UNIT II

WATER AND WASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics of Wastewater

Wastewater is sewage, storm water, and water that have been used for various purposes around the
community. Unless properly treated, wastewater can harm public health and the environment. Most
communities generate wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources
Residential wastewater

There are two types of domestic sewage: black water (wastewater from toilets) and  gray water
(wastewater from all sources except toilets). Black water and gray water have  different characteristics, but
both contain pollutants and disease-causing agents that require treatment.

Non residential wastewater

Non residential wastewater in small communities is generated by such diverse sources as offices,
businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms, manufacturers, and other
commercial, industrial, and institutional entities. Storm water is a non residential source and carries trash
and other pollutants from streets, as well as pesticides and fertilizers from yards and fields
Laundries differ from many other non residential sources because they produce high  volumes of
wastewater containing lint fibers. Restaurants typically generate a lot of oil and grease. It may be
necessary to provide pretreatment of oil and grease from restaurants or to collect it prior to treatment, for
example, by adding grease traps to septic tanks.

Inorganics
Inorganic minerals, metals, and compounds, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, cadmium,
copper, lead, nickel, and zinc are common in wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources.
They can originate from a variety of sources in the community including industrial and commercial
sources, stormwater, and inflow and infiltration from cracked pipes and leaky manhole covers.
Nutrients
Wastewater often contains large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the form of nitrate and
phosphate, respectively -- nutrients that promote plant growth. Organisms only require small amounts of
nutrients in biological treatment, so there normally is an excess of available nutrients in treated
wastewater. In severe cases, excess nitrogen and phosphorous can result in eutrophication, the nutrient
enrichment of water bodies causing excessive growth of aquatic plants (algae, cyanobacteria, rooted
aquatic vegetation, duckweed). The dissolved oxygen in the water body becomes depleted when the
aquatic plants die, fall to
the bottom, and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria. The oxygen depletion can reduce the populations of
indigenous fish and other oxygen-consuming organisms.
 Nitrogen –Nitrogen forms that are important in wastewater include organic nitrogen, nitrate
(NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonia (NH+4), and nitrogen gas (N2). All ofthese forms are biochemically
interconvertible.
o Organic nitrogen is nitrogen bound to carbon. It is the principle nitrogen constituent in
feces. Organic nitrogen also includes urea (H 2NCONH2) which is the principal compound in urine.
Organic nitrogen is not readily available to plants; it needs bacterial conversion to nitrate before it is
available for plants.
o Nitrate is the most oxidized species of nitrogen. Nitrate is readily available to plants and
is considered the limiting nutrient (the nutrient that keeps thebiotic system in balance) for primary
productivity in salt waters, an important consideration in the design of treatment systems along coastal
areas.Because nitrate, in solution, is a negative ion, it will not bind to soil which is also negatively
 charged. Therefore, nitrate passes through soil to groundwater which is why regulatory agencies may be
requiring some treatment systems to provide nitrogen reduction in the effluent. Nitrate is also the species
of nitrogen for which a limit has been set for drinking water (10mg/L) due to blue baby syndrome.
o Nitrite is not usually observed in water sources because it is readily converted to nitrate
by bacterial processes; however, it is extremely toxic to most fish and other aquatic species. Also, nitrites
are oxidized by chlorine and can, therefore, increase the chlorine dosage requirements and the cost of
disinfection.
o Ammonia exists in water as either the ammonium ion (NH 4+) or ammoniagas (NH3),
depending on the pH of the water. At pH levels above 9.3, ammonia gas is the predominate form, and at
pH levels below 9.3, the ammonium ion is the predominant form. Ammonia is usually present in surface
water and is due to the chemical oxidation of urea and anaerobic processes. Ammonia, a positive ion,
binds to soil which is negatively charged; therefore, ammonia is not readily leached from the soil. Plants
can readily use the ammonia form of nitrogen.
 
 Phosphorus – Phosphorus also exists in wastewater in many forms and includes soluble
orthophosphate ion (PO4-3), organically-bound phosphate, and other phosphorus/oxygen forms. Most of
the organically-bound phosphate in wastewater is from excretia and food residue. Some cleaning agents
still contain phosphate, although the practice of adding phosphate to cleaning agents has been vastly
reduced since the 1980s. Phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient in freshwater surface waters and is
the principal cause of eutrophication in surface water bodies. However, phosphate rapidly combines with
other naturally-occurring chemicals, such as limestone, to form calcium phosphate. If a subsurface
effluent distribution system is close to a sensitive water body, limestone added to the soil absorption
system can stop the phosphate from migrating to the water body.

