inventions

Article
Comparison of Lithium-Ion Battery Models for
Simulating Storage Systems in Distributed
Power Generation
Hartmut Hinz
Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering, Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, 60318 Frankfurt/Main,
Germany; hhinz@fb2.fra-uas.de; Tel.: +49-69-1533-2277




Received: 9 June 2019; Accepted: 2 August 2019; Published: 6 August 2019


Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries are well known in numerous commercial applications. Using accurate
and efficient models, system designers can predict the behavior of batteries and optimize the associated
performance management. Model-based development comprises the investigation of electrical,
electro-chemical, thermal, and aging characteristics. This paper focuses on the analysis of models
describing the electrical behavior. In particular, it investigates how cell voltage and state of charge can
be determined with sufficient accuracy for a given load profile. For this purpose, the Thevenin-based,
the Rint, and the Shepherd’s models, as well as a generic library model of an electronic circuit simulation
software package, are compared. The procedure for determining model parameters is discussed in
detail. All models are evaluated for the application in the analysis of distributed power generation.
The validation is carried out by comparing simulation and measurement results with the help of a
case study.

Keywords: lithium-ion battery; equivalent circuit model; simulation; distributed generation

1. Introduction
Forecasts indicate that the global energy demand will continue to rise through 2040 [1]. At the
same time, global greenhouse gas emissions need to be reduced by the mid-century to less than
half of the level of 1990 [2]. For this reason, fossil fuels cannot meet the rising demand for energy
under these claims in the long-term. Consequently, the expansion of renewables has continued to
gain in significance due to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris [3]. The key
outcome is to limit global warming to less than 2 ◦ C, at least 1.5 ◦ C, compared to pre-industrial levels.
In this context, grid-connected distributed power generation (DG) plays a crucial role in achieving this
objective [4]. Architectures of DG can be found in a wide diversity of scenarios such as household
applications, in supply systems of residential areas, or in microgrids. The power range extends from a
few kilowatts to several megawatts [4]. Depending on the installed capacity, the DG is connected either
to the low-voltage or to the medium-voltage grid [4–6]. In addition to the advantage of generating
energy locally at the point of consumption, DG also enables the flexible integration of renewable
energies such as wind, micro hydropower, and biomass, as well as photovoltaics. The most common
DG with renewables is the installation of a photovoltaic system (PV) [7]. When using renewables with
fluctuating power generation such as a PV, electrical energy storage must be taken into account [8].
Decentralized electrochemical storage is of particular interest due to its flexible use in the expansion
of fluctuating renewable energies, and lithium-based storage still has enormous technical and cost
reduction potential [9]. The major design criteria of this technology are a high volumetric energy density,
a high round trip efficiency, a high cycle lifetime, and not least the investment costs. Most common are
lead-acid batteries with a high efficiency (75–90%), an energy density between 30 to 50 Wh/kg, and a

Inventions 2019, 4, 41; doi:10.3390/inventions4030041 www.mdpi.com/journal/inventions

Inventions 2019, 4, 41 2 of 22

cycle lifetime up to 1500. This type is used in numerous applications, e.g., in uninterruptable power
supply for large data center up to 1200 kVA [10]. A promising technology for grid applications is the
lithium-ion battery which is characterized by a high cell voltage (3.6 V), energy density (up to 200 Wh/kg),
efficiency (85–95%), and cycle lifetime (1000–15,000 cycles) [9,11]. Despite the high investment and low
energy density (50 Wh/kg), vanadium redox-flow batteries are used in grid applications. They offer a
flexible and modular design, high efficiency (>75%) and cycle lifetime (>10,000), deep discharge, and low
self-discharge [12]. Furthermore molten-salt batteries (Sodium-sulfur, Sodium-nickel chloride) are under
investigation. Although these two types of batteries require complex constructions and high operating
temperatures (300–350 ◦ C), they offer a potential for grid applications due to their high efficiency
(80–90%), cycle lifetime (up to 4500), and energy density (up to 200 Wh/kg). Commercial availability
is expected beyond 2020 [13,14]. Advanced technologies like zinc-air, lithium-sulphur, and lithium-air
batteries are currently in the research phase [9]. Market availability is expected from 2030. Considering
that certain battery types are used for short-term (<1 h), intermediate (<1 day), and long-term (>1 day)
storage, a size class breakdown can be performed as summarized in Table 1 [9]. Technologies which are
expected to be launched between 2020 and 2030 or from 2030 are listed in italics.

Table 1. Battery storage portfolio.

<100 kWh 0.1–1 MWh 1 MWh–1 GWh

lead-acid lead-acid
lead-acid
<1 h lithium-ion lithium-ion
lithium-ion
lithium-air lithium-sulphur
lead-acid
lead-acid
lithium-ion
lithium-ion lead-acid
vanadium-redox
vanadium-redox vanadium-redox
<1 day sodium-sulphur
sodium-sulphur sodium-sulphur
sodium-nickel-chloride
sodium-nickel-chloride sodium-nickel-chloride
zinc-air
lithium-sulphur
lithium-air
lead-acid
lithium-ion
vanadium-redox vanadium-redox
>1 day sodium-sulphur sodium-sulphur vanadium-redox
sodium-nickel-chloride sodium-nickel-chloride
zinc-air
lithium-sulphur

As reported in [14–16], lithium-ion batteries are increasingly utilized in DG applications. For this
reason, the use of suitable models for simulating the operating performance of this type of electrical
energy storage system will receive more attention in the future. Examples of the use of battery models
in power and grid applications can be found in publications [17–22]. The aim of this research is to
evaluate battery models that are appropriate for predicting the current and voltage characteristics,
as well as the state of charge, of a battery used in a DG. The DG under discussion in this article
comprises a cogeneration (CG), a lithium-ion battery, and a PV system as a renewable source. Thermal
and electrical energy is supplied for a residential area with 180 town houses [23].
Typically, when dimensioning the DG, the nominal power of the CG, the installed PV power, and
the battery capacity are designed according to the load profile of the consumers. On the basis of the
nominal data, however, only the basic quality of the energy supply can be evaluated. The operating
strategy of an implemented battery management can be established while the system is running.
A simulation-based approach, on the other hand, allows the system designer to investigate various
dynamic and steady-state operating modes on the basis of suitable models, and thus to optimize the
battery management already in the development phase. In order to support this simulation-based
method, models must be introduced that fulfill the following requirements:
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 3 of 22

• As simple as possible;
• As accurately as necessary; and
• Easy to implement in an electronic circuit simulator.

