INTRODUCTION

TYPOLOGIES
TERMINOLOGY
ARCHES

Vaison la Romaine,
France
Roman bridge, 1st
 ARCHES IN NATURE

Utah - USA Indian Himalayas

Ardèche, France

Utah - USA Zanskar, Indian

Himalayas

USA Ennedi, Tchad Zanskar, Indian

Himalayas
 SEMICIRCULAR ARCHES

Dauphiné, France Cob, Nigeria

Caldes de Montbui,
Spain

Mions, France Guane, Colombia

Saint Chef, France Delphi, Greece Oxaca, Mexico

 SEGMENTAL ARCHES

Saint chef, France Cataluña, Spain

Najac, France

Ahmedabad, India Durango, Mexico

Afotobo, Ivory Coast Barcelona, Spain Mexico City, Mexico

 FLAT ARCHES

Mexico City , Mexico Flat – Ahmedabad, India

Tel Aviv, Israel

Los Ladrillos, Mexico Caldes de Montbui,

Spain

Saltillo, Mexico Mexico City , Mexico Le Crest, France

 BUCKET ARCHES

Santa Barbara d’Oeste, Bridge, France

Brazil
Barcelona, Spain

Sombrerete, Mexico Vaison la Romaine,

France

Guanajuato, Mexico Mexico City, Mexico Vaison la Romaine,

France
 POINTED ARCHES

Beauvais, France Castillo Chapultepec,

Mexico
Brussels, Belgium

Najac, France Istanbul, Turkey

Chartres, France Cape Town, South Barcelona, Spain

Africa
 VARIOUS ARCHES

Corbelled – Greece, ~1500 Barcelona, Spain Rampant – Najac,

BC France

Santa Coloma de Cervello, Rampant – Auroville

Spain

Segmental – Italy Catenary – Barcelona, Corbelled – Auroville

Spain
 VARIOUS ARCHES

Bridge – Martorell, Istanbul, Turkey Reinforced earth –

Spain Nigeria

Segmental Pointed – Pointed – Puri, India

Somalia

Pointed – Eritrea Taj Mahal – India Italy

 VAULTS

Ramasseum, Egypt – Adobes ~ 1300 BC

 VAULTS

Mycenae, Greece ~ 1300 BC Ctesiphon, Fired bricks, 21m span ~ 6th

C. – Iraq

Puy en Velay, France Barcelona, Spain

 SEGMENTAL VAULTS

Coimbatore, India Bam, Iran Yazd, Iran

Masada, Israel ~50 BC Egypt Khoranagh, Iran

Ouagadougou, Burkina Uruguay, by Eladio Auroville, India

Faso Dieste
 SEMICIRCULAR VAULTS

Brussels, Belgium Tournus, France

Istanbul, Turkey

New Delhi, India Villeneuve d’Aveyron,

France

Arg e Bam, Iran Istanbul, Turkey Jerusalem, Israel

 POINTED BARREL VAULTS

Arg E Bam, Iran Puy en velay, France

Kerman, Iran

Najac, France Monastery, France

Auroville, India Meiboud Citadel, Iran Monastery, France

 POINTED RIBBED VAULTS

Beauvais, France Fontenay, France

Tournus, France

Lincoln, UK Paris, France

Köln, Germany Chartres, France Bale, Switzerland

 VARIOUS VAULTS

Semicircular, Dug out – Groined vault, Italy Catenary, conical pots - Dolavira,
Tunisia India

Segmental by Eladio Dieste, Laying conical pots – Auroville,

Uruguay India

Catenary by Eladio Dieste, Wooden nave – Asmara, Catenary, Tunisia

Uruguay Eritrea
 DOMES

Gol Gumbaz 1656 – Ø 37.92 m – Bijapur, India

DOMES IN NATURE

Termite nests
 WOODEN DOMES

“Bulbou” - Somalia “Kalubé” – Genale, Somalia

Marianna, Brazil Lyon, France

 HEMISPHERICAL DOMES

Blue mosque, Istanbul, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, St. Sepulcher, Jerusalem,