Oil and grease

Oil and grease is the term given to the combination of fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents
found in wastewater. Fatty organic materials from animals, vegetables, and petroleum are not quickly
broken down by bacteria and can cause pollution in receiving environments. When large amounts of oils
and greases are discharged to receiving waters from community systems, they increase BOD levels, and
they may float to the surface and harden, causing aesthetically unpleasing conditions. They also can trap
trash, plants, and other materials causing foul odors and attracting flies and mosquitoes and other disease
vectors. In some cases, too much oil and grease causes septic conditions in ponds and lakes by preventing
oxygen from the atmosphere from reaching the water. 

Organic Matter
Organic materials are found everywhere in the environment. They are composed of the  carbon-based
chemicals that are the building blocks of most living things. Organic materials in wastewater originate
from plants, animals, or synthetic organic compounds, and enter wastewater in human wastes, paper
products, detergents, cosmetics, foods, and from agricultural, commercial, and industrial sources. Organic
compounds normally are some combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.
The amount of oxygen organisms need to break down wastes in wastewater is referred to as the
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and is one of the measurements used to assess overall wastewater
strength.

Pathogens
Many disease-causing viruses, parasites, and bacteria also are present in wastewater and enter from
almost anywhere in the community. These pathogens often originate from people and animals that are
infected with or are carriers of a disease. For example, gray water and black water from typical homes
contain enough pathogens to pose a risk to public health. Other likely sources in communities include
hospitals, schools, farms, and food processing plants.
.
 Solids
Solid materials in wastewater can consist of organic and/or inorganic materials and organisms. The solids
must be significantly reduced by treatment or they can increase BOD levels when discharged to receiving
waters and provide places for microorganisms to escape disinfection. They also can clog soil absorption
fields in treatment systems. The amount of solids in the wastewater affects the septic tank size and the
frequency for pumping out the septic tank. Proper solids analysis is important for the control of biological
and physical wastewater treatment processes and assess compliance with effluent quality limits.
 Total solids – The term applied to the residue left after evaporation; it includes the total
suspended solids and total dissolved solids.
 Suspended solids – The portion of wastewater that, when passed through a filter, remains on the
filter. Materials that resist settling may remain suspended in wastewater. Suspended solids in wastewater
must be treated, or they will clog soil absorption systems or reduce the effectiveness of disinfection
systems.
 Dissolved solids – The portion of wastewater that, when passed through a filter, does not remain
on the filter. Small particles of certain wastewater materials can dissolve like salt in water. Some
dissolved materials are consumed by microorganisms in wastewater, but others, such as heavy metals, are
difficult to remove by conventional treatment. Excessive amounts of dissolved solids in wastewater can
have adverse effects on the environment.
 Settable solids – Certain substances, such as sand, grit, and heavier organic and inorganic
materials, settle out from the rest of the wastewater stream during the preliminary stages of treatment. On
the bottom of settling tanks and ponds, organic material makes up a biologically active layer of sludge
that aids in treatment. Knowing the amount of setteable solids in the wastewater provides information on
how much sludge will be created in the septic tank.
 Fixed solids – The term applied for the residue (total, suspended, or dissolved) that is left after
igniting a dried sample. The weight loss on ignition is called volatile solids. Each type of solids is
processed differently, so it is essential to understand the distinction amongst the various types. Setteable
and some suspended solids are usually removed by filtration or settling. Other suspended solids and
dissolved solids are treated by biological processes or chemical precipitation.
Other Important Wastewater Characteristics
In addition to the many substances found in wastewater, there are other characteristics  that system
designers and operators use to evaluate wastewater. For example, color, odor, and turbidity of wastewater
give clues about the amount and type of pollutants present and treatment necessary. The following are
some other important wastewater characteristics that can affect public health and the environment, as well
as the design, cost, and effectiveness of treatment.