It seems that these demands cannot be met together. For this reason, the following objectives must
be taken into account:

• Which goals are achieved with the models?

• Which parameterization options are available?
• Which simulation environment is provided for implementation?

The objective of this study is not to provide a model for optimizing the design of a battery module
or for optimizing the thermal behavior of the entire storage system. Therefore, it does not have to be as
accurate as possible. In fact, the goals described above should be achieved with sufficient accuracy.
In addition, fast and easy access to parameterization must be ensured. Last but not least, the model
should be structured in such a way that it can be integrated into an existing overall model of the
DG plant. Consequently, the aim of this study is not to present a new battery model. Rather, from a
practical point of view, the task is to select a suitable model for a battery that is already installed in a
DG. Furthermore, it should be noted that no laboratory samples of the battery are available to carry
out measurements for parameterization. Only data sheets of the completed battery type are available.
For this reason, various lithium-ion battery models suitable for DG applications are investigated
in this work. First, the Thevenin-based, the Rint and the Shepherd’s model are investigated. Second,
a generic library model of the electrical circuit simulation software package PSIM is explored for its
suitability in the mentioned DG.
The article is organized as follows. In the next section, the most important battery models reported
in the literature are discussed first. In Section 3, a case study is considered in which the suggested
models are parameterized and implemented in a simulation environment. Subsequently, all models
are validated with regard to the prediction of the current and voltage performance on the basis of
measurement results of the described DG. Afterwards the models are examined with regard to the
prediction of the state of charge. For this purpose, the case study presents a method that allows an
effective validation of the models on the basis of 24 h load profiles. Sections 4 and 5 summarize the
main findings of the research and give an outlook on further aspects.

2. Overview of Battery Models

There is a variety of battery models with different objectives and complexity that have been
published in technical literature in recent years [24–29]. Basically, a classification into mathematical
and electrochemical, thermal, and electrical models can be made.

2.1. Mathematical and Electrochemical Models

These models have essentially been developed to describe fundamental mechanisms. The first
models were published by Fuller, Doyle and Newman [30,31]. They represent an important contribution
to physical cell design and the quantification of macroscopic variables such as battery voltage
and current, as well as microscopic such as concentration distribution and galvanostatic charge or
discharge. These models require a variety of cell parameters and complex numerical computational
methods. Regardless of the accuracy achievable with these models, they are unsuitable in a simulation
environment in which the electrical terminal behavior of the battery and the state of charge are to be
determined with reasonable computing times.

2.2. Thermal Models

The first studies on thermal models were presented by Newman and Pals [32,33]. Thermal models
have gained in importance in recent years, not least due to the increasing use of lithium-ion batteries
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 4 of 22

in hybrid and electric vehicles [34]. These models are also characterized by many parameters and
complex calculations. The battery system under investigation is installed in an air-conditioned room in
which the ambient temperature is controlled to a constant level. However, an evaluation of the cell
temperature cannot be conducted in this manner. Nevertheless, it is assumed in this study that the
cell temperature has no affect on the model behavior. For this reason, only electrical models will be
examined in more detail in the following paragraphs.

2.3. Electrical Models

In contrast to mathematical, electrochemical, or thermal models, electrical models are intuitive
and easy to use. Common to all electrical models is that they consist of equivalent circuits composed
of passive components such as resistors and capacitors, possibly inductors and a voltage source.
Therefore, they are particularly suitable for use in circuit simulators. The accuracy achievable with
these models with regard to voltage and current characteristics, as well as state of charge, is sufficient
for many applications. In the following, a brief description of the common models will be given,
from which models suitable for the analysis of a battery in DG applications can be selected.

2.3.1. Thevenin-Based Electrical Model

The most simple model, as shown in Figure 1a, consists of a series resistor RS , an RC network
(Rt , Ct ) to describe basic charge transfer phenomenon, and an open circuit voltage dependent on the
SOC VOCV (SOC) [26]. However, the simple model has limited accuracy. An improvement for the
simulation of lithium-ion batteries can be achieved by a modification using a second RC network
(Figure 1b) [35,36]. The first RC network represents short-term transient behavior (Rt,s , Ct,s ), and the
second, long-term transient behavior (Rt,l , Ct,l ). In [37–40], a dependence of the network elements on
the SOC was further proposed to achieve higher accuracy. In detail, the dependence on the SOC is
described by the listed set of equations:

VOCV (SOC) = k0 + k1 ·SOC + k2 ·SOC2 + k3 ·SOC3 + k4 ·ek5 ·SOC (1)

RS (SOC) = Rs0 + k5 ·ek6 ·SOC (2)

Rt,s (SOC) = Rt,s0 + k7 ·ek8 ·SOC (3)

Ct,s (SOC) = Ct,s0 + k9 ·ek10 ·SOC (4)

Rt,l (SOC) = Rt,l0 + k11 ·ek12 ·SOC (5)

Ct,l (SOC) = Ct,l0 + k13 ·ek14 ·SOC (6)

The coefficients ki , i = 1 · · · 14 depend on the respective cell type and are subjects of measurements.
In [41] an extension by another RC network is proposed, in order to describe finally short-term,
mid-term, and long-term transient behavior. However, this makes the calculation of the associated
resistances and capacities (Rx , Cx ) much more complex. In [18], it was reported that the Thevenin-based
model achieves good results in simulations of electrical power grids. Therefore, this model is used in
the subsequent case study.
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(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure1.1.(a)
(a)Thevenin-based
Thevenin-basedmodel,
model,11RC
RCnetwork.
network.(b)
(b)Thevenin-based
(b) Thevenin-basedmodel,
model,22RC
RCnetworks.
networks.