Turkey Turkey Israel

Jami Masjid, Bijapur, St Gerassimos 455 AD,

India Israel

Jod Gumbaz, Bijapur, Hagia Sophia, 6th C. - Sikh Temple, New Delhi,
India Istanbul India
 DOMES ON PENDENTIVES

Hemisphere cut by Auroville, India Villefontaine, France

plans

Yazd Bazaar, Iran House of 24 h. Grenoble,

France

Hassan Fathy, Abique, Janadriyah, Saudi Arabia House of 24 h. Grenoble,

USA France
 FACETED DOMES

Turkey Santa Barbara, Brazil

Santa Barbara, Brazil

Istanbul, Turkey Zacatecas, Mexico

Cloister dome, Auroville, Barichara, Colombia Durango, Mexico

India
 VARIOUS DOMES

“Navette”, Iran Conical, Ivory Coast Cloister dome, Peru

Squinche dome, Iran Conical, France Ahmedabad, India

Agra, India Ajmer, India Bhuj, India

STABILITY NOTIONS
 FORCES IN AVD
ARCHES & VAULTS DOMES

Forces in a circular
dome
Forces in an arch or a
vault HT = Horizontal thrust
LT = Line of thrust
HT = Horizontal thrust W = weight
LT = Line of thrust T = Thrust
W = Weight CF = Circular force
T = Thrust PT = Peripheral
tension
 STABILITY PRINCIPLE
LT must remain in the middle third of the arch section and pier.
Disregard to this rule will cause deformations and then collapse.

Ex. 1 = Heavy load or disproportionate Solution 1 Solution 2

shape Change the shape Load the arch
⇒ LT is at the intrados ⇒
failure

Ex. 2 = LT is in the middle third of Solution 1 Solution 2

the arch Widen the pier Load the arch
but not in the pier ⇒ failure
 CATENARY CURVE OF THE LINE OF THRUST
Arches can have various shapes and sizes,
but the line of thrust always follows the shape of an inverted catenary curve.
Symmetrical load Asymmetrical
load
 MODIFICATION OF THE LINE OF THRUST IN A WALL

The weight of the wall above the arch will modify the line of thrust in the masonry.
LT will become a higher catenary.
Most of the time, the main forces do not pass anymore in the arch but in the masonry above
it.
 INFLUENCE OF THE ARCH THICKNESS ON STABILITY
The thickness of the arch is essential in order to allow LT to remain in the middle third.
These minimum thicknesses must be followed:
Semicircular arches: t ≥ S/5 (Where t is the thickness and S the span)

Too thin Solution 1 Solution 2

⇒ t = S/20 ⇒ failure Increase the thickness: t = S/5 Load the haunches

Egyptian arch: t ≥ S/7 (Where t is the thickness and S the span)

Egyptian arch
Note that here we use the name arch but it is the same for a vault.
 FUNICULAR DIAGRAM ARCH ALONE
Arch of the video clip, wedged with stones (no mortar)

This arch is too thin

It does not follow the thickness requirement: t = S/10
But it stands
The condition of stability (LT in the middle third) is a safe limit:
⇒ Only compression forces in the arch

In this case there are tensions, especially at the extrados of the haunches
 FUNICULAR DIAGRAM WITH LOAD
Arch of the video clip, wedged with stones (no mortar) ⇒ It collapses with 6
blocks

The arch collapses only when LT becomes tangent at the intrados and / or extrados:

⇒ Either at the extrados near the key

⇒ Or at the intrados near the haunches
 INFLUENCE OF THE MORTAR ON STABILITY
Same arch but with earth mortar ⇒ It resists with the load of 24
Mortar holds the arch and givesblocks !!!
more stability ⇒ This is an extra safety.

