cells come in many shapes
and sizes. Although typical cells
range from 5 to 50 micrometers in
diameters, the tiniest bacteria are
only 0.2 micrometers across. These
bacteria are so small that they are
difficult to see, even with the aid of
the most powerful light microscope.
In contrast, the giant amoeba, Chaos
chaos, may reach 1000 micrometers
in diameter-large enough to be seen
without a microscope.
Despite differences in cell size

and shape, certain structures
are common to most cells. All
cells have a cell membrane and
cytoplasm. The cell membrane
is a thin, flexible barrier around
the cell. Many cells also have
a strong layer around the cell
membrane known as a cell wall.
Cell walls and cell membranes
support and protect cells, while
allowing them to interact with
their surroundings.
Some cells also have a nucleus (plural: nuclei), a large structure that contains the
cell’s activities. The material inside the cell membrane- but not including the nucleus- is
called the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains many important structures.
Activity
Choose the best answer:
1) Cells come in ………………………………… .

a. human genes
b. many shapes and sizes
c. all colors
d. a & c
2) Many cells also have a ……………..around the cell membrane known as a cell wall.
a. strong layer
b. thick liquid
c. weak layer
d. cytoplasm
3) All cells have a ………………… .

a. power source
b. cell membrane and cytoplasm
c. similar shape and size
d. a & b
4) The ……………contains many important structures.

a. nucleus
b. cytoplasm
c. amoeba
d. membrane
5) The cell membrane is a ………………………around the cell.

a. liquid
b. leather cover
c. thick wall
d. thin, flexible barrier
Vocabulary
Activity
Match these words with their antonyms.
Words # Antonyms
1. Abandon a. Contrast
2. Order b. Support
3. Similarity c. Powerful
4. Weak d. Common
5. Private e. Chaos
Activity
In groups, draw a picture of an animal cell and specify its:
a) Cell membrane/ cell wall
b) Cytoplasm
c) Nucleus
Listen to your teacher read the text and check the words you hear.
…… Chaos ….. Structure ….. Technology …...membrane
.… Homogeneous ….. Micrometers ….. Size ….. Cytoplasm

Scan the table and write the answers of the following questions:
No. Date Name Discovery
1 1838 Matthias Schleiden All cells are made up of cells
2 1839 Theodor Schwann All animals are made up of cells
3 1855 Rudolph Virchow All cells come from existing cells
Cell membrane is a physical
4 1931 Janet Plowe structure, not an interface between
two liquids
Certain organelles, tiny structures
5 1970 Lynn Margulis within some cells, were once free-
living cells themselves
1) Who discovered that all cells come from existing cells?
……………………………………………………………………………………….......................................
2) What did Lynn Margulis discover in 1970?
……………………………………………………………………………………….......................................
……………………………………………………………………………………….......................................
3) When did Janet Plowe discover that cell membrane is a physical structure?
……………………………………………………………………………………….......................................
4) What happened in 1838?
……………………………………………………………………………………….......................................
5) Who discovered that all animals are made up of cells and when was that discovery
made?
……………………………………………………………………………………….......................................

6 A Short History of Cells
Discussion
A. Where does a fossil come from?
B. What is it made of?
C. What does the fossil record tell you about evolution?
D. Do the fossils demonstrate the progression from simple structure (cell) to complex
organism?
E. Where were fossils found in Afghanistan?
Unit 6 A Short History of Cells 28

Grammar Points
Looking more closely at the preceding group of words, we can see that some affixes have
to be added to the beginning of the word (e.g. un-). These are called prefixes. Other affixes
have to be added to the end of the word (e.g. -ish) and are called suffixes. All English words
formed by this derivational process have either prefixes or suffixes, or both. Thus, mislead
has a prefix, disrespectful has both a prefix and a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes.
Reference: Yule, The Study of Language, 58.
Prefixes bring changes into the meanings of the words. For example: un+ happy= unhappy. It
changes the meaning and makes it negative.
Identify the prefixes used in these words:

Words Prefix Meaning of the prefix
Cyanobacteria
Prokaryotic
Enclosed
Eukaryotes
Engulf
Independently
Multicellular
Unicellular
Listening Activity
A. Listen to your teacher read the text and check the words you hear. (Adapted from
David Nunan, Listen in 3)
 karyote  spread  pro-

 eukaryotic  ancestor  aggregated
 Greece  trespassers  million
B. Listen again. Note the information or definition you hear for each word.
a. ..............................................................................................................................
b. ..............................................................................................................................
c. ..............................................................................................................................
d. ..............................................................................................................................
e. ..............................................................................................................................
f. ...............................................................................................................................
Reading
Activity
Skim the passage and check your answers.

A Short History of Cells
The oldest fossils we have of cells are tiny cyanobacteria. These prokaryotic cells lived
at least 3.5 billion years ago. Prokaryotes are single-called organisms that lack internal
membrane-bound compartments. The term prokaryote is from the Greek pro, meaning
“before,” and karyote, meaning “ kernel.” Early cells were simple and small (1-2µm in
diameter). Like their fossil ancestors, modern prokaryotes are very small (1-15 µm) and do
not have internal compartments. Without separate compartments that isolate materials,
cells cannot carry out many specialized functions. In prokaryotes, the genetic material is
a single, circular molecule that is not enclosed in a membrane-bound compartment. For
nearly 2 billion years, half of the age of the Earth, prokaryotes were the only organisms that
existed.
The first Cells with Internal Compartments were Eukaryotes

The first cells with internal compartments evolved about 1.5 billion years ago. Much larger
than any bacteria, these cells range from 2 to 1,000 µm in size. Such cells are eukaryotic. The
term eukaryotic comes from the Greek words eu, meaning “true,” and karyote, meaning
“kernel” or “nucleus.” Eukaryotes have a nucleus, a membrane-bound compartment that
houses the cell’s DNA. Eukaryotes possess other small, specific membrane-bound internal
compartments called organelles that carry out specific functions. Such organization allows
eukaryotic cells to function in more complex ways than do prokaryotic cells.
How Eukaryotes Evolved

Most biologists who study eukaryotic cell structure think that eukaryotes evolved from
prokaryotes. Many of them organelles of eukaryotes resemble bacteria, perhaps engulfed
long ago by much larger cells. Scientists hypothesize that bacterial “trespassers” remained
inside these cells, gradually losing their ability to live independently. These invading bacteria
became organelles, and eukaryotic cells were the result. The fact that some organelles have
their own distinctive DNA provides additional evidence for this hypothesis. All living cells are
not bacteria are eukaryotes. Your cells are eukaryotic, as are tree cells and elephant cells.
The “animalcules” seen by van Leeuwenhoek also were eukaryotic.
Multicellularity
Early eukaryotes were single-celled, but eventually many of them became aggregated
(clustered) into multicellular organisms. Multicellular organisms are those that are composed
of more than one cell. Being multicellular was a great evolutionary advance because it
enabled particular cells to specialize in certain activities. For example, nerve cells are highly
specialized cells that conduct messages in the form of nerve impulses from one part of the
body to another. You are a multicellular individual. Your body is composed of trillions of
cells whose specialized activities are coordinated with one another. Not all eukaryotes are
multicellular. In fact, if you were to survey all living organisms on Earth today, you would find
that most living eukaryotes are unicellular protists, single-celled organisms. Whether single-
celled or multicellular, the cells of all eukaryotes are similar in design, more similar to each
other than to the prokaryotes.
Comprehension Questions
Write the answers to these questions in the space below.
A. Which cells don’t have nucleus and which ones have a nucleus?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………...………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..................
B. Give two differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………...………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...................
C. What does “multicellularity” mean? Explain.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………...………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...................
Writing
Based on the information in the reading passage, compare and contrast prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells in one paragraph. In your paragraph, try to give real life examples of both
cells.

Atoms are the Cell’s Smallest
7 Components
Discussion
Discuss these questions with a partner.
1) What are we made of?

2) What is the smallest particle in our body?
Listen to the song on this music video and check the words you hear:
…….proton ……cells ……..electron ……DNA

……nucleus ……homogeneous …….materials ……atoms
Unit 7 Atoms are the Cell’s Smallest Components 32

Activity
Scan the following text and complete these sentences:
1. All living and nonliving things are composed of ………….