2.3.2.Rint
2.3.2.
2.3.2. RintElectrical
Rint ElectricalModel
Electrical Model
Model
AsAsshown
As showninin
shown inFigure
Figure2a,
Figure 2a, the
2a,the Rint
theRint model
Rintmodel consists
modelconsists
consistsof of
ofaaavoltage
voltage
voltagesourcesource 𝑉V𝑉OCVrepresenting
source representingthe
representing theopen
the open
open
circuit
circuit voltage and
circuit voltage and an internal
and an
an internal resistor
internal resistorR int 𝑅𝑅 . . Both
resistor . Both network elements
Both network depend
network elements on
elements depend the SOC.
depend on Furthermore,
on the
the SOC.
SOC.
the internal
Furthermore, resistor
the can
internal depend
resistor on
can the two
depend operating
on the two modes
operating charging/discharging.
modes This
charging/discharging.
Furthermore, the internal resistor can depend on the two operating modes charging/discharging. This enables the
This
model
enables depicted
the modelin Figure 2b
depicted toinbe specified
Figure 2b
enables the model depicted in Figure 2b to beOCV with
to V
be ( SOC
specified ) , R
with
specified with (
int 𝑉 𝑉
SOC,(𝑆𝑂𝐶),
charge ) ,𝑅and
(𝑆𝑂𝐶), 𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶, (𝑆𝑂𝐶,
R ( 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒),
SOC, discharge
and
int 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒), and ).
𝑅Since
𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶,
(𝑆𝑂𝐶, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒).
the model convinces
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒). Sinceby
Since theitsmodel
the basic
modeltopology,
convinces
convinces it by
isbychosen
its
itsbasic
basic fortopology,
the following
topology, case
ititisischosen
chosenstudy.
for
forthe
thefollowing
following
case study.
case study.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure2.2.(a)
(a)Rint
Rintmodel.
model.(b)
(b)Rint
(b) Rintmodel
Rint modelwith
model withindividual
with individualinternal
individual internalresistors.
resistors.

2.3.3.Runtime-Based
2.3.3.
2.3.3. Runtime-BasedElectrical
Runtime-Based ElectricalModel
Electrical Model
Model
Figure33
Figure
Figure shows
showsaaaruntime-based
3shows runtime-based
runtime-basedmodel model presented
modelpresented
presentedin in [37].
in[37]. Itconsists
[37].ItIt consistsofof
consists ofan
anexpansion
an expansionofof
expansion ofthe
the
the
originalmodel
original
original model introduced
modelintroduced
introducedin in [42]
in[42] by
[42]by
byanan electrical
anelectrical
electricalnetworknetwork
networkbasedbased
basedon on the
onthe Thevenin
theThevenin
Theveninmodel. model.
model.The Theleft
The leftpart
left part
part
ofthe
ofof the network
thenetwork contains
networkcontains
containsthe the capacitor𝐶𝐶
thecapacitor
capacitor C,C,the
,the
theself-discharge
self-dischargeresistor
self-discharge resistor𝑅𝑅
resistor Rdis, ,,and
and
andthe the current-controlled
thecurrent-controlled
current-controlled
current
current source
source 𝐼
I ,, inherent
inherent to the original runtime
runtime model.
model. This
This
current source 𝐼 , inherent to the original runtime model. This part models the capacity,
bat part
part models
models the
the capacity,the
capacity, theSOC,
the SOC,
SOC,
and
and the
the lifetime
lifetime of ofthethe battery,
battery, while
while the
the right
right part
part simulates
simulates the
the transient
transient
and the lifetime of the battery, while the right part simulates the transient response described above. response
response described
described above.
above.
AA voltage-regulated
Avoltage-regulated
voltage-regulatedvoltage voltage source V
source
voltagesource 𝑉𝑉OC(𝑉
((𝑉
VSOC )))isisisused
usedtoto
used tobridge
bridgethe
bridge theSOC
the SOCtoto
SOC tothe
theopen
the opencircuit
open circuitvoltage.
circuit voltage.
voltage.
The
The so-called
so-calledfull
Theso-called fullcapacity
capacitycapacitor
capacity capacitor
capacitorCC𝐶𝐶is introduced
isisintroduced
introduced to describe the whole
totodescribe
describe the
thewhole charge
whole storedstored
charge
charge in the battery;
stored ininthe
the
C is
battery;
C
battery; 𝐶𝐶 isisdefined
defined as a
definedas function of the
asaafunction nominal
functionofofthe capacity
thenominal
nominalcapacity of the battery
capacityofofthe battery 𝑄𝑄
Q
thebattery
nom and theandcorrection
andthe factors
thecorrection
correction
f1 (Cycle𝑓)𝑓(𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
factors
factors and
(𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒) and)𝑓
f2 (Temp
and (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝),
, 𝑓which
(𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝),depend
which
which on the cycle
depend
depend onnumber
on the
thecycle
cycleand the cell
number
number and
andtemperature:
the
thecell
celltemperature:
temperature:
𝐶𝐶C= 𝑄 ∙ 𝑓 (𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
(Cycle)∙·∙𝑓f2𝑓((𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝)
C==𝑄Qnom∙ ·𝑓f1(𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒) (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝)
Temp ) (7)
(7)
(7)
With
Withthe
theaid
aidofofthis
thismodel,
model,influences
influencesofofruntime
runtimeand
andbattery
batterylifetime
lifetimecan
canbe besimulated.
simulated.Since
Since
this Withdoes
study the aid
notofinvestigate
this model,runtime
influences of runtime
effects, the and is
model battery
not lifetime can
considered forbethe
simulated.
case Since this
study.
this study does not investigate runtime effects, the model is not considered for the case study.
study does not investigate runtime effects, the model is not considered for the case study.
Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22
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Figure 3. Runtime-based model.