Stability calculation with the funicular

method
assumes that the arch is built without
mortar
AVD AND EARTHQUAKE

Arg E Bam – 2003

Earthquake
 ARCHES BEHAVIOUR

Failure in the direction of the line of Failure at the springer / direction line of
thrust thrust

Shear forces follow the line of thrust Shear forces follow the line of thrust
 VAULTS BEHAVIOUR
Tilting
of the
pier

Longitudinal
cracks

Tilting of the pier cause cracks Different inertia and rigidity causes
cracks

Different inertia and rigidity causes Both horizontal thrusts cause cracks
cracks
 VAULTS BEHAVIOUR

Only gable wall collapsed Different inertia and rigidity causes

cracks

Good behaviour Different loads on both haunches causes

cracks
 VAULTS BEHAVIOUR

Right wall tilted but the vault stands Good behaviour though there is no bond
pattern

Good behaviour though the line of Truss rod at the end of the series of
trust is out vaults
 VAULTS BEHAVIOUR

This vault is theoretically not stable

under static condition

This vault should already collapse

under static conditions

Pier cracked but the vault is standing Funicular analysis

 VAULTS BEHAVIOUR

This vault should have collapsed

This vault is theoretically not stable After collapsed of the side vault
Once the right side vault has collapsed
…vault is standing
Wall tilted but the Funicular analysis
 VAULTS BEHAVIOUR

This vault should have collapsed

This vault is theoretically not stable After collapsed of the side vault
Once the right side vault has collapsed
…vault is standing
Wall tilted but the Funicular analysis
 DOMES BEHAVIOUR

1 Column collapsed but the dome Side wall collapsed but the dome
partly stands partly stands

Analysis of the thrust lines 1 Column collapsed but the dome partly
stands
 DOMES BEHAVIOUR

Failure of the haunch filling Failure of the haunch filling

Good behaviour of an eroded dome Shear crack in a eroded dome still

standing
 DOMES BEHAVIOUR

Good behaviour of a partly Good behaviour with hardly any crack

underground dome

Pointed dome still standing after gable wall Good behaviour with hardly any crack
collapsed
STABILITY CALCULATIONS
 CATENARY METHOD
  A chain is hung and then loaded with other small
chains.

  The small chains represent the various loads needed

to bring LT in the middle third of the arch.

  This curve will also be a catenary, but modified by the

various loads applied on it. It represents the line of
thrust.

Robert Hooke, an English engineer, made in 1675 the correlation between the tensile
stress in a chain and the compressive stress in an arch.
Gaudi developed and used extensively this method. He studied very precisely the
various loads applied.
The piers or columns, which support the arch, were also given the direction of the line
of thrust.
Gaudi: Crypte Iglesia Colonia Guell
(1898-1914)
 Stability study for
Iglesia Colonia Guell
 A few other
Casa Batlló Casa Mila - La
Works of
Pedrera
Sagrada Familia Gaudi Stability study
 CATENARY METHOD
The desired shape is drawn reversed and the chain is loaded, so as to get LT in the
middle third.

A simple methods converts the links of the chain into weights, which represent the
load on the haunches.
But if the shape is kept it gives a strange pattern for loading the arch.

Arch loaded

The catenary method used as such is not realistic. The optimization method is preferred
 FUNICULAR METHOD

It is used to calculate the intensity of the forces acting in an arch.

An arch is divided in two halves. The weights of the segments are calculated and drawn on a
diagram.
The method defines the progressive change of the line of thrust in the arch.
 OPTIMISATION METHOD
  Optimal section = The lightest arch with the line of thrust in the
middle third
  The lighter the arch is, the lesser will be the total thrust

Combination of the
Catenary method, used by Gaudi
and the Funicular method

Catenary method Funicular method

OPTIMISATION METHOD
 OPTIMISATION METHOD

Dimension the cord, span, height and angle of every horizontal course

⇒ To control while building that the vault rises as desired

OPTIMISATION METHOD
Optimised Equilateral vault, the vault of the
cathedrals
Optimised Egyptian vault
 EVALUATION OF THE STABILITY OF DOMES

Square domes which are generated by the intersection of two vaults (i. e. groined and
⇒ Their stability is studied like the arch of the original
cloister domes), have forces identical to those of vaults.
vault.

A circular dome created by the rotation of an arch around a vertical axis, creates circular
⇒ These types of domes require another approach to calculate their
forces, which cannot be calculated yet.
stability.
Domes built all over the world since ages show that domes can have a wider variety of
shapes than vaults.
  A dome can be conical with any
  But an arch cannot have a triangular section.
proportions.