2. Electrons carry a ……………. charge and protons a ………….. charge.
3. ……………. is represented by C.
4. ………..… is the ability to do work.
5. Electrons close to the …………..are at low energy level.
Vocabulary
Match the elements with their symbols:
Elements # Symbols
1. Hydrogen a. C
2. Oxygen b. H
3. Carbon c. Na
4. Chlorine d. O
5. Sodium e. Cl
Reading
Activity
Atoms are the cell’s smallest components
All living and nonliving things are composed of atoms. Every atom consists of a cloud of
tiny particles called electrons that spin in undefined path around a small, very dense core
called a nucleus. The nucleus is a cluster of two kinds of particles, protons and neutrons. To
understand atoms you must remember that electrons carry a negative charge and protons
a positive charge (neutrons are not charged). It is the attraction between positive and
negative charges that keeps the electrons spinning about the nucleus.
Kinds of atoms:
When the atoms in a sample of matter are all alike, the sample represents an element.
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by ordinary
chemical means. There are currently more than 100 known elements. Each is denoted with
a one-, two-, or three-letter symbol. For example, carbon is represented by C, oxygen by O,
and hydrogen by H.
Atoms as a whole have no electrical charge. Some atoms can react with other atoms to
form particles with unequal members of electrons and protons. These kinds of atoms are
called ions.
Atoms have energy:

Energy is the ability to do work. Electrons in atoms have energy; it takes energy to keep
a negative electron from crashing into the positive nucleus of an atom.
Electrons are organized outside the nucleus by the amount of energy they possess.
Electrons close to the nucleus are at low energy level. Electrons farther from the nucleus are
at higher energy levels. Because an electron is so small and moves so fast, we do not know
its energy or position in space with a high degree of certainty. The locations of electron,
therefore, are described in terms of probability. It was once thought that electrons orbited
the nucleus like the planets orbit the sun. We now know that this model for the atoms is
inaccurate.
Activity
Read the statements carefully and choose the best answer:
1. Electrons ……………………
a. spin in undefined path around nucleus.
b. have a positive charge.
c. are very small.
d. a and c are correct.
2. An element is a substance that……………

a. has a negative charge.
b. can be broken down to any substance with special chemical means.
c. does not have energy.
d. moves very fast.
3. Atoms…………….
a. orbit around the nucleus.
b. are very low in energy.
c. have no electrical charge.
d. a and b
4. It is the attraction between positive and negative charges that keeps the
electrons………………
a. positively charged.
b. spin around the nucleus.
c. moving in fixed circles.
d. in small size.
5. Nucleus…………………..
a. has a negative charge.
b. is a cluster of proton and neutron.
c. is not heavier than electrons.
d. a is correct

Activity
Scan the passage and write the definitions of these terms:
1) Energy:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2) Nucleus:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3) Element:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4) Ions:
……………………………………………………………………………………………….....
Writing
Now watch the music video again and in groups write the summary of what you hear.

8 Atoms Chemically React
to Form Compounds
Discussion
Discuss these questions with a partner.
1)What happens when you add milk into a glass of pure water?
2)What happens when you add baking soda into a cup of vinegar?
Based on the information from the previous lesson, write the charge and symbols of
these elements:
a. Hydrogen ………..
b. Carbon ………..
c. Chlorine ………..
d. Copper ………..
e. Helium ……….
Unit 8 Atoms Chemically React to Form Compounds 36
Reading
Activity
Atoms chemically react to form compounds
A compound is a group of atoms held together by chemical bonds. Compounds are
represented by chemical formulas like NaCl (sodium chloride, or table salt) and H2O
(water). The formula identifies the elements in the compound as well as their proportions.
The force that links the atoms of compounds is called a chemical bond. There are three
kinds of bonds that are important to biological system: covalent bonds, ionic bonds, and
hydrogen bonds.
Covalent bonds:
Covalent bonds form when two atoms share electrons. Covalent bonds are the strong
links that hold together the atoms of most of the compounds in your body. The chemistry
of living cells is based on the element carbon, which accounts for more than one-half the
dry weight of cells. The ability of carbon atoms to form very stable carbon-carbon bonds
by bonding covalently is of great significance in biology. A carbon atom has four outer
electrons and can form four covalent bonds with another carbon atom or with different
kind of atoms. A group of atoms held together by covalent bonds is called a molecule.
Stable atoms have filled outer energy levels. All atoms in living things (except hydrogen
and helium) have outer levels that hold eight electrons.
Activity
Match the words with their definitions:
Words # Definitions
a. the force of attraction between a positive and
1. Molecule
negative ion
2. Compound b. group of atoms held together by covalent bonds
3. Covalent bond c. form when two atoms share electrons
4. Ionic bond d. group of atoms held together by chemical bonds
Activity
Write T for true statements and F for false statements:
I. ……….. Covalent bonds form when several atoms share electrons.

II. ……….. Hydrogen bonds play a key role in living systems.
III. ……….. The positive end of one polar molecule is attracted to the positive end of
another.
IV. ……….. A carbon atom has four outer electrons and can form four covalent bonds
with another carbon atom or with different kind of atoms.
V. ………… The force that links the atoms of compounds is called a chemical bond.

Activity
Answer the following questions briefly:
1. How many kinds of bonds do we have? Just name them.
2. What is “Covalent bond”? Explain.
3. Which bonding holds atoms together in a biological molecule?
4. Why should you study chemical bonding?
Activity
If you were a chemical, would you want to be ionic or covalent? Explain why.
Writing
Dictation

9 Ionic and Hydrogen
Bonds
Discussion
After you observe the demonstration of magnets and metal objects, work in small
groups and discuss these questions. Compare your answers as a class.
1. How are magnets made?

2. What are magnetic poles?
3. Can a particular pole be identified? How?
4. How can you tell which is the North Pole if it is not marked?
Unit 9 Ionic and Hydrogen Bonds 39
Vocabulary
Activity
Look at the list of technical terms in the box, match each word and term with a
Words # Definitions
1. Ionic N. having electrical or magnetic polarity.
2. Opposite O. of, relating to, or using ions.
P. the positively charged central core of an atom,
3. Attraction
containing most of its mass.
Q. having a position on the other or further side of
4. Surrounding
something.
R. a group of atoms bonded together,
representing the smallest fundamental unit of
5. Essential
a chemical compound that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
S. a force under the influence of which objects
6. Molecules
tend to move toward each other.
7. Nuclei T. all around a particular place or thing.
8. Polar U. absolutely necessary; extremely important.
Listening
Focus on the Listening

Identifying Technical Language
Listening Skill
It is useful to identify and define technical language to help you understand

a report or a lecture. You can then use the technical language in your
summaries and discussion.
Listen to your teacher read the lesson, and write down any technical terms you hear.
Then, compare your list of words with a partner. Can you work out the meaning of the
words? (Reference: Duncan & Parker, Open Forum, 96)

Reading
Activity
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds form between two atoms of
opposite charge. An actual exchange of
an electron occurs to form the ions that
form the ionic bond. The force of attraction
between a positive and negative ion is an
ionic bond. For example, sodium atoms
become positively charged ions (Na+) by
losing their electrons to chlorine atoms
to form chloride ions (Cl -). Each chlorine
ion has an extra electron that attracts it
electrically to surrounding sodium ions
of opposite charge. Substances that form
ionic bonds break apart when placed in
water, producing free ions. Many such
ions perform essential roles in biological
activities. Sodium, for example, is essential for the functioning of nerve cells.
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds, which are weak bonds of a very special sort, play a key role in living
systems. They differ from ionic and covalent bonds in that they link molecules together
rather than atoms. Oxygen forms covalent bonds with two hydrogen atoms. The shared
electrons in water are more strongly attracted by the oxygen nucleus than by the hydrogen
nuclei. Water molecules act like a molecular magnet, with positive and negative ends, or
‘poles.’ Molecules that have unequal areas of charge, like water, are polar molecules. A
hydrogen bond is a weak chemical bond that forms between two polar molecules. The
positive end of one polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. Hydrogen
bonds are weak so they don’t form if they are long distances between molecules. In
addition, hydrogen bonds play critical roles in determining the shapes of many important
biological molecules, such as DNA and proteins.
Activity
Skim the passage and answer the following questions in your own words. Write the
answers in the space below.
1. What are ionic bonds?
2. Which chemical element is essential for the function of nerve cells?