Runtime-based model.
Figure 3. Runtime-based model.
2.3.4. Impedance-Based Electrical Model
2.3.4. Impedance-Based Electrical Model
2.3.4.The
Impedance-Based
impedance model Electrical Modelin Figure 4 is based on an electrochemical impedance
depicted
Figure 4 𝑍is based
The impedance
spectroscopy model
to model depicted in Figure
an AC-equivalent 4 is based onin anthe
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
The impedance model depicted inimpedance frequency domain [43,44].
on an electrochemical However,
impedance
fitting 𝑍 toto
to model
spectroscopy
an AC-equivalent
the impedance
model
impedance Z in the
spectrum is impedance
an AC-equivalent
frequency domain [43,44].
very difficult𝑍 andinchallenging.
AC the frequency
However,
A comprehensive fitting ZAC to
domain [43,44].discussion
However,
the
of impedance
the method spectrum
canimpedanceis very difficult
be found inspectrum and
[45]. Dueistoverychallenging.
its complexity, A comprehensive discussion of the method
fitting 𝑍 to the difficult andthis model is unsuitable
challenging. for investigations
A comprehensive discussion
can
in be work.
this found in [45]. Due to its complexity, this model is unsuitable for investigations in this work.
of the method can be found in [45]. Due to its complexity, this model is unsuitable for investigations
in this work.

Figure 4.
Figure Impedance-based model.
4. Impedance-based model.

2.3.5. Shepherd’s Model Figure 4. Impedance-based model.

2.3.5. Shepherd’s Model
The
2.3.5.The electrical circuit network in Figure 5a is known as the Shepherd’s Model, which was first
Shepherd’s
electricalModel
circuit network in Figure 5a is known as the Shepherd’s Model, which was first
referenced in [46] and improved by subsequent work, e.g., [47,48]. In the original Shepherd’s model,
referenced in [46] and
The electrical improved
circuit network byinsubsequent 5a work,
Figureaccordingis known e.g.,as
[47,48]. In the original
the Shepherd’s Shepherd’s
Model, which was model,
first
the open circuit voltage VOC is determined to Equation (8):
the open circuit voltage 𝑉 is determined according to Equation (8):
referenced in [46] and improved by subsequent work, e.g., [47,48]. In the original Shepherd’s model,
the open circuit voltage 𝑉 is determined according to𝑄Q Equation (8):
𝑉 OC==𝑉V0++𝐾K Q − it∙·i𝑖
V (8)(8)
𝑄− 𝑄 𝑖𝑡
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝐾 ∙𝑖 (8)
where𝑉V0 is
where is the
the constant
constantbattery voltage,𝐾K is the polarization
batteryvoltage, 𝑄 − 𝑖𝑡
polarization coefficient, 𝑄
resistancecoefficient,
resistance Q is the battery
battery
where 𝑉 iis
capacity,
capacity, 𝑖isis
thethe
the dynamic
dynamic
constant battery current
battery
battery at
𝐾 the
current
voltage, time
isatthethe t,time
and 𝑡it, isand
polarization the discharge
𝑖𝑡
resistanceis the capacity.𝑄The
discharge
coefficient, commonly
capacity.
is the The
battery
used modified model is illustrated in Figure 5b [34,49]. Here the battery current is additionally filtered
commonly𝑖 used
capacity, is themodified
dynamic model
batteryiscurrent
illustratedat the Figure𝑡 , 5b
in time and 𝑖𝑡 is the
[34,49]. Heredischarge
the battery currentThe
capacity. is
by a low-pass (LP). Furthermore, for the calculation of the open circuit voltage, a distinction is made
additionally
commonly filtered
used
between charging bydischarging:
a low-pass
modified
and model (𝐿𝑃). Furthermore,
is illustrated in Figure for the5bcalculation
[34,49]. Hereof the open
the circuit
battery voltage,
current is
a distinction filtered
additionally is madeby between charging
a low-pass (𝐿𝑃).and discharging:
Furthermore, for the calculation of the open circuit voltage,
Q ∗ Q
a distinction is made between charging
VOC,charge = V0 and − K discharging: ·i − K ·it + A·e−B·it (9)
it − 0.1·Q Q − it
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 , =𝑉 −𝐾 ∙ 𝑖∗ − 𝐾 ∙ 𝑖𝑡 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑒 ∙ (9)
𝑖𝑡 − 0.1
𝑄 ∙Q𝑄 𝑄
∗
−
𝑄 𝑖𝑡 −B·it
𝑉 , V= 𝑉 −=𝐾V0 − K
OC,dis ∙ 𝑖·(∗it−+𝐾i ) + A·e∙ 𝑖𝑡 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑒 ∙ (10)
(9)
𝑖𝑡 − 0.1Q∙ −𝑄it 𝑄 − 𝑖𝑡
The coefficient A represents the voltage amplitude 𝑄 in the exponential zone of the discharge curve
𝑉 , =𝑉 −𝐾 ∙ (𝑖𝑡 + 𝑖 ∗ ) + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑒 ∙ (10)
of the battery, while the coefficient B specifies 𝑄− 𝑄the𝑖𝑡 time constant inverse in this zone, and K is the
𝑉 , =𝑉 −𝐾 ∙ (𝑖𝑡 + 𝑖 ∗ ) + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑒 ∙ (10)
polarization voltage. For a better understanding, 𝑄 −Figure
𝑖𝑡 6 illustrates the simulated discharge curve of a
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The coefficient 𝐴 represents the voltage amplitude in the exponential zone of the discharge
The coefficient 𝐴 represents the voltage amplitude in the exponential zone of the discharge
curve of thecell
lithium-ion battery, while As
(US26650). the indicated,
coefficientthe 𝐵 curve
specifies
can the time constant
be divided inverse
into three in this zone,
subintervals: and O
Region 𝐾
1
curve of the battery, while the coefficient 𝐵 specifies the time constant inverse in this zone, and 𝐾
is the polarization
consists voltage. zone
of the exponential For astarting
better understanding,
at the full voltage Figure
V f ull6, region O
illustrates the simulated
2 describes discharge
the linear zone,
is the polarization voltage. For a better understanding, Figure 6 illustrates the simulated discharge
curve
and region O
of a lithium-ion cell (US26650).
3 finally includes As indicated,
the nonlinear zone upthe to curve can be
the cut-off divided
voltage intof fthree
Vcut−o . Withsubintervals:
the help of
curve of a lithium-ion cell (US26650). As indicated, the curve can be divided into three subintervals:
Region
this ① the
curve, consists of the exponential
coefficients A, B, and K in zone starting(9)
Equations at and
the full
(10)voltage 𝑉 , region ② describes the
can be determined:
Region ① consists of the exponential zone starting at the full voltage 𝑉 , region ② describes the
linear zone, and region ③ finally includes the nonlinear zone up to the cut-off voltage 𝑉 . With
linear zone, and region ③ finally includes the nonlinear zone up to the cut-off voltage 𝑉 . With
the help of this curve, the coefficients 𝐴, 𝐵, and f 𝐾
A = V − V
ull in Equations
top (9) and (10) can be determined: (11)
the help of this curve, the coefficients 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐾 in Equations (9) and (10) can be determined:
Assuming that the end-value in the exponential 𝐴 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 is reached after about three time constants, (11)
𝐴 = 𝑉 −zone 𝑉 (11)
AssumingBthat
the coefficient can the
be calculated
end-value as in follows:
the exponential zone is reached after about three time constants,
Assuming that the end-value in the exponential zone is reached after about three time constants,
the coefficient 𝐵 can be calculated as follows: 3
the coefficient 𝐵 can be calculated as follows:B = (12)
3
Qtop
𝐵= 3 (12)
𝐵=𝑄 (12)
The coefficient K can be calculated by Equation 𝑄 (10) for any point on the discharge curve [48].
The coefficient
It should be noted that 𝐾 can
the be calculated
coefficient byEquations
K in Equation (10) for any
(9) and (10) point on the discharge
is multiplied by both the curve [48].
filtered
The coefficient 𝐾 can be calculated by Equation (10) for any point on the discharge curve [48].
It should be noted
∗ that the coefficient 𝐾
battery current i (A) and the discharge capacity it (Ah). The units of K must be Ω or V/Ah. Therefore,
in Equations (9) and (10) is multiplied by both the filtered
It should be noted∗ that the coefficient 𝐾 in Equations (9) and (10) is multiplied by both the filtered
battery
the current 𝑖 (𝐴)
representation andopen
of the the discharge capacity
circuit voltage using𝑖𝑡 (𝐴ℎ). 𝐾 must be
The units ofcoefficient
one polarization is Ω or 𝑉/𝐴ℎ.
unfavorable.
battery current 𝑖 ∗ (𝐴) and the discharge capacity 𝑖𝑡 (𝐴ℎ). The units of 𝐾 must be Ω or 𝑉/𝐴ℎ.
Therefore,
Section the representation
3.3 discusses this problem of inthe open
more circuit voltage using one polarization coefficient is
detail.
Therefore, the representation of the open circuit voltage using one polarization coefficient is
unfavorable. Section 3.3 discusses this problem in more detail.
unfavorable. Section 3.3 discusses this problem in more detail.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Original Shepherd’s model. (b) Modified Shepherd’s model.
Figure 5. (a) Original Shepherd’s model. (b) Modified Shepherd’s model.