Temperature
The temperature of wastewater is usually higher than that of the water supply because of the addition of
warm water from domestic use. Wastewater temperature is important for two reasons: (1) biological
processes are temperature dependent and (2) chemical reactions and reaction rates and aquatic life are all
temperature sensitive.
The best temperatures for wastewater treatment range from 77 to 95 °F. In general,  biological treatment
activity accelerates in warm temperatures and slows in cool temperatures but extreme hot or cold can stop
treatment processes altogether. For example, aerobic digestion and nitrification stop when temperatures
rise to 122 °F; and when temperatures fall below 36 °F, virtually all biological activity becomes
dormant. Therefore, some systems are less effective during cold weather and some may not
be appropriate for very cold climates.
Wastewater temperature also affects receiving waters. Hot water, for example, which is a  byproduct of
many manufacturing processes, can be a pollutant. When discharged in large quantities, it can raise the
temperature of receiving streams locally and disrupt the natural balance of aquatic life.

pH
The acidity or alkalinity of wastewater affects both treatment and the environment. The pH is actually the
measure of the inverse concentration of hydrogen ions and is a logarithmic scale. As pH values lower, it
indicates increasing acidity; while a high pH indicates alkalinity (a pH of 7 is neutral). The pH of
wastewater needs to remain between 6 and 9 to protect beneficial organisms. Acids, cleaning agents, and
other substances that alter pH can inactivate treatment processes when they enter wastewater.
Gases
Certain gases in wastewater can cause odors, affect treatment, or are potentially dangerous. Methane gas,
for example, is a byproduct of anaerobic biological treatment (found in septic tanks) and is highly
combustible. Special precautions need to be taken near septic tanks, manholes, treatment plants, and other
areas where wastewater gases can collect. Hydrogen sulfide and ammonia gases can be toxic and pose
asphyxiation hazards. Ammonia as a dissolved gas in wastewater also is dangerous to fish. Both gases
emit odors, which can be a serious nuisance. Unless effectively contained or minimized by design
and location, wastewater odors can affect the mental well-being and quality of life of residents. In some
cases, odors can even lower property values and affect the local economy.
Testing and Measuring Wastewater
System operators, designers, and regulatory agencies use tests to evaluate the strength of wastewater and
the amount of treatment required, the quality of effluent at different stages of treatment, and the quality of
receiving waters at the point of discharge. Tests also determine whether treatment is in compliance with
state, local, and federal regulations. In small communities, operators and health officials often are trained
to collect samples and perform some or all wastewater tests themselves. An option that sometimes is
more economical for small systems is to send samples away to a lab for testing. The following area few
important tests:

BOD–biochemical oxygen demand

The BOD test measures the amount of dissolved oxygen organisms are likely to need to degrade wastes in
wastewater. This test is important for evaluating both how much treatment wastewater is likely to require
and the potential impact that it can have on receiving waters.
To perform the test, wastewater samples are placed in BOD bottles and are diluted with specially
prepared water containing dissolved oxygen. The dilution water is also "seeded" with bacteria when
treated wastewater is being tested. The amount of dissolved oxygen in the diluted samples is measured
using a dissolved oxygen meter, and the samples are then stored at a constant temperature of 20 degrees
Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit). Common incubation periods are five, seven, or twenty days; five days
(or BOD5) is the most common. At the end of the incubation period, the dissolved oxygen is measured
again. The amount that was used (expressed in milligrams per liter) is an indication of
wastewater strength. Refer to the Table 2 for some typical BOD amounts. For an in-depth explanation
of BOD and testing wastewater, refer to the module “Fundamental Microbiology of Sewage”.

TSS–total suspended solids

In addition to BOD, estimating the amount of suspended solids in wastewater helps to complete an overall
picture of how much secondary treatment is likely to be required. It also indicates wastewater clarity and
is important for assessing the potential impact of wastewater on the environment.
After large solids are removed in primary treatment, TSS is measured as the portion of solids retained by
a 2.0-micron filter. Refer to the Table 2 for some typical TSS amounts.