3. What do hydrogen bonds do?
4. How do hydrogen bonds differ from ionic bonds?
Writing
Focus on Writing Skills

Key Phrases to Introduce Important Facts
Writing Skill
Speakers often use key phrases to introduce important details and to
establish certain points as facts. Pay attention to what follows these key
phrases because it is probably important information. (Reference: Duncan &
Parker, Open Forum, 96)
Based on the information in the lesson, try to make correct sentences with the
following phrases:
In fact …
It is widely accepted that …
It is widely known that …
Experts/ scientists/ reports/ claim that …

10 Water is a Major
Component of Cells
Discussion
Work in small groups and discuss these questions.
Compare your answers as a class.
1. What percentage of your body is water?

2. How much water does an adult drink in a day?
3. How important is drinking water for our health?
Unit 10 Water is a Major Component of Cells 43

Vocabulary
Activity
Look at the list of technical terms in the box, match each word and term with a
Words # Definitions
V. the tendency of a liquid in a capillary tube or
1. Component absorbent material to rise or fall as a result of
surface tension.
W. the sticking together of particles of different
2. Abundance
substances.
3. Environment X. adhere or stick firmly or closely to
Y. the surroundings or conditions in which a person,
4. Cling
animal, or plant lives or operates.
5. Adhere Z. a very large quantity of something
6. Capillary AA. each of two or more forces
Listening
Activity
Focus on Listening: Listening for Main Ideas
Listening Skill
When you listen to a program or any other kind of presentation, don’t
expect to grasp every piece of information the first time you listen. Instead,
whenever possible, use the first listen to get the gist or main ideas.
(Reference: Duncan & Parker, Open Forum, 24)
Listen to your teacher read the lesson and write down the main ideas of the lesson. Then,
share your answers as a class.

Activity
Here are some comments from language learners describing the ways they identify
main ideas. Add a comment of your own and then discuss the comments with a
partner. (Reference: Duncan & Parker, Open Forum, 24)
1. I find the main idea is often the first point in a paragraph.

2. Main ideas are stated in broad terms and then followed by details or examples.
3. Often, main ideas are repeated more than once.
4. Your comment:
Reading
Activity
Water As a Major Component of Cells
When life on earth was beginning between 3 and 4 billion years ago, water provided
a medium in which other molecules could interact. Life as we know it could not have
evolved without these interactions. Today, three-fourths of Earth’s surface is covered by
water. Every cell in your body contains water; in most cells there is an abundance of it.
About two-thirds of the molecules in your body are water molecules.
Water Stores Heat

Water heats more slowly than most other substances. It also retains its temperature
longer than other substances when its surrounding environment cools- it stores heat
well. Many organisms dispose of excess heat through water evaporation. For example,
humans cool down by sweating.
Water Clings to Itself and Other Molecules

Water molecules readily form hydrogen bonds with one another, so water clings to
itself in an attraction called cohesion. It is because of cohesion that water is a liquid and
not a gas at room temperature. Hydrogen bonds link many individual water molecules
together at the water’s surface, like a crowd of people like by holding hands. Surface
tension forms across the surface of water because of the cohesive attraction between
individual water molecules.
The attraction of water to a substance other than water is called adhesion. Water
adheres to any substance that is can form hydrogen bonds with. That is why some things
get ‘wet’ and others, such as waxy substances that are composed of nonpolar molecules,
do not. The adhesion of water to substances with surface charges causes capillary action.
Capillary action and cohesion are responsible for the upward movement of water.

Water ionizes
When the covalent bonds of water break, a hydrogen ion (H+) and a hydroxide ion
(OH-) are produced.
H2O  H+ + OH-
This ionization process goes on continuously in water. As a result, pure water always
has a low concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions; regularly 1 out of every 550
million water molecules exists as ions at any instant.
Activity
Skim the passage and asnwer the following questions in your own words. Write the
answers in the space below.
1. What are the characteristics of water in contrast to other substances?
2. What is adhesion?
3. What will happen if we break the bonds of water into different parts?
Writing
Focus on Writing Skills

Using Paraphrases to Work Out Meaning
Writing Skill
Paraphrasing means saying something again in different, often simpler
words. Use paraphrasing to help yourself understand a complex sentence
you have heard, or to identify the parts of a sentence that you do not
understand. To paraphrase, break the sentence into parts. Using synonyms,
rephrase the parts with simpler language. Then, put the sentence back
together. Reference: Duncan & Parker, Open Forum, 76
• Read the extract from the lesson. Pay attention to the words in the italics. Then,
answer the questions.

Water heats more slowly than most other substances. It also retains
its temperature longer than other substances when its surrounding
environment cools- it stores heat well. Many organisms dispose of
excess heat through water evaporation. For example, humans cool
down by sweating.
1. What does retain mean?
2. What does dispose mean?
Now use your answers and paraphrase the above paragraph here:

11 Functions of Carbohydrates
figure 1.1 biology.clc.uc.edu
Discussion
In groups, discuss the following questions:
1. Why do we need to eat food?

2. From where does our body obtain its energy? What foods provide energy for our body?
3. Which structure is shown in figure 1.1?
Unit 11 Functions of Carbohydrates 48

Activity
Scan the passage and fill in the blanks with correct words.
Polysaccharides are ………………..that are made by linking individual sugars together

to form long chains. Organisms store the energy contained in ………… like glucose by
converting ………… into an……………. form for future use. Starch, a common ………… form
of glucose, is composed of long chains made of hundreds of glucose molecules. When
your body digests starch, the long starch chains are broken into short …………... Your body
then stores the glucose-containing fragments in longer ………………called glycogen.
Dictation
Reading
Activity
Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in
the proportion of 1:2:1. A general formula
for the carbohydrate class of compounds
is (CH2O)n, where n is the number of
carbon atoms. The sugar glucose is a small
carbohydrate; its n equals to 6. Its chemical
formula is C6H12O6.
Carbohydrates like glucose play a key role in the storing and transporting of energy
in your body. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that are made by linking individual
sugars together to form long chains. Organisms store the energy contained in sugars
like glucose by converting glucose into an insoluble form for future use. Starch, a
common storage form of glucose, is composed of long chains made of hundreds of
glucose molecules. When your body digests starch, the long starch chains are broken
into short fragments. Your body then stores the glucose-containing fragments in longer
chains called glycogen.
Many organisms use polysaccharides as structural material. In plants, for example,

glucose molecules are joined together in long chains forming cellulose. Cellulose, a
major component of the cell wall of the plants, provides structural support for plants.
Though they have similar components, cellulose and glycogen have different structural
formulas. Your body is not able to break the links joining the glucose subunits in
cellulose chains, so you cannot obtain energy from eating grass.
Activity
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the general formula for carbohydrate class?

………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................
2. How glucose molecules are joined in plants?
………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................
3. What is the role of carbohydrates in our body?
………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................
4. What is the difference between cellulose and glycogen?
………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................
5. What is the job of organisms in cells?
………………………………………………………………………………………………...............................
Activity
Draw the chemical structure of sugar glucose, its chemical formula is C6H12O6.
Activity
Put a T for true statements and F for false statements. Discuss your answers.
1) Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that are made by linking individual ..............
sugars together to form long chains.
2) When our body digests starch, the short starch chains are composed into ..............
onger fragments.
..............
3) Carbohydrates like glucose play a key role in the storing and transporting
of energy in your body. ..............
4) C6H12O6 is not the structure of glucose.
5) Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in ..............
the proportion of 2:1:2.
..............
6) Polysaccharides are long chains composed of hundreds of molecules of starch.
Activity
Scan the passage and write down the definitions of the following terms:
1. Carbohydrates:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
2. Polysaccharides:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
3. Starch:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
4. Glycogen:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
5. Cellulose:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….......................
12 Functions of Lipids
Discussion
Discussion points: Work in your groups and answer the following questions.
1) Where are lipids stored?