  If arches or vaults are stable, domes of the same section will necessarily be stable.
  But the opposite is not true, as it is showed above with the conical domes and the
triangular
  The domearch.
is studied like an arch ⇒ When the arch will be stable, the dome will
necessarily be stable.
  This is a safe method but the dome is not optimised at the most.
 NEUTRALISATION OF THE THRUST
SMALL ARCHES IN A WALL

Segmental arch in the centre

The thrust will be balanced by the weight of the wall.

1⇒ 2⇒

Segmental arch in a Change the shape of the arch. Move the arch away
corner: from the corner.
The thrust may disturb
the stability of the
corner.
 NEUTRALISATION OF THE THRUST
LARGE ARCHES

The pier is not wide enough and will collapse.

1 2
⇓ ⇓

Change the angle of the roof, Keep the angle of the roof,
So as to load the haunches more But add a buttress or widen the pier
 NEUTRALISATION OF THE THRUST
FORCES ACTING ON A BEAM
Vault rests on a beam which spans an opening
  The stress is composed of the horizontal thrust and the
weight.
  The span has to be considered in two directions:

- Vertically for the weight ⇒ to span the opening:

Force = W (Kg/m) x opening span (m)
- Horizontally for HT ⇒ to span the spacing between the
truss rods:
Force = HT (Kg/m) x truss rods spacing (m) Forces applied on a
beam

FORCES ACTING ON A RING BEAM

Vault rests on a ring beam above a wall

  The stress is composed of only the horizontal thrust.

  The span has to be considered in only one direction:

- Horizontally for HT ⇒ to span the spacing between the

truss rods:
Force = HT (Kg/m) x truss rods spacing (m) Force applied on a ring
beam
 NEUTRALISATION OF THE THRUST
INCREASING THE INERTIA AND RESISTIVE MOMENT OF A BEAM

The horizontal thrust of the vault can be sometimes very intense.

  The width of the beam should be large

enough
To reduce the size of steel rods.

Large inertia with a rainwater

gutter

BENDING MOMENTS APPLIED ON THE RING BEAM OR THE BEAM

The type of bending moments will depend on:

The morphology of the beam / ring beam and the spacing of truss rods.
 NEUTRALISATION OF THE THRUST
CALCULATION OF A TRUSS ROD IN A VAULT

Force applied on the truss rod : F (Kg) = 2 HT (Kg/m) x truss rods spacing (m)

F is taken as 2 HT because HT has been defined only for half the arch... Which is a safety.
The section of the steel profile is defined according to the admissible stress of steel (2400
Kg/cm2).

ANCHORAGE OF THE TRUSS ROD

Care should be taken for the anchorage of the truss rod in the beam or ring beam.
The embedment length of the rod in the RCC beam is essential, so as to transmit the tensile
force to concrete.
But it is not always possible to embed properly the rod in the
RCC beam...

Example 2

Example
1
 NEUTRALISATION OF THE THRUST
SQUARE DOMES
Square domes are generated by the intersection of vaults.
  The forces involved will be similar to those of the vaults generating the dome.

CIRCULAR DOMES
The dome section can be assimilated to an arch which
rotates on itself.
  It is like an infinite number of arches radiating from the centre
of the dome.
  This creates a peripheral tension on the perimeter of the dome. Radiating forces
creating
a peripheral tension

The peripheral tension PT (in Kg) and the total weight TW (in Kg) of the dome are:
(HT = horizontal thrust of half the theoretical arch,
in Kg/m)
(W = weight of half the theoretical arch, in Kg/m)
(R = radius of the theoretical arch and the dome,
in m)
 ACCOUSTICS OF VAULTED STRUCTURES
Vaulted structures are characterised by two acoustic phenomena: echo and reverberation.
  Echo happens only in domes which are generated by the portion of a sphere. ⇒ It is
due to the shape represents the time needed for the sound to fade⇒away.
  Reverberation It is due to:
•  Volume created by the vaulted structure.
•  Shape of the structure, which tends to hold the sound within itself.
•  Materials used for the walls and vaulted structure.
  Hemispherical domes have the strongest echo.
  Pointed domes have rarely echo but they can have reverberation and / or they
amplify
  Domes the sounds. by the intersection of vaults (cloister or groined dome) don’t have
generated
any echo.
Echo and reverberation can be limited by acoustic correctors.
They are called “Single Resonator Absorbers” or Helmholtz resonators

Working principle of the single resonator absorbers

A cavity opened in a room and closed on the other side will resonate at a certain frequency.