TC and FC – total coliforms and fecal coliforms

Coliform tests are useful for determining whether wastewater has been adequately treated and whether
water quality is suitable for drinking and recreation. Because they are very abundant in human wastes,
coliform bacteria are much easier to locate and identify in wastewater than viruses and other pathogens
that cause severe diseases. For this reason, coliform bacteria are used as indicator organisms for the
presence of other, more serious pathogens. Some coliforms are found in soil, so tests for fecal coliforms
are considered to be the most reliable. However, tests for both total coliforms and fecal coliforms are
commonly used. There are two methods for determining the presence and density of coliform bacteria.
The membrane filter (MF) technique provides a direct count of colonies trapped and then cultured. The
multiple tube fermentation method provides an estimate of the most probable number (MPN) per 100
milliliters from the number of test tubes in which gas bubbles form after incubation.

Why do we need to treat wastewater?

• To prevent groundwater pollution

• To prevent sea shore
• To prevent soil
• To prevent marine life
• Protection of public health
• To reuse the treated effluent For agriculture For groundwater recharge For industrial recycle
• Solving social problems caused by the accumulation of wastewater
• Protecting the public heal

Physical characteristics, Chemical characteristics and Biological Characteristics of waste

water

Physical characteristics- Solids

Solids are classified into three main types:

1. Total Solids (TS): All the matter that remains as residue upon evaporation at 103oC to 105oC.

2. Settleable solids: Settleable solids are measured as ml/L, which is an approximate measure of the
sludge that can be removed by primary sedimentation.

3. Suspended solids (SS) and Filterable solids (FS).

Odor is produced by gas production due to the decomposition of organic matter or by substances added to
the wastewater.

Temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of water supply. Depending on the geographic
location the mean annual temperature varies in the range of 10 to 21oC with an average of 16 oC.

It's a measure of the light – transmitting properties of water.(turbidity)

Chemical characteristics of wastewater:-

Points of concern regarding the chemical characteristics of wastewater are:

-Organic matter
-Measurements of organic matter

-Inorganic matter

-Gases

-pH

Organic mater is derived from animals & plants and man activities.

Proteins (40-60%).

Carbohydrates (25-50%).

Fats, Oils, and Grease (10%)

Biological Characteristics:- The environmental engineer must have considerable knowledge of the
biological of waste water because it is a very important characteristics factor in wastewater treatment. The
Engineer should know:-

1. The principal groups of microorganisms found in wastewater.

2. The pathogenic organisms.

3. Indicator organisms (indicate the – presence of pathogens).

4. The methods used to amount the microorganisms.

5. The methods to evaluate the toxicity of treated wastewater

Population equivalent or unit per capita loading, (PE), in waste-water treatment is the number
expressing the ratio of the sum of the pollution load produced during 24 hours by industrial facilities and
services to the individual pollution load in household sewage produced by one person in the same time. 
For practical calculations, it is assumed that one unit equals to 54 grams of BOD per 24 hours.

PE = BOD load from industry(kg/d)

0.054(kg/inhab.day)
Standards for Effluent Discharge Regulations
“waterbody” includes a stream, a river, a canal, a lake, a pond, a reservoir, an estuary, a wetland and
underground water; “watercourse” means any natural or artificial channel, pipe or conduit, excluding the
sewerage system, carrying, or that may carry, and discharging water directly or indirectly into a water body;