2) Do fruits store lipid? If yes, name some of the fruits that store lipid.
3) What are the functions of lipids in the body?
Unit 12 Functions of Lipids 51

Vocabulary
Activity
Look at the list of words in the box. Match each word and term with a definition in the
opposite column. Write the letter of each phrase or sentence in front of the word in the
given column.
Words # Definitions
a) A layer at the back of the eyeball containing cells
that are sensitive to light and that trigger nerve
1.Macromolecules
impulses that pass via the optic nerve to the brain,
where a visual image is formed.
b) A green pigment, present in all green plants and
2. Olive in cyanobacteria, responsible for the absorption of
light to provide energy for photosynthesis.
c) The natural coloring matter of animal or plant
3. Wax
tissue.
d) Any of a large class of organic compounds with a
characteristic molecular structure containing four
4. Beeswax
rings of carbon atoms (three six-membered and
one five).
e) A compound of the sterol type found in most
5. Earwax
body tissues, including the blood and the nerves.
f) Denoting fats containing a high proportion
of fatty acid molecules without double bonds,
6. Reactant
considered to be less healthy in the diet than
unsaturated fats.
7. Carbohydrate g) Join or be joined by a chemical bond.
h) Any of a large group of organic compounds
8. Bond occurring in foods and living tissues and including
sugars, starch, and cellulose.
i) A substance that takes part in and undergoes
9. Saturated
change during a reaction.
j) The protective yellow waxy substance secreted
10. Cholesterol
in the passage of the outer ear.
k) The wax secreted by bees to make honeycombs
11. Steroid and used to make wood polishes and candles:
turning pollen into beeswax.
l) A similar viscous substance, typically a lipid or
12. Pigment
hydrocarbon.

m) A small oval fruit with a hard pit and bitter flesh,
13. Chlorophyll green when unripe and brownish black when ripe,
used as food and as a source of oil.
n) A molecule containing a very large number of
14. Retinal atoms, such as a protein, nucleic acid, or synthetic
polymer.
Dictation
Reading
Activity
Skim the passage and check the sentences
you wrote in Activity 3.
Lipids Store Energy and Are a Component

of Cell Membranes
Lipids are a class of organic

macromolecules that differ from other
macromolecules in that they do not
dissolve
in water. Olive oil and vegetable oil are

lipids, and so are waxes such as beeswax
and earwax. Though lipids are a diverse
class of compounds, most of their functions can be placed in one of three categories:
energy storage, structural support in cell membranes, and specific reactants for metabolic
reactions.
Fats are energy-storage lipid molecules that have more hydrogens bonded to their
carbon chains than do carbohydrates. The structure of a fat molecule is shown in figure
(b). The fatty acid chains are usually 14 to 20 –CH2 _ units long. This structure enables fat
to supply more energy than carbohydrates. A gram of fat to supply more energy than of
carbohydrate provides only four calories.
When all carbon atoms on the fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms (–CH2 _
units), these fats are called saturated fats. Saturated fats are called saturated because
they contain the maximum number of C—H bonds possible. Unsaturated fats have
carbon—carbon double bonds at various points along the fatty acid chain. They are called
unsaturated because fewer hydrogen atoms can bond to the carbon chain when there are
double bonds between carbon atoms.
Lipids also provide structural support in cell membranes. The membranes that
surround the cells of your body are composed of lipids to which phosphorus molecules
are attached. Such molecules are called phospholipids. Animal cell membranes also
contain cholesterol, which is yet another kind of lipid called a steroid. Many of the
hormones that your body uses to control its activities are steroids. There are many other
kinds of lipids, including important pigments, light absorbing substances such as the
chlorophyll of green plants, and the pigment retinal found in your eyes.
Vocabulary in Context
1) Though lipids are a diverse class of compounds, most of their functions can be placed
in one of three categories: energy storage, structural support in cell membranes, and
specific reactants for metabolic reactions.
a. Very different
b. Very similar
2) This structure enables fat to supply more energy than carbohydrates.

a. To make it able to do something
b. Make unable to perform
3) Saturated fats are called saturated because they contain the maximum number of
C—H bonds possible.
a. Have as a component
b. Control
4) There are many other kinds of lipids, including important pigments, light absorbing
substances such as the chlorophyll of green plants, and the pigment retinal found in
your eyes.
a. Take out by chemical or physical action
b. Take in by chemical or physical action
Activity
Comprehension questions.
1) Why are lipids not soluble in water?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Why do fats store more energy per gram than carbohydrates?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) What are saturated fats?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4) What does steroid mean?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Paraphrasing
Read paragraph four and paraphrase it in your own words.

13 Cellular Activities
Discussion
Work in your groups and answer the following questions.
1. Why is protein necessary for our body?

2. What if our body does not get enough protein?
3. What are enzymes and Acids?
Unit 13 Cellular Activities 56

Vocabulary
Activity
given column.
Words # Definitions
a. the part of the food that helps to keep a person
1.Macromolecules
healthy, moving the food quickly through the body
2. Fibers b. large molecules
c. a strong band of tissues in the body that joins
3. Blood Clot the muscle to a bones
d. strong band of tissues in the body that joins

4. Ligaments bones and support the organs and keep them
position
5. Tendons e. physical and chemical activities of all living things
f. smaller than is usual for the things of the same
6. Metabolic
kind
7. Fertilized g. to make a chemical reaction happen faster
h. to add a substance to soil to make plants grow
8. Compact
more successfully
i. a lump that is formed when blood dries or
9. Dimension
become thicker
j. an arrangement of numbers, symbols etc. in rows
10. Hormones
and columns, treated as a single quantity
11. Transmitter k. a measurement in space
l. a living thing, especially one that is extremely
12. Enzymes
small
m. chemical substance produced in the body or
13. Organisms a plant that encourages the growth or influence
how the cells and tissues functions
n. a piece of equipment used for sending electronic
14. Matrix
signals
Reading
Activity
Cellular Activities
Proteins are the third major group of macromolecules. Proteins have many important
structural functions. Your hair and muscles are made of protein, and so are a spider’s
web, a peacock feather, and the fibers of a blood clot. The most clot protein in your body
is collagen, a fibrous protein that forms the matrix of your skin, ligaments, tendons, and
bones. Proteins also play a vital role in the metabolic (chemical and physical) activities of
all living things. Proteins called enzymes assist the chemical reactions of metabolism. Few
of the chemical reactions take place in your body can proceed quickly without enzymes.
Enzymes control chemical reactions:

An enzyme is a catalyst because it increases the rate of a chemical reaction without
the enzyme itself being destroyed in the process. Organisms maintain internal balance
because enzymes control chemical reactions. The long developmental process that turns
you from a fertilized egg into an adult human is controlled by the proper starting and
stopping of production of particular enzymes at the appropriate time.
Amino acids:
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different kinds of amino
acids that humans use. Because amino acids differ in chemical character, it is not likely
that any two proteins with different amino acids will be alike chemically. Long chains of
amino acids are called polypeptides. A protein is composed of one or more polypeptides.
The amino acid chains of enzymes tend to fold into compact three-dimensional shapes.
It is the precise shape of an enzyme that enables it to catalyze a particular chemical
reaction. Proteins also function as hormones and neurotransmitter. In these functions,
proteins serve as signaling devices that are involved in regulating the activities of the
cells of organisms.
Activity
Choose the best answer:

1. Proteins ……
a. Are mostly not included in our food.
b. Have many useless structural functions.
c. Are the third major group of macromolecules.
2. Enzymes …….
a. Control chemical reactions.
b. Are very active catalysts.
c. a and b are correct.
3. Polypeptides ……
a. Are very rare chemical compounds.
b. Can damage your metabolic system.
c. Are long chains of Amino Acids.
4. Amino acids……
a. Are long chains of polypeptides.
b. Are composed of carbohydrates.
c. Are the building blocks of proteins.
5. Metabolism …..
a. Is a controlled by our blood system.
b. Is the process of composing protein chains.
c. Physical and chemical activities of all living things.
Activity
Listen to your teacher and arrange the sentences in the order you hear them.
......... a. You can control some of your muscles, like the muscles in your legs and arms.
......... b. Muscles are rubbery, stretchable straps.
......... c. They allow you to make all kinds of expressions to show how you are feeling.
......... d. Your body needs energy so that you can move, grow, and keep warm.
......... e. Others such as your heart and bladder, operate without you having to think about it.
......... f. Muscles in your face are attached to skin as well as bones.
Oral questions
Work in groups and answer these questions briefly.
1) What is the importance of protein in our body?