Figure 6. Simulated discharge curve of one lithium-ion cell, 1C rate (US26659) based on data sheet
Simulated discharge
Figure 6. Simulated discharge curve
curve of
of one lithium-ion
lithium-ion cell,
cell, 1C rate (US26659) based on data sheet
specifications [50].
specifications [50].
Since all
Since all necessary
necessary model
model parameters
parameters can can be
can be derived
be derived from
derived from the
from the data
the data sheet
data sheet of
sheet of the
of the cell
the cell type
cell type used,
type used,
used,
Since all necessary model parameters
the model
the model is further investigated in the case study. An example of an implementation of the
the modelisisfurther investigated
further in the
investigated in case
the study. An example
case study. of an implementation
An example of the Shepherd’s
of an implementation of the
Shepherd’s model in the Simulink Simscape environment can be found in [51]. In this generic model,
either lead-acid, lithium-ion, nickel-cadmium, or nickel-metal-hydride batteries can be simulated.
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 8 of 22

2.3.6. Generic Library Model

model in the Simulink Simscape environment can be found in [51]. In this generic model, either
In order to meet the demand for a model that can describe dynamic phenomena with sufficient
lead-acid, lithium-ion, nickel-cadmium, or nickel-metal-hydride batteries can be simulated.
accuracy, and that can also be implemented as easily as possible in an electronic circuit simulator,
2.3.6. Generic Library Model
this study examines the generic lithium-ion model from the library of the software package PSIM.
In order
Figure 7 depicts a schematic to meet the ofdemand for a model
the model. Thethatloadcan is
describe dynamicto
connected phenomena with sufficient
the positive and negative pin,
accuracy, and that can also be implemented as easily as possible in an electronic circuit simulator,
while the upper pin gives the actual SOC during simulation. For the user, the model appears as a
this study examines the generic lithium-ion model from the library of the software package PSIM.
mask sub-circuit,
Figure 7which
depicts aisschematic
parameterized
of the model. by The
theload
cellischaracteristics [52]. The
connected to the positive required
and negative pin,cell voltage
, 𝑉 the
points (𝑉 while 𝑉
, upper 𝑎𝑛𝑑gives
pin 𝑉 the actual
) and capacities
SOC (𝑄 , 𝑄
during simulation. , 𝑄user, the
For the 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 appears
model ) can asbea taken from
mask sub-circuit, which is parameterized by the cell characteristics [52]. The required cell voltage
the discharge curve shown in Figure 6. The series resistance 𝑅 can be derived from the
points (V f ull , Vexp , Vnom and Vcut−o f f ) and capacities (Q f ull , Qexp , Qnom and Qmax ) can be taken from the
corresponding datacurve
discharge sheet. shownFurthermore,
in Figure 6. The a voltage derating
series resistance RS canfactor and from
be derived a capacity derating factor are
the corresponding
available todata
adaptsheet.simulated
Furthermore,curves.
a voltageThe default
derating value
factor and of both
a capacity factors
derating factoris
areset to one.
available When a cell is
to adapt
simulated curves. The default value of both factors is set to one. When a cell is parameterized, a battery
parameterized, a battery can be defined by the number of cells connected in series and in parallel.
can be defined by the number of cells connected in series and in parallel. Due to these properties,
Due to thesethis
properties,
model is used this model
for the is used
following for the following case study.
case study.