List of parameters for each industrial activity

INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY PARAMETERS

Textile manufacturing Colour, Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, Free
Chlorine, TSS, Chloride, Sulphate, Sulphide, Ammoniacal Nitrogen,
Nitrate as N, Detergents, Cadmium, Total Chromium, Cobalt,
Copper,Molybdenum, Sodium, Zinc, Oil & Grease, Total Pesticides,
Total Organic Halides.
Metal Plating & Galvanising Temperature, pH, COD, Free Chlorine, TSS, Chloride, Sulphate,
Sulphide, Nitrate as N, Cyanide, Cadmium, Total Chromium, Cobalt,
Copper, Iron, Lead, Nickel, Zinc, Oil & Grease, Total Organic Halides.
Slaughtering Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, TSS, Chloride, Nitrate as N, TKN, Oil &
Grease, Total Coliforms, E. Coli
Canning & Food Processing Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Free Chlorine, TSS, Chloride, Nitrate as
N, TKN, Sodium, Oil & Grease, Total Coliforms.
Dairy Processing Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, TSS, Selenium, Oil & Grease,
Detergents, Ammoniacal Nitrogen.
Soft Drink Bottling Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, TSS, Sodium, Zinc, Detergents.
Breweries & Distilleries Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, TSS, Nitrate as N, Selenium, Zinc, Oil &
Grease, Detergents, Ammoniacal Nitrogen.
Laundry processes Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, Free Chlorine,
TSS, Nitrate as N, Total Chromium, Copper, Iron, Lead, Oil & Grease,
Total Organic Halides, Detergents
Edible Oil Refining Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, TSS, Chloride, Sodium, Oil & Grease,
Total Organic Halides, Phenols, Detergents.
Paint Manufacturing Colour, Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, TSS, Chloride, Sulphate,
Sulphide, Aluminium, Cadmium, Total Chromium, Cobalt, Copper,
Lead, Mercury, Molybdenum, Zinc, Oil & Grease, Total Organic Halides.
Mechanical Workshop pH, COD, BOD5, Oil & Grease, Total Chromium, Lead, Manganese, Zinc.
Thermal Power Plant Temperature, pH, TSS, Oil & Grease, Total Chromium, Copper, Iron,
Zinc.
Soap & Detergents Manufacturing Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, Free Chlorine¸
TSS, Oil & Grease, Total Organic Halides, Detergents, Ammoniacal
Nitrogen.
Manufacture of Pharmaceutical products Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, TSS, Sulphide, Oil
& Grease, Phenols and Detergents.
Tanning Colour, Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, TSS,
Sulphate, Sulphide, Nitrate as Nitrogen, Cadmium, Total Chromium,
Mercury, Oil & Grease, Total Organic Halides, Total Coliforms, E. Coil
Coli, Ammoniacal Nitrogen.
Manufacture of Chemical Fertilizers Temperature, pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, TSS, Sulphate, Oil
& Grease, Ammoniacal Nitrogen.
 Livestock Breeding pH, COD, BOD5, Reactive Phosphorus, TSS, Nitrate as Nitrogen, TKN,
Total Coliforms, E. Coli, Ammoniacal Nitrogen.

 Effluent discharge Standards

Parameter Unit Maximum permissible limit

   
Land/ Surface water
courses
Underground
Total coliforms MPN per 100 - <400
ml
E. Coli MPN per 100 <1000 <200
ml
       

Free Chlorine mg/l - 0.5

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) l 45 35

Reactive Phosphorus mg/l 10 1

  mg/l  

Colour - Not objectionable

Temperature 0
C 40
pH - 5–9
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) mg/l 120
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) mg/l 40
Chloride mg/l 750
Sulphate mg/l 750
Sulphide mg/l 0.002
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/l 1
Nitrate as N mg/l 10
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) mg/l 25
Nitrite as N mg/l 1
     
Aluminium mg/l 5
Arsenic mg/l 0.1
Beryllium mg/l 0.1
Boron mg/l 0.75
Cadmium mg/l 0.01
Cobalt mg/l 0.05
Copper mg/l 0.5
Iron mg/l 2.0
Lead mg/l 0.05
Lithium mg/l 2.5
Manganese mg/l 0.2
Mercury mg/l 0.005
Molybdenum mg/l 0.01
Nickel mg/l 0.1
Selenium mg/l 0.02
Sodium mg/l 200
Total Chromium mg/l 0.05
Vanadium mg/l 0.1
Zinc mg/l 2
     
Oil & Grease mg/l 10
Total Pesticides mg/l 0.025
Total organic halides mg/l 1
 Cyanide (as CN -) or Free cyanide mg/l 0.1
Phenols mg/l 0.5
Detergents (as LAS*) mg/l 15

FACTOR AFFECTING SELF PURIFICATION OF STREAMS

The process of automatic purification of polluted water in due course of time by the stream itself which
has been polluted is called as self purification process. Following are the force (factors) that affects self
purification process:

 Dilution & dispersion: When the putresible organic matter is discharged into a large volume of
water contained in the river stream it gets rapidly dispersed and diluted. Such action results into
the decrement in pollution concentration.
 Sedimentation: Heavier settable solids settle at the river bed and hence near the outfall of river,
the concentration of settleable solids decreases which affects the self purification process.
 Sunlight: Aquatic plants absorb sunlight and carries out the process of photosynthesis with the
help of chlorophyll. Such process of photosynthesis supplies a valuable amount of O2 to the
stream i.e. increases DO content of stream.
 Oxidation: The oxidation of the organic matter present in sewage effluent will start as soon as the
sewage outfalls into the river water containing dissolved oxygen. The deficiency of O2 so created
will be filled by atmospheric O2.
 Reduction: Reduction occurs due to hydrolysis of organic matter settled at the bottom either
chemically or biologically. Anaerobic bacteria will help in splitting the complex organic
constituents of sewage into liquids and gases and thus making the ways for their ultimate
stabilization by oxidation.