2) Do some people need more protein than other, like athletes?
3) What if our body does not get enough protein?
4) Protein is good to use when you eat it in different food but why is it harmful when
taken to build muscles or used as a medication?
Writing
Write down the importance of protein in our diet. Also, mention some of the natural
sources of protein, and what if our diet does not include enough protein?

14 Nucleic Acids
http://www.scienceprofonline.com/
Discussion
1. Do you think what we eat affects us? How do we stay in shape?
2. Where does what we eat come from?
3. What are the elements found in all biological macromolecules?
Unit 14 Nucleic Acids 60

Vocabulary
Activity
given column.
Words # Definitions
a) The chemical or physical decomposition of
1. Hereditary
something
b) A complex organic substance present in
living cells, esp. DNA or RNA, whose molecules
2. Nucleic acids
consist of many nucleotides linked in a long
chain.
c) The quality or state of being different or
3. Macromolecules
diverse
d) Determined by genetic factors and therefore
4. Phosphate able to be passed on from parents to their
offspring or descendants
5. Deoxyribonucleic e) Curled or wound (especially in concentric
acid rings or spirals)
f) Lasting for only a limited period of time; not
6. Ribonucleic acid
permanent:
g) A salt or ester of phosphoric acid, containing
7. Adenosine
PO 43− or a related anion or a group such as −
triphosphate groups
OPO(OH) 2.
h) A compound consisting of an adenosine
8. Coiled molecule bonded to three phosphate groups,
present in all living tissue.
i) Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in
all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a
messenger carrying instructions from DNA for
9. Steady
controlling the synthesis of proteins, although
in some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries
the genetic information.
j) Make certain that (something) shall occur or
10. Ensure
be the case
k) Deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating
material present in nearly all-living organisms
11. Break down
as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is
the carrier of genetic information.

12. Essential l) Extremely important
m) A molecule containing a very large number
13. Variety of atoms, such as a protein, nucleic acid, or
synthetic polymer.
14. Temporarily n) Firmly fixed, supported, or balanced
Dictation
Grammar Points
Focus on the Acronyms

Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These
can be forms such as CD (‘compact disk’) or VCR (‘video cassette recorder’) where the
pronunciation consists of saying each separate letter. More typically, acronyms are
pronounced as new single words, as in NATO, NASA or UNESCO. These examples have
kept their capital letters, but many acronyms simply become everyday terms such as
laser (‘light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation’), radar (‘radio detecting
and ranging’), scuba (‘self- contained underwater breathing apparatus’) and zip (‘zone
improvement plan’) code. Reference: (Yule, The Study of Language, 57)
Skimming
Skim the passage and find the acronyms in the lesson. Then, write down what the
acronyms stand for.
1.
2.
3.
Reading
Activity
Nucleic Acids Contain the Cell’s Hereditary Information
Nucleic acids are the fourth group of macromolecules found in living things. Nucleic
acids are long chains of small repeating subunits, called nucleotides. A nucleotide consists
of a five-carbon sugar with a phosphate (PO4-) group attached to one side of the sugar
ring and an organic base attached to the other. The major function of nucleic acids is
to store hereditary information that can be later translated to form new proteins. The
nucleic acid that store hereditary information in your cells is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
A second nucleic acid found in organisms, called RNA (ribonucleic acid), has a slightly
structure. RNA plays a variety of roles in the process of making proteins.
ATP is the Cell’s Fuel

There is one additional biological molecule that should be mentioned because of its
importance in living system and its structural similarity to nucleic acids—ATP, adenosine
triphosphate groups. ATP contains an organic base, a sugar, and three phosphate groups.
The term triphosphate means the molecule has three phosphate groups.
ATP is the energy currency of the cell. Its phosphate groups store energy like a coiled
spring, their negative charges repelling one another. It takes energy to put the terminal
phosphate in place, and energy is released when it is removed. When living cells break
down food molecules containing carbohydrates and fats, part of the energy from those
reactions is stored temporarily in ATP. A steady supply of ATP is necessary to ensure that
a cell can perform all the tasks essential for life.
Scanning
Scan the passage for 30 seconds and answer the following questions.
1. What does nucleotide mean?
2. What does triphosphate mean?
3. How does ATP store energy?
Speaking practice
Discuss the following question in your groups.
1. Why do we have DNA?

2. Why does the human body need nucleic acids?
3. What are nucleic acids?
4. Of what units are nucleic acids constituted? What are the chemical entities that
compose this unit?
Writing
Free writing
Free writing is a kind of brainstorming where you write everything you think of, quickly
and without stopping. Freewriting helps to improve your writing fluency, and gives you
ideas for your writing.
• Write as much as possible for five or ten minutes.

• Do not worry about spelling, grammar, or punctuation.
• If you make a mistake, just cross it out and continue writing.
• Write continuously, without stopping.
Writing Focus
Choose one of these topics. For five minutes, write as much as you can on a separate
sheet of paper. Write everything that comes to mind without stopping.
a. Nucleic acids
b. DNA and RNA
c. ATP as the cells’ fuel

15 Cell Structure under the
Microscope
Visual Merriam-Webster Dictionary
Discussion
Discuss the following questions in groups.
1. What is the smallest building block of our body?

2. Is there any living thing without cells?
3. What is the difference between animal and plant cell?
Unit 15 Cell Structure under the Microscope 65

Vocabulary
Activity
In this lesson, you will learn the following words:
Words Definitions
1. Evolved Changed, Advanced, Developed
2. Realize Understand, Appreciate, Get
3. Insight Vision, Understanding, Perception, Comprehension
4. Ultimately Eventually, Finally
5. Magnification Enlargement, Increase, Exaggeration
6. Resolution Resolve, Motion, Steadfastness
7. Appear Seem, Look, Give the idea
8. Distinguish Differentiate, Decide
9. Fuzzy Uncertain, Unsure, Unclear
9. Blur Shadow, Cloudiness, Haze
11. Strength Power, Force
12. Limitation Restriction, Constraint, Control
13. Organism Creature, Living thing
14. Observe See, Notice, Detect
15. Appropriate Suitable, Right
16. Structure Building, Construction, Organize
Activity
Scan the text for two minutes and answer the following questions:
1. Who glimpsed the structure of the cork cell for the first time?
………………………………………………………………………….....................................................
2. What serves as passports into the unseen world?
………………………………………………………………………….....................................................
3. What are the two important concepts related to microscopes?
………………………………………………………………………….....................................................
4. What is the ability of a microscope that makes an image appear larger?
………………………………………………………………………….....................................................
5. When did Robert Hooke first glimpse the cork cell?
………………………………………………………………………….....................................................
Dictation
Listen to your teacher read a paragraph and write what you hear,. Do NOT add your words.

Reading
Activity
Microscope
Even before Robert Hooke first glimpsed cells of cork in 1665, scientists realized that
they needed more than the human eye to study objects and living things. As microscopy
has evolved, scientists have learned more about plant and animal life than Hooke and
Van Leeuwenhoek could have ever imagined. Modern microscopes serve as passports
into the unseen world, enabling biologists to observe cellular processes and to see details
of cell structure. Microscopes continue to provide scientists with new insight into how
cells work- and ultimately how whole organisms function.
Two important concepts relating to microscopes are magnification and resolution.