Figure 7. PSIM battery model.

Figure 7. PSIM battery model.
3. Case Study

3. Case Study The models described above (Thevenin-based, Rint, Shepherd’s, and library models) are validated
by means of a case study. Figure 8 depicts the architecture of the investigated DG, which was developed
The models
to supplydescribed above
a residential area (Thevenin-based,
with 180 Rint, Shepherd’s,
town houses (load, consumers) and
[23]. The CG has library
a rated thermalmodels) are
power of 81 kW and an electrical
validated by means of athcase study. Figure 8 depictsof 50 kW el . Thermal power is distributed via a district heating
the architecture of the investigated DG, which
network (dashed line). As shown in Figure 8, a heat store is used to cover thermal load peaks.
was developed to supply a residential area with 180 town houses (load, consumers) [23]. The CG has
Additional electrical power is provided by the PV with an installed peak power of PPV = 65 kWpk .
a rated thermal
A lithium-ion of 81with
powerbattery 𝑘𝑊a maximum
and an discharge
electrical of 50
power of 𝑘𝑊
Pdis,max. =
Thermal
50 kW and power
a rated is distributed
energy of via a
district heating = 135 kWh(dashed
Erated network rated = As
(capacity Qline). 2688shown
Ah ) is integrated.
in FigureThe 8, aelectrical systems
heat store is operate
used to on cover
the thermal
low voltage grid (solid line). All measured performance values of the plant are transmitted to the
load peaks. Additional electrical power is provided by the PV with an installed peak power of 𝑃 =
monitoring system for data acquisition (dotted box).
65 𝑘𝑊 . A lithium-ion batteryiron
In this application, with a maximum
phosphate (LiFePO4 )discharge
batteries arepower
used. Inof 𝑃 , energy
particular, = 50storage
𝑘𝑊 and a rated
𝐸
energy of modules = 135𝑘𝑊ℎ
with (capacity
the characteristics 𝑄 Table 2=are
listed in 2688 𝐴ℎ One
utilized. ) ismodule
integrated.
consists ofThe
16 cellelectrical
clusters systems
connected in series, whereby one cluster consists of eight cells (US26650) connected in parallel [53].
operate on the low voltage grid (solid line). All measured performance values of the plant are
transmitted to the monitoring system
Tablefor data acquisition
2. Specification (dotted
energy storage module.box).

Energy/Capacity Nominal Voltage Maximum Discharge Current/Power

1.2 kWh/24 Ah 51.2 V 50 A/2.5 kW
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 9 of 22
Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

Figure 8. Architecture of the distributed power generation (DG).

In this application, iron phosphate (𝐿𝑖𝐹𝑒𝑃𝑂 ) batteries are used. In particular, energy storage
modules with the characteristics listed in Table 2 are utilized. One module consists of 16 cell clusters
connected in series, whereby one cluster consists of eight cells (US26650) connected in parallel [53].

Table 2. Specification energy storage module.

Nominal Maximum Discharge

Energy/Capacity
Voltage Current/Power
1.2 𝑘𝑊ℎ/24 𝐴ℎ 51.2 𝑉 50 𝐴/2.5 𝑘𝑊
Figure
Figure 8. Architecture of
8. Architecture of the
the distributed
distributed power
power generation
generation (DG).
(DG).
The storage modules are installed in battery cabinets with the following arrangement. First
𝑛 , The
= storage modules are installed in batteryand
cabinets with
𝑛 =the following nm,P = 2
arrangement. First modules
In 2this
modules are connected
application, in parallel,
iron phosphate (𝐿𝑖𝐹𝑒𝑃𝑂 then
) batteries 8 of
are theseInparallel-connected
used. particular, energy storage
modules are connected ininparallel, and then nS = 9a).
8 of these parallel-connected modules are connected inin
are connected
modules in series
with the one cabinet
characteristics (Figure
listed in Table 2 areFinally, = 7module
utilized.𝑛 One batteryconsists
strings are
of 16connected
cell clusters
series in
parallel.
connected
one cabinet
Thus, (Figure
the entire
in series,
9a).
storage
whereby
Finally,
onesystem
nP = 7 battery
cluster consists
strings
consists of seven
are
battery
eight cells
connected
cabinets,
(US26650)
in parallel.
plus onein
connected
Thus,
control the
parallel
entire
cabinet,
[53].
storage
as shown system consists
in Figure of seven battery cabinets, plus one control cabinet, as shown in Figure 9b [54].
9b [54].
Table 2. Specification energy storage module.

Nominal Maximum Discharge

Energy/Capacity
Voltage Current/Power
1.2 𝑘𝑊ℎ/24 𝐴ℎ 51.2 𝑉 50 𝐴/2.5 𝑘𝑊

The storage modules are installed in battery cabinets with the following arrangement. First
𝑛 , = 2 modules are connected in parallel, and then 𝑛 = 8 of these parallel-connected modules
are connected in series in one cabinet (Figure 9a). Finally, 𝑛 = 7 battery strings are connected in
parallel. Thus, the entire storage system consists of seven battery cabinets, plus one control cabinet,
as shown in Figure 9b [54].