Neck Cavity

Resonator with a cavity and a neck Resonator as a tube

When a sound strikes the resonator, the air in the neck vibrates strongly.
⇒ The sound is absorbed by viscous loss.
CONSTRUCTION
 SEMICIRCULAR ARCH

1. Adjusting the centering 2. Laying mortar on the springer

4. Sliding down the second block 3. Sliding down the first block on the
springer
 SEMICIRCULAR ARCH

5. Checking the perpendicularity of the 6. Laying mortar on a block

block

8. Sliding laterally a block 7. Sliding down a block on the mortar

 SEMICIRCULAR ARCH

9. Checking the perpendicularity of 10. Blocks are perpendicular to the

the block centering

12. Adjusting the keystone 11. Building symmetrically the arch

 SEMICIRCULAR ARCH

13. Keystone adjusted: tight at intrados 14. Pouring slurry in the joint

16. Removing the centering 15. Filling a dryer mortar and pressing
it
EGYPTIAN SHAPED VAULT WITH THE NUBIAN TECHNIQUE
5 m span, 9 m long, 17.7 & 14 cm thickness, built in 12 days by 4 masons

1. Wall shaped as desired 2. Window frame as a template

5. Applying glue on a block 4. Glue fluidity 3. Soaking a

block
 EGYPTIAN SHAPED VAULT WITH THE NUBIAN TECHNIQUE
5 m span, 9 m long, 17.7 & 14 cm thickness, built in 12 days by 4 masons

6. Laying blocks

8. Egyptian shaped vault as a catenary 7. Building the vault symmetrically

EGYPTIAN SHAPED VAULT AS A CATENARY
Training Centre of the Auroville Earth Institute
 CATENARY VAULT
6 m span, 3 m rise, 14 to 7 cm thick, built in 3 weeks by 4 masons

1. Window frame as a template 2. Building by steps on the window

frame
 CATENARY VAULT
6 m span, 3 m rise, 14 to 7 cm thick, built in 3 weeks by 4 masons

3. Laying blocks on window frame

5. Starting a bull eye 4. Removing the window frame

 CATENARY VAULT
6 m span, 3 m rise, 14 to 7 cm thick, built in 3 weeks by 4 masons
 BULL EYE OF THE CATENARY VAULT
80 cm diameter, 5 cm thick

1. Bull eye in progress 2. Laying keys of the bull eye

5. Bull eye completed in two 4. Keystone laid 3. Corbelling the bull

days eye
 LUNETTE OF THE CATENARY VAULT
90 cm span, 210 cm rise, 7 cm thick

1. Starting a catenary lunette by corbelling 2. Corbelling the blocks

blocks
 LUNETTE OF THE CATENARY VAULT
90 cm span, 210 cm rise, 7 cm thick

3. Keys of the lunette

5. Lunette in progress 4. Laying the keystone

 CATENARY VAULT
Kitchen of the training centre at the Auroville Earth Institute
 SEGMENTAL VAULT – 10.35 m span, 2.25 m rise
~ 30 tons, built in 3 weeks by 4 masons

1. Starting the squinche 2. Building the squinche

4. Vault near completion 3. Starting the vault and net of string

lines
SEGMENTAL VAULT – 10.35 m span, 2.25 m rise
~ 30 tons, built in 3 weeks by 4 masons

5. Photo taken after 2

days
 HEMISPHERICAL DOME ON PENDENTIVES
3.70 m square room (Ø 5.232 m), built in 5 days by 1 mason

1. Fluidity of 2. Laying a block 3. Dome in progress

glue

5. Completing the dome 4. Laying blocks

 HEMISPHERICAL DOME ON PENDENTIVES
3.70 m square room (Ø 5.232 m), built in 5 days by 1 mason
 SEGMENTAL CLOISTER DOME
3.60 m square, 60 cm rise, built in 6 days by 4 masons