Magnification is the ability of a microscope to make an image appear larger. Resolution
is the ability to distinguish small, close objects. The resolution of a microscope refers to
its ability to show details clearly. Resolution and magnification are equally important. If
an image appears larger but its details are unclear, the user of the microscope will see
only a fuzzy blur.
There are several basic types of microscopes. Each type of microscope has its
own strengths and limitations. Scientists have learned which microscope is the most
appropriate for the organisms they wish to study.
Activity
Complete the following sentences with the best answer:
1. Resolution is the ability to………..

a. distinguish big, close objects
b. distinguish small, close objects
c. distinguish unclear, small objects
2. Magnifying is the ability to…………..

a. make an image appear larger
b. make an object larger than it is
c. to make an image appear smaller
3. The two important concepts related to microscope are……….

a. magnification and resolution
b. magnification and equality
c. resolution and microscopy
4. The resolution of microscopes refers to………

a. ability to show unclear objects
b. ability to show details clearly
c. ability to show small objects

5. Microscopes have its own……….
a. resolution and magnification
b. strengths and limitations
c. limitations and magnification
Grammar Section
Grammar Point
A prefix is a word part placed in front of a root word that makes a new word or
changes a word’s meaning. Prefixes are not words themselves, but they help to form
longer words. They always come at the beginning of words and have one distinct
meaning.
Here is a list of some very common prefixes along with the meanings and examples.
un- Not unacceptable, unreal, unhappy, unmanned
reversal or cancellation of
unplug, unmask
action or state
negation,
dis- alsodi- removal, disadvantage, dismount, disbud, disbar
expulsion
Out exit, exclude, expand
also e-, Upward exalt, extol
ex-
ef- completely excruciate, exasperate
previous ex-wife
Note
This list does not include elements like "auto-" or “bio-", because these
are "combining forms", not prefixes.
Activity
Quickly scan the passage and underline the prefixes. Use prefixes to change words into
their opposite forms.
1. Wrap …………….
2. Use …………….
3. Agree …………….
4. Engage …………….
5. Behave …………….
6. Understand …………….
7. Fold …………….
8. Spell …………….
9. Connect …………….
10. Close …………….

16 Light Microscopes
Discussion
1. Why do people wear glasses?
2. How do glasses work?
3. Parents believe that children should always wash their hands after using washroom.
They say there are germs that will make us sick. How do they know germs exist? How
can people see the germs?
Unit 16 Light Microscopes 69

Vocabulary
Word Focus
given column.
Words # Definitions
a)an example of something such as a product or
1.Beam
piece of work
b)put or arrange (someone or something) in a
2.Enlarge
particular place or way
3.Specimen c)come into sight; become visible or noticeable
d)the smallest interval measurable by a scientific
4.Lens
(esp. optical) instrument; the resolving power
5.Position e)make (something) appear larger than it is
6.Objective lens f)become larger or bigger
g)a glass bulb inserted into a lamp or a socket in
7.Light bulb a ceiling, that provides light by passing an electric
current through a pocket of inert gas
8.Ray h)of or connected with the eyes or vision
i)the straight line in which light or other
9.Ocular
electromagnetic radiation travels to a given point
j)allowing light to pass through so that objects
10.Magnified behind can be distinctly seen, easy to perceive or
detect
11.Appear k)A ray of light
l)color (a material or object) by applying a
12.Transparent
penetrative dye or chemical
m)a transparent optical device used to converge
13.Stain
or diverge transmitted light and to form images
n)the lens in a telescope or microscope nearest to
14. Resolution
the object observed
Dictation

Scanning
Scan the passage and complete the following extracts in 30 seconds.
1. The objective lens set is ………………………………………………………………………………….....………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
2. More details of the structures inside cells can be seen by ………………………………............

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
3. The most powerful light microscopes ............................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................
Reading
Activity
Light Microscopes
Light microscopes use a beam light passing through one or more lenses to produce
an enlarged image of object or specimen being viewed. Microscopes that use two sets
of lenses are called compound microscopes. The ocular lens is positioned near the
viewer’s eye. The objective lens set is positioned near the specimen. A typical compound
microscope has a light bulb or mirror in the base that sends light upward through the
specimen. Light rays pass through the objective and then through the ocular. The image
you see is magnified by both sets of lenses. The total magnification is determined by
multiplying the magnifications of the two lenses. If your microscope has a 10X ocular,
and the 40X objective is in place, the object you are looking at will appear 400 times
larger than it actually is.
A biologist can use a compound microscope to study living cells. Cells appear to be
essentially transparent, although there are small variations in thickness and density. As
a result, the cell and some of its internal structures are visible, but the image is not very
distinct. More details of the structures inside cells can be seen by slicing cells thinly and
dyeing them with stains. Looking at a cell this way has obvious disadvantages—only one
thin slice of cells is seen, and, of course, the cell is dead. However, sectioning and staining
cells enables biologists to see many structures not visible in living cells.
Light microscopes are important tools, but they have one important shortcoming. As
magnifications increase, the resolution decreases and the details of the object viewed
appear fuzzy. The most powerful light microscopes can magnify an object 2,000 times.
Particularly speaking, bacteria with a diameter of 0.5 µm are about the smallest living
things that can be distinguished using a good mass-produced light microscope.

Scanning
Scan the passage for one minute and answer the following questions.
1. Where is the ocular lens located?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. When will you see your object in the microscope 400 times larger than it actually is?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is the important shortcoming in microscopes?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Speaking Practice
Work in your groups and discuss the answers to the following questions.
1. How are microscopes used to improve life?

2. How do microscopes work?
3. What are the uses of microscopes in everyday life?
Paraphrasing
Read the second paragraph and paraphrase it in your own words.

17 Electron Microscope
Discussion
Discuss these questions in groups.
1. Do you think there is any difference between compound microscopes we use today and the
microscope van Leeuwenhoek used in the 1600s to describe living cells?
2. Do microscopes just magnify things?
3. What is the difference between magnification and resolution?
4. How is the picture on a television set formed?
Unit 17 Electron Microscope 73

Activity
Scan the passage for three minutes and complete the following sentences.
1. The …………......... that bounce off the specimen from an image.

2. The micrograph made with electron microscopes are always …………......... and ………….........
never in …………......... .
3. Microscopes using electrons instead of …………......... to form …………......... can ……………
at least …………......... times as much as the light microscope.
4. ………....produces a stream of electrons that passes through a …………......... and strikes a
…………......... screen.
5. …………......... enables …………......... to see detailed three-dimensional images of
…………......... surfaces.
6. Like the …………......... on a …………......... set, the image is formed one line at a time as the
…………......... of electron …………......... the specimen from side to side.
Activity
Listen to your teacher and number the sentences in the order you hear them.
1. By replacing the fluorescent screen with a piece of photographic film, ..............
a photograph called a transmission electron micrograph can be made.
2. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) produces a stream of ..............
electrons that passes through a specimen and strikes a fluorescent
screen.
3. These sections are treated with stains that block electrons, causing ..............
details to become visible.
4. Sections of specimen that are to be viewed with a TEM are sliced ..............
much more thinly than sections prepared for a light microscope.
5. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) enables biologists to see ..............
detailed three-dimensional images of cell surfaces.
6. Living cells cannot be viewed with electron microscopes. ..............
Reading
Activity
Electron Microscope
Microscopes using electrons instead of light to form images can magnify at least 100
times as much as the light microscope. Because electrons would bounce off the gas
molecules in air, the stream of electrons and the specimen to be viewed must be placed
in a vacuum chamber. Therefore, living cells cannot be viewed with electron microscopes.
The transmission electron microscope (TEM) produces a stream of electrons that passes
through a specimen and strikes a fluorescent screen. By replacing the fluorescent screen
with a piece of photographic film, a photograph called a transmission electron micrograph

can be made. Sections of specimen that are to be viewed with a TEM are sliced much more
thinly than sections prepared for a light microscope. These sections are treated with stains
that block electrons, causing details to become visible.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) enables biologists to see detailed three-
dimensional images of cell surfaces. Specimens are not sliced but are placed on a small
metal cylinder and coated with a very thin layer of metal. Like the picture on a television
set, the image is formed one line at a time as the beam of electron scans the specimen
from side to side. The electrons that bounce off the specimen from an image that can be
viewed on a video screen or a scanning electron micrograph can be made.
The micrograph made with electron microscopes are always black and white-never in
color. However, electron micrographs often have color added in the darkroom to make
certain structure stand out in the micrograph. The set of each type of microscope-light
microscope, transmission electron microscope, and scanning electron microscope-has
advantage and disadvantages.
Activity
Match the following words with their antonyms:
Words # Antonyms
1.Magnify a.Thick
2.Fluorescent b.Disadvantage
3.Visible c.Shrink
4.Thin d.Invisible
5.Stand e.Sit
6.Advantage f.Dull
Activity
Write T for true statements and F for false statements.
1. Electron micrographs often have color added in the darkroom. ..............
2. Living cells are viewed under the electron microscope. ..............
3. The micrographs made with electron microscope are never black and white. ..............
4. Specimens are placed on a small metal cylinder nd coated with a very ..............
thin layer of metal.
5. Microscopes do not have disadvantages. ..............
Activity
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What is SEM used for?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………............................
2. What is the difference between SEM and TEM?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………............................
3. Why can’t living cells be viewed under electron microscopes?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………............................
4. What happens when we replace a fluorescent screen with a photographic film?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………............................
Grammar Section
Grammar Point
Abbreviations or Acronyms are shortened language. These can include contractions
and diminutives as well as some other forms of language. While different types of
sign language may be considered abbreviations, these abbreviations are mainly
verbal and written. There are no rules for making abbreviations. Abbreviations save
time and space. They have been used since ancient times. Below are some very
famous scientific acronyms:
Communicable disease control (CDC)
Reproductive health (RH)
Human immune deficiency virus (HIV)
District hospital (DH)
Activity
Underline the acronyms used in the passage. Do you think using acronyms or abbreviations
are necessary in science? Is it helpful to understand and remember these terms as
students? If yes, why? If no, why not?