(a) (b)
Figure 9.
9. (a)
(a)Connection
Connectionof of
power modules
power in ain
modules cabinet. (b) Energy
a cabinet. storagestorage
(b) Energy systemsystem
with seven
withbattery
seven
cabinets.
battery cabinets.

The battery
The battery system
system isis installed
installed in
in an
an air-conditioned
air-conditioned operating
operating room,
room, in
in which
which the
the ambient
ambient
temperature is constantly controlled to 20 ◦ C.
temperature is constantly controlled to 20 °C.

3.1. Implementation of the Thevenin-Based Model

The determination of the model parameters VOC (open circuit voltage), short-term transient
resistor Rt,s and capacitor Ct,s , and long-term transient resistor Rt,l and capacitor Ct,l according to
Equations (1)–(6) requires
(a) an experimental setup with laboratory (b) samples of the battery cell type used.
Since such a sample is not available, the parameters cannot be identified experimentally in this study.
Figure 9. (a) Connection of power modules in a cabinet. (b) Energy storage system with seven battery
A detailed description of the experimental procedure is described in [37,38]. Therefore, it considered
cabinets.
to neglect the dependence of the RC network elements on the SOC. The results published in [37,38]
indicate that the RC network elements are almost independent of the SOC for the operating range
The battery system is installed in an air-conditioned operating room, in which the ambient
temperature is constantly controlled to 20 °C.
 The determination of the model parameters 𝑉 (open circuit voltage), short-term transient
resistor 𝑅 , and capacitor 𝐶 , , and long-term transient resistor 𝑅 , and capacitor 𝐶 , according
to Equations (1)–(6) requires an experimental setup with laboratory samples of the battery cell type
used. Since such a sample is not available, the parameters cannot be identified experimentally in this
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 10 of 22
study. A detailed description of the experimental procedure is described in [37,38]. Therefore, it
considered to neglect the dependence of the RC network elements on the SOC. The results published
in
SOC[37,38]
> 10%,indicate thatexception
with the the RC network elements are
of the long-term almostCindependent
capacity of the SOC for the operating
t,l . In the application under investigation,
range 𝑆𝑂𝐶 > 10 %, with the exception of the long-term
the battery is only operated in a range of 15% < SOC < 95%. For this reason, capacity 𝐶 , . In the
theThevenin
application modelunder for
investigation, the battery is only operated in a range of 15% < 𝑆𝑂𝐶
constant RC network elements is examined in this study. Since no measurements could be carried < 95%. For this reason, the
Thevenin
out, model model for constant
parameters RC network
of lithium-ion elements
batteries is examined
published in this study.
in [37,38,55] are used Sinceas anoreference
measurements
for the
could be carried
RC network out, model
elements for theparameters
purpose ofof lithium-ion
simplicity. batteries published
A parameter fitting leads in [37,38,55] are used
to the following as a
values
reference for the RC network elements for the purpose of simplicity. A
for the RC network elements of one module: Rt,s = 50 Ω, Ct,s = 500 F, Rt,l = 46 mΩ, Ct,l = 5000parameter fitting leads to theF.
following values for the RC network elements of one module:
Due to the cell type and structure of the storage module, these values deviate 𝑅 , = 50 Ω , 𝐶 = 500𝐹,
from ,published ones,𝑅 , =
46
but𝑚Ω, 𝐶 , = 5000
acceptable 𝐹. Due
accuracy tobe
can theachieved.
cell type and structure of the storage module, these values deviate
from Aspublished ones, but acceptable
it was not possible in the present accuracy
casecan be achieved.
to measure the open-circuit voltage VOCV (SOC) as a
As it was not possible in the present
function of the SOC while the system was running, case to measure the open-circuit
the open-circuit voltagevoltage
of a LiFePO𝑉 (𝑆𝑂𝐶) as a
4 battery as
function
depictedof inthe SOC10
Figure while the system
is used was running,
in the model the open-circuit
[56]. Although voltage of a 𝐿𝑖𝐹𝑒𝑃𝑂
this parameterization does notbattery
followasa
depicted in Figure 10 is used in the model [56]. Although this parameterization
strictly scientific methodology, it represents the main problem of integrating the Thevenin-based model does not follow a
strictly scientific methodology, it represents the main problem of integrating
into practical work. Nevertheless, the next subsection shows that this simple approach leads to quite the Thevenin-based
model
accurate into practical work. Nevertheless, the next subsection shows that this simple approach leads
results.
to quite accurate results. the implementation of the model of one storage module in PSIM. The open
Figure 11 illustrates
Figure
circuit voltage11 illustrates
VOCV (SOCthe ) isimplementation
given by a look-up of the model
table; of one
the SOC is storage
calculated module
from in thePSIM. The
battery open
current
circuit voltage 𝑉 (𝑆𝑂𝐶) is given by a look-up table; the SOC is calculated
IBat and the usable capacity CBat of one battery module, as well as the initial SOCinit [57]: from the battery current
𝐼 and the usable capacity 𝐶 of one battery module, as well as the initial 𝑆𝑂𝐶 [57]:
Z
1
𝑆𝑂𝐶 =
SOC SOCinit −
= 𝑆𝑂𝐶 − 1 𝐼 IBat𝑑𝑡dt (13)
C (13)
𝐶 Bat
In order
In order to tovalidate
validatethe model,
the model, thethe
battery current
battery current 𝐼 controlled
IBat is by a voltage-controlled
is controlled current
by a voltage-controlled
source. The
current input
source. The of this
inputsource is asource
of this current-proportional control signal
is a current-proportional IBat,request
control that𝐼corresponds
signal ,
to
that
the actual battery current of the DG. The control variable
corresponds to the actual battery current of the DG. The control I variable 𝐼 ,
Bat,request is generated from the measured
is generated from
power
the values of
measured the system.
power valuesAofdetailed description
the system. of thedescription
A detailed validation process will be given
of the validation in Section
process will 3.3.
be
The complete storage system is assembled by connecting the individual modules
given in Section 3.3. The complete storage system is assembled by connecting the individual modules in series (nS ) and in
parallel (n
in series (𝑛m,P , n
) and ).
P in parallel (𝑛 , , 𝑛 ).

Figure 10. Open

Figure 10. Open circuit
circuit voltage (SOC).
voltage V𝑉OCV(𝑆𝑂𝐶).
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 11 of 22
Inventions
Inventions2019,
2019,4,4,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 11
11of
of22
22

VV V_oc VV
V_oc V_Bat
R_series
R_series R_trans_S
R_trans_S R_trans_L
R_trans_L I_Bat
I_Bat V_Bat

AA

C_trans_S
C_trans_S C_trans_L
C_trans_L
I_bat_request
I_bat_request

V_Bat_OC
V_Bat_OC

P_Bat
P_Bat

SOC_init
SOC_init

1/C_Bat
1/C_Bat
ʃʃ KK
PP//CC

11. Thevenin-based model

Figure 11.
Figure model of one
one energy storage
storage module.
Figure 11.Thevenin-based
Thevenin-based modelof
of oneenergy
energy storagemodule.
module.
3.2. Implementation of the Rint Model
3.2.
3.2.Implementation
Implementationofofthe
theRint
RintModel
Model
In the Rint model, the open circuit voltage VOCV (SOC) is simulated exactly as described in the
𝑉 (𝑆𝑂𝐶)
Rint𝑉(SOC,
(𝑆𝑂𝐶)
In
In the
the Rint
Rint model,
model, the open circuit voltage isis simulated exactly as
as described in
in the
Thevenin-based model. the
Theopen circuit
internal voltage
resistors charge )simulated exactly
and Rint (SOC, described
discharge ) in Figure the2
Thevenin-based
Thevenin-based model.
model. The
The internal
internal resistors
resistors 𝑅𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶,
(𝑆𝑂𝐶, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) and
and 𝑅𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶,
(𝑆𝑂𝐶, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) in
in,
are determined from the open circuit voltage VOCV (Figure 10), the measured battery voltage VBat,m
Figure
Figure 22are
aredetermined
determined from
fromthethe open
open circuit
circuit voltage
voltage 𝑉𝑉 (Figure
(Figure10), 10), the
themeasured
measured battery voltage
and measured battery current IBat,m of the storage system according to Equation (14): battery voltage
𝑉𝑉 , , ,,and measured battery current 𝐼
and measured battery current 𝐼 , , of the storage system according to Equation(14):
of the storage system according to Equation (14):
V𝑉 −−V𝑉Bat,m
SOC, charge/discharge) = = 𝑉 − 𝑉 ,,
OCV
Rint ((𝑆𝑂𝐶,
𝑅 (14)
𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶,𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒/𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒/𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) = IBat,m 𝐼𝐼 , ,
(14)
(14)

Figure
Figure 12
Figure 12 illustrates
12 illustrates the
illustrates the dependence
the dependence
dependence of of the
of the resistors
the resistors of
resistors of one
of one storage
one storage module
storage module on
module on the
on the SOC
the SOC with
SOC with
with
𝑅𝑅int ((𝑆𝑂𝐶,
R SOC, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
discharge ==
(𝑆𝑂𝐶, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) = dis
) R 𝑅
𝑅 R
and
and 𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶,
SOC, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
andint𝑅 (𝑆𝑂𝐶, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) char
( charge ) = R==𝑅𝑅. ..

Figure
Figure12.
Figure 12.Rint
12. Rintmodel,
model, charge
charge and
and discharge
dischargeresistors
discharge resistorsin
resistors independence
in dependenceon
dependence onSOC.
SOC.

Since
Since the
Since theresistance
resistanceofof
resistance 𝑅𝑅 changes
ofRchar changes
changesonly
onlyslightly
only withwith
slightly
slightly the SOC,
with the a constant
the SOC,
SOC, value value
aa constant
constant of
value of=𝑅𝑅17 mΩ
Rcharof =
=
17𝑚Ω
is used for the simulation. In order to be able to simulate the dependence
17𝑚Ω is used for the simulation. In order to be able to simulate the dependence of 𝑅
is used for the simulation. In order to be able to simulate the of R
dependencedis on of 𝑅
the SOC,on the
theimpact
SOC,
on the SOC,
theRimpact
of
the impact of 𝑅𝑅 using
dis is modeled
of a look-up
isismodeled
modeled table.
using
using Instead
aalook-up
look-up of applying
table.
table.Instead
Insteadofa variable
of applyingresistor,
applying aavariable
variabletheresistor,
model determines
resistor, the
themodel
model
the voltage
determines
determinesthe drop across
thevoltage the
voltagedrop resistor:
dropacross
acrossthe
theresistor:
resistor:
VR,dis = Rdis ·IBat (15)
𝑉𝑉 , , = = 𝑅𝑅 ∙∙𝐼𝐼 (15)
(15)
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 12 of 22
Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

This
Thisisisrealized
realizedwith withthethehelp
helpofofaacontrolled
controlledvoltage
voltagesource.
source.Figure
Figure13
13shows
showsthe
theimplementation
implementation
ininPSIM. The actual battery
PSIM. The actual battery current Batcurrent I 𝐼 is is sensed and multiplied by the SOC-dependentresistance
sensed and multiplied by the SOC-dependent resistance
R𝑅dis from
fromthe thelook-up
look-up table. The
table. battery
The battery current
current IBat𝐼 is again generated
is again by aby
generated controlled source
a controlled with with
source the
control signal
the control signalI 𝐼 ,
Bat,request . The complete storage system is assembled considering the individual
. The complete storage system is assembled considering the individual modules
connected in series (nin
modules connected S ) series
and in(𝑛
parallel
) and in (nm,P , nP ). (𝑛 , 𝑛 