1. Building the squinches 2. Wedging a block with a stone chip

4. Closing the dome 3. Adjusting the keystone

 SEGMENTAL CLOISTER DOME
3.60 m square, 60 cm rise, built in 6 days by 4 masons
 EQUILATERAL VAULT
3.60 m span, 3.12 m rise, 34 to 7 cm thick, built in 36 days by 4 masons

1. Building horizontally the vault & 2. Placing a ferrocement ring

half dome

4. Steps and keystones 3. Building horizontally the vault by

steps
 EQUILATERAL VAULT

5. Building by steps 6. Laying 7. Laying link slabs 8. Lunette near

keystones completion

11. 3.6m span, 34 to 7cm 10. Window frame removed 9. Completing the vault
thick
 EQUILATERAL VAULT
Completed house with the equilateral vault
 EQUILATERAL VAULT
Completed house with the equilateral vault
 EQUILATERAL GROINED VAULT
3.60 m span, 3.12 m rise, 34 to 7 cm thick, built in 37 days, by 7-8 masons

1. Starting horizontal courses on the 2. Horizontal courses on the entire

entire length length

4. Laying a keystone 3. Starting vertical courses on the

window frame
 EQUILATERAL GROINED VAULT
3.60 m span, 3.12 m rise, 34 to 7 cm thick, built in 37 days, by 7-8 masons

5. Laying vertical courses and 6. Vault in progress

keystones

8. Closing the apex of the groined 7. Laying a corner block and bond
vault pattern
EQUILATERAL GROINED VAULT
Showroom at Pondicherry
EQUILATERAL GROINED VAULT
Showroom at Pondicherry
 SEMICIRCULAR VAULT – 6 m span, 11 m long
~ 40 tons, built in 37 days by 4 masons

1. Horizontal courses on the entire 2. Starting 4 horizontal courses by

length steps

4. Building the vault symmetrically 3. Laying vertical courses

SEMICIRCULAR VAULT – 6 m span, 11 m long
~ 40 tons, built in 37 days by 4 masons

Thickness: 36.5cm at bottom up to 7cm on top

 SEGMENTAL GROINED VAULT
3.50 m span, 50 cm rise, 7 cm thick, built in 5 days by 4 masons

1. Side vaults and template with strings 2. Starting the groin of a course

4. Groined vault near completion 3. Groined vault in progress

 SEGMENTAL GROINED VAULT
3.50 m span, 50 cm rise, 7 cm thick, built in 5 days by 4 masons
DHYANALINGAM DOME – Elliptical section, 22.16 m span, 6.90 m rise
~ 570 tons, built with fired brick and granite stones in 9 weeks with ~ 30 masons and 200
workers

1. Entrance vault with granite stones 2. Elliptical shape with strings from the focal
points

4. Checking the position of a block 3. Adjusting the first block of a course

 DHYANALINGAM DOME
~ 570 tons, built with fired brick and granite stones in 9 weeks with ~ 30 masons and 200
workers

5. Dome in progress after ~4-5 weeks 6. Dome in progress after ~5-6 weeks

8. Plastering the haunches 7. Loading the back with granite stones & earth
concrete
 DHYANALINGAM DOME
~ 570 tons, built with fired brick and granite stones in 9 weeks with ~ 30 masons and 200
workers

9. Dome in progress 10. Adjusting the compass

12. Dome near completion 11. Adjusting blocks with a compass.

 DHYANALINGAM DOME
~ 570 tons, built with fired brick and granite stones in 9 weeks with ~ 30 masons and 200
workers

Dome after 9 weeks

DHYANALINGAM
DOME
CLOISTER DOME OF KARNESHWARA NATARAJA TEMPLE – 6 m span

1. Setting up the template 2. Starting the cloister dome

4. Filling the pyramid with an earth 3. Cloister dome with keys

concrete
CLOISTER DOME OF KARNESHWARA NATARAJA TEMPLE – 6 m span

5. Building the arch of the entrance 6. Completing the dome

8. Pyramid temple completed in 6 7. Completing the pyramid

months
Karneshwara Nataraja
Temple