18 Transport of Materials
through Cell Membranes
Figure 1http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg
Discussion
1. What is a membrane?
2. What are the basic constituents of the cell membrane?
3. Concerning permeability, what type of membrane is the cell membrane?
Unit 18 Transport of Materials through Cell Membranes 77

Vocabulary
Word Focus
given column.
Words # Definitions
a)A network of membranous tubules within
1.Internal the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous
with the nuclear membrane.
2.Homeostasis b)A separate section or part of something
c)A small fluid-filled bladder, sac, cyst, or
3. Digestive
vacuole within the body.
d)A complex of vesicles and folded
membranes within the cytoplasm of most
4. Precisely
eukaryotic cells, involved in secretion and
intracellular transport.
5.Endoplasmic e)Of or situated on the inside
reticulum
f)An outgrowth from an organism (e.g., a
yeast cell) that separates to form a new
6.Plasma membrane
individual without sexual reproduction taking
place.
g)Of or relating to the process of digesting
7.Compartment
food
h)A thin membrane (a double layer of lipids)
8.Weaving
enclosing the cytoplasm of a cell
9.Vesicle i)In exact terms; without vagueness
j)To move or cause to move in a sinuous,
10.Densely
spiral, or circular course
11.Destined k)Closely compacted in substance
l)The tendency toward a relatively stable
12.Bud off equilibrium between interdependent
elements
13.Cytoplasm m)Developing as though according to a plan
n)The material or protoplasm within a living
14.Golgi apparatus
cell, excluding the nucleus.

A. The cell manufactures many proteins and lipids on the ER’s surface.
a. Creates or produces
b. Destroys or removes
B. Other proteins and lipids, such as digestive enzymes or hormones, are exported from
the cell.
a. Transfer out
b. Import in
C. Some proteins and lipids are used within the cell, for example, to replace damaged
or worn parts of the plasma membrane.
a. Damaged
b. Refresh
Dictation
Skimming
Skim the passage (topic sentences) and complete the following extracts in 30 seconds.
1. In order for a eukaryotic cell to maintain homeostasis, it is necessary for supplies to

………………........………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….....................................................................................
2. The cell …………………. many proteins and lipids on the ER’s surface.
3. …………………. and …………………. destined for export are passed across the ER membrane
as they are made.
Discussion
Read the topic sentences in Activity 4 and share your understanding of each sentence
to the class.

Reading
Activity
Internal Membranes
In order for a eukaryotic cell to maintain homeostasis, it is necessary for supplies
to be moved from one part of the cell to another. In prokaryotic cells, a molecule can
go from one place to another quickly. In eukaryotic cells, molecular traffic is directed
more precisely by an extensive system of internal membrane called the endoplasmic
reticulum or ER. Like the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell, the ER is composed
of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Weaving in sheets through the cell’s interior,
the ER creates a series of channels between the membranes that isolates some spaces
as internal compartments is a fundamental distinction between eukaryotes and their
prokaryote ancestors.
Manufacturing Centers
The cell manufactures many proteins and lipids on the ER’s surface. Some proteins
and lipids are used within the cell, for example, to replace damaged or worn parts of the
plasma membrane. Other proteins and lipids, such as digestive enzymes or hormones,
are exported from the cell.
Proteins that are exported from the cell are manufactured by ribosomes on the surface
of portions of the ER. Ribosomes are complex molecules composed of
dozens of different
proteins and RNA. The endoplasmic reticulum that is densely studded with ribosomes is
called rough ER. The endoplasmic reticulum of cells specialized in making lipids, such as
many brain and intestinal cells, has relatively few or no ribosomes and is called smooth
ER. Cells can have both kinds of ER.
Packing and Distribution Centers

Proteins and lipids destined for export are passed across the ER membrane as they are
made. They then pass into an interior compartment of the ER called the lumen. These
proteins and lipids move through the lumen to an area of smooth ER. The protein is then
enclosed in a vesicle that buds off from the ER surface. The vesicle migrates across the
cytoplasm to an adjacent organelle called a Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is the
packaging and distribution center of the cell. The Golgi apparatus contains a variety of
enzymes that act on proteins and lipids and that serve as molecular address labels to
determine where the protein or lipid will go. The newly made molecules are transported
to different compartments of the cell or to the plasma membrane where they are
exported from the cell.
Activity
Discuss the answer to these questions in your groups.
1. Which cell keeps homeostasis and how does this cell function?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What are some usages of proteins and lipids in cell?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is Golgi apparatus and what is its function?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1. How are proteins and lipids good for our health?

2. How do packing and distribution center work in our body?
3. What does cell manufacture? What are the advantages of it for our body?
Writing Focus
Grammar Point
Main Clauses
A clause is a group words that has a subject and a predicate and is used as a part of
a sentence. A main, or independent, clause has a subject and a predicate and can
stand alone as a sentence.
Every sentence must have at least one main clause, but a sentence may have more
than one main clause. In each of the following examples, both clauses can stand
alone, so both are main, or independent clauses. Reference: (Glencoe, MacGraw-
Hill. (1976). Writer’s Choice Grammar and Composition. Columbus: McGraw-Hill
Press)
The cast bowed, and the audience applauded.

Main clause Main clause
The curtains closed firmly, but the enthusiastic applause continued.

Main clause Main clause
Now read the passage and write down three main clauses below. Then make three
different main clauses from your own. At the end, write S below each subject and V
below each verb.

19 The Nucleus
micro.magnet.fsu.edu
Discussion
In groups, make a list of the parts of the cell by answering the following questions:
1. What is the smallest constituent of our body?

2. What are the major parts of a cell?
Unit 19 The Nucleus 82

Vocabulary
Activity
Match the words with their definitions:
Words # Definitions
1. Organelle a. storing
2. Nestle b. Sure
3. Storage c. covering, skin, layer
4. Tissue d. protect, shelter
5. Layer e. sprinkle, distribute, throw
6. Bound f. coating, cover, sheet
7. Membrane g. structure, body part, tissue
8. Lipid h. fatty acid, wax, natural oil
9. Regulate i. control, order, set
10. Scatter j. Hole, cave, cavity
11. Crater k. flesh, matter, nerve
12. Shallow l. hollows, declines, falls
13. Depressions m. low, narrow, thin, light
14. Pore n. bar, pole, stick
15. Embed o. help, assist, aid
16. Rod p. hole, opening
17. Serve q. surround, insert, set in
Activity
Scan the passage for one minute and answer the following questions:
1. What is the cell's largest and most easily seen organelle?

………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
2. How do RNA molecules get across the nucleus envelope?
………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
3. What are the rod-shaped structures called?
………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
4. What is the number of the chromosomes in the cells of your body?
………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
5. What is nuclear envelope?
………………………………………………………………………………………….....................................
Dictation
Listen to your teacher and write what you hear. Do not add your own words.
Unit 19 The Nucleus 83

20 Organelles of the Cell
Source: http://wizznotes.com/biology/the-cell/cell-structures-and-organelles
Discussion
1. What is an organelle?
2. What causes trees’ leaves to have green or yellow colors? Is there any special organ in them?
3. What happens to your food after you eat it?
Unit 20 Organelles of the Cell 84

Vocabulary
Word Focus
given column.
Words # Definitions
a) A kingdom or large grouping that comprises
mostly single-celled organisms such as the
1. Manufacture
protozoa, simple algae and fungi, slime molds,
and (formerly) the bacteria.
b) A simple nonflowering plant of a large
group that includes the seaweeds and many
2. Mitochondria single-celled forms. Algae contain chlorophyll
but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular
tissue.
c) An organelle found in large numbers in most
3. Release cells, in which the biochemical processes of
respiration and energy production occur.
d) The process by which green plants and
some other organisms use sunlight to
4. Primitive
synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and
water.
e) A colorless, odorless gas produced by
5. Protist burning carbon and organic compounds and
by respiration.
f) (in green plant cells) a plastid that contains
6. Photosynthesis chlorophyll and in which photosynthesis takes
place.
g) Make or produce in a merely mechanical
7. Chloroplasts
way
h) Allow (something) to move, act, or flow
8. Algae
freely
i) Take (food, drink, or another substance) into
9. Ingested
the body by swallowing or absorbing it.
j) In the first or early stage of formation or
10. Biochemical
growth
11. Vesicles k) Happening in a short time or at a fast pace:
l) An organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
12. Rapid cells containing degradable enzymes enclosed
in a membrane.
m) An air-filled swelling in a plant, esp.
13. Lysosomes
seaweed.
n) The branch of science concerned with the
14. Carbon dioxide chemical and physicochemical processes that
occur within living organisms.
A. These sugars are the ultimate source of energy for all living things
a. Being the last or concluding element of a series
b. The finest or most superior quality of its kind
B. A eukaryotic cell’s mitochondria continuously release this energy, providing the cell
with the energy necessary for life.
a. Happening with a finite limit
b. happening or developing gradually
C. The enzymes within lysosomes cause the rapid breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids,
lipids, and carbohydrates.
a. A failure of a relationship or system
b. The chemical or physical decomposition of something
Dictation
Skimming
Skim the passage (topic sentences) and complete the following extracts in 30 seconds.
1. Two kinds of organelles play essential roles in ……………......and………………....... .

2. Chloroplasts are organelles that ………………........……………………......................................
………………........………………........………………........………………........………………………….......………
………………………………………………………………………All the chemical energy that mitochondria
extract from the food you eat originated from ………………................…………………………
carried out by chloroplasts.
3. Eukaryotic cells contain …………………………that isolate specialized biochemical
activities.
4. Almost every eukaryotic cell contains ……………………………………………………, which are
derived from the smooth ER.
5. ……………………… are vesicles that contain the cell’s digestive enzymes.

Discussion
Read the topic sentences in Activity 5 and share your understanding of each sentence
to the class.
Reading
Activity
Specialized Organelles Act as Cellular Powerhouses
Two kinds of organelles play essential roles in energy release and food manufacture.
The energy that drives the many activities of the eukaryotic cell is generated within
organelles called mitochondria. Mitochondria are found in eukaryotic cells, where they
release the stored energy in food. All of your energy is supplied by the mitochondria
within your cells. Except for a few primitive protists, the cells of all eukaryotes have
mitochondria.
Chloroplasts are organelles that make food in the form of sugars, using water, carbon
dioxide in the air, and energy from sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are found only in algae, such as seaweed, and plants, and they are the only
places within these organisms where photosynthesis occurs. Organelles like mitochondria
and chloroplasts are thought to have evolved from separate organisms, such as bacteria,
that were once ingested by a cell.
All the chemical energy that mitochondria extract from the food you eat originated
from the photosynthetic process carried out by chloroplasts. Chloroplasts in green plants
capture sunlight, which enables them to make sugars. These sugars are the ultimate
source of energy for all living things. A eukaryotic cell’s mitochondria continuously release
this energy, providing the cell with the energy necessary for life.
Biochemical Factories of the Cell

Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of organelles that isolate specialized biochemical
activities. For the same reason that a kitchen, bathroom, and bedroom of a house are
separated, so a cell isolates certain activities.
Chemical Specialty Shops

Almost every eukaryotic cell contains small vesicles called peroxisomes, which are
derived from the smooth ER. Peroxisomes contain several kinds of enzymes. Some
peroxisome enzymes convert fats to carbohydrates. Others alter potentially harmful
molecules within the cell by forming hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 , which is converted to
water.
Recycling Centers
Another group of spherical organelles the same size and appearance as peroxisomes
are lysosomes. Lysosomes are vesicles that contain the cell’s digestive enzymes. The
enzymes within lysosomes cause the rapid breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
and carbohydrates. Lysosomes digest and recycle the cell’s used components.

Comprehension Questions
Answer the following questions in your groups.
1. What are chloroplasts and what are their primary functions?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...........
2. What do enzymes do in our body?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...........
3. What are peroxisomes and how do they function?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...........
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................
1. How does the human body release and use energy?

2. What are the benefits of enzymes?
3. How do organelles act as cellular powerhouses?
Writing Focus
Grammar Point
Main Clauses
A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent
clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence is called subordinate or dependent clause.
Examples:
While I was reading the biology book, I noticed the water had begun to boil in the
kettle.
The first clause, while I was reading the biology book, is a subordinate clause
introduced by the subordinate conjunction "while." The clause is subordinate
because it cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence. The second clause is the
main clause. By itself, I noticed the water had begun to boil in the kettle.
can be a whole sentence.
Now read the passage and write down three subordinate clauses below. Then make
three different subordinate clauses from your own. Indicate each subordinate clause in
the sentence.

References
Duncan & Parker, Open Forum, 24

Glencoe, MacGraw-Hill. (1976). Writer’s Choice Grammar and Composition. Columbus:
McGraw-Hill Press)
http://grammar.about.com/
Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1998) Biology Principles & Explorations, Orlando, Florida,
Princeton Press
Love Carrie, Stamps, & Morgan (2008) First Science Encyclopedia, New York, Bridget
Giles
Smoot. Robert C., Price & Richard (1983) Chemistry A Modern Course, United States of
America, Charlers E. Merrill Publishing Co.
Yule, The Study of Language, 58
(Reference: http://grammar.about.com/) unit 20 Grammar Focus
Love Carrie, Stamps, & Morgan (2008) First Science Encyclopedia, New York, Bridget
Giles
Princeton Press
Zemach & Islam, Paragraph Writing, 36
Princeton Press
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English for Students of

Mir Abdullah Miri

Dr. Suzane Griffin

Introduction to the Herat University English for Specific Purposes Textbooks

English Language and Literature Department Instructors

English Language and Computer Learning Center Instructors:

Heads of the English Language and Literature Department:

Professor Yarmond, English Department Head, Herat Education University

Unit 1. Introduction to Science 7

Nicholas Rigg, Getty Images

Introduction to the Lesson

From atoms to space

Earth and space science

All about change

2. To make it easier to study, scientists divide science into different areas.

5. Scientists study a huge variety of things.

Unit 1 Introduction to Science 10

Introduction to the Lesson

Unit 2 Heterogeneous Materials 11

Unit 2 Heterogeneous Materials 12

1 A: state B: way C: steam

1. Sometimes it is necessary to use a ……………. to distinguish between these different

Unit 2 Heterogeneous Materials 14

Unit 2 Heterogeneous Materials 15

Introduction to the Lesson

Unit 3 Homogeneous Materials 16

Grams Materials Mixtures Classified Phase Kind Material

Some homogeneous matter can be

Unit 3 Homogeneous Materials 18

Unit 3 Homogeneous Materials 19

Introduction to the Lesson

Unit 4 How Cells Were Discovered 20

a. All living things are made of one or more cells. ....................

Formation of the Cell Theory

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.

a. Scientists became aware of cells only after microscopes were invented.

a. What are the parts of a cell theory? ………………………………………………………………………….

Unit 4 How Cells Were Discovered 23

Introduction to the Lesson

1. What is the importance of cells?

Despite differences in cell size

1) Cells come in ………………………………… .

3) All cells have a ………………… .

4) The ……………contains many important structures.

5) The cell membrane is a ………………………around the cell.

Unit 5 Basic Cell Structure 26

Unit 5 Basic Cell Structure 27

Introduction to the Lesson

Unit 6 A Short History of Cells 28

Identify the prefixes used in these words:

 karyote  spread  pro-

Unit 6 A Short History of Cells 29

The first Cells with Internal Compartments were Eukaryotes

How Eukaryotes Evolved

B. Give two differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

C. What does “multicellularity” mean? Explain.

Unit 6 A Short History of Cells 31