Control measures of stream pollution:

 Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central government.
 Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment areas of rivers,
ponds or streams.
 Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of wastes
into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
 Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
 Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence more tress
should be planted.
 Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws
should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological
advancements.
WASTE WATER ANALYSYS
Dissolved Oxygen balancing and its modelling
The stream system both produces and consumes oxygen. It gains oxygen from the atmosphere and from
plants as a result of photosynthesis. Running water, because of its churning, dissolves more oxygen than
still water, such as that in a reservoir behind a dam. Respiration by aquatic animals, decomposition, and
various chemical reactions consume oxygen.

Wastewater from sewage treatment plants often contains organic materials that are decomposed by
microorganisms, which use oxygen in the process. (The amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms
in breaking down the waste is known as the biochemical oxygen demand or BOD. A discussion of BOD
and how to monitor it is included at the end of this section.) Other sources of oxygen-consuming waste
include stormwater runoff from farmland or urban streets, feedlots, and failing septic systems.

Oxygen is measured in its dissolved form as dissolved oxygen (DO). If more oxygen is consumed than is
produced, dissolved oxygen levels decline and some sensitive animals may move away, weaken, or die.

DO levels fluctuate seasonally and over a 24-hour period. They vary with water temperature and altitude.
Cold water holds more oxygen than warm water (Table 5.3) and water holds less oxygen at higher
altitudes. Thermal discharges, such as water used to cool machinery in a manufacturing plant or a power
plant, raise the temperature of water and lower its oxygen content. Aquatic animals are most vulnerable to
lowered DO levels in the early morning on hot summer days when stream flows are low, water
temperatures are high, and aquatic plants have not been producing oxygen since sunset.

Sampling and Equipment Considerations

In contrast to lakes, where DO levels are most likely to vary vertically in the water column, the DO in
rivers and streams changes more horizontally along the course of the waterway. This is especially true in
smaller, shallower streams. In larger, deeper rivers, some vertical stratification of dissolved oxygen might
occur. The DO levels in and below riffle areas, waterfalls, or dam spillways are typically higher than
those in pools and slower-moving stretches. If you wanted to measure the effect of a dam, it would be
important to sample for DO behind the dam, immediately below the spillway, and upstream of the dam.
Since DO levels are critical to fish, a good place to sample is in the pools that fish tend to favor or in the
spawning areas they use.

An hourly time profile of DO levels at a sampling site is a valuable set of data because it shows the
change in DO levels from the low point just before sunrise to the high point sometime in the midday.
However, this might not be practical for a volunteer monitoring program. It is important to note the time
of your DO sampling to help judge when in the daily cycle the data were collected.

DO is measured either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or "percent saturation." Milligrams per liter is the
amount of oxygen in a liter of water. Percent saturation is the amount of oxygen in a liter of water relative
to the total amount of oxygen that the water can hold at that temperature.

DO samples are collected using a special BOD bottle: a glass bottle with a "turtleneck" and a ground glass
stopper. You can fill the bottle directly in the stream if the stream is wadable or boatable, or you can use a
sampler that is dropped from a bridge or boat into water deep enough to submerse the sampler. Samplers
can be made or purchased. Dissolved oxygen is measured primarily either by using some variation of the
Winkler method or by using a meter and probe.

Winkler Method

The Winkler method involves filling a sample bottle completely with water (no air is left to bias the test).
The dissolved oxygen is then "fixed" using a series of reagents that form an acid compound that is
titrated. Titration involves the drop-by-drop addition of a reagent that neutralizes the acid compound and
causes a change in the color of the solution. The point at which the color changes is the "endpoint" and is
equivalent to the amount of oxygen dissolved in the sample. The sample is usually fixed and titrated in
the field at the sample site. It is possible, however, to prepare the sample in the field and deliver it to a lab
for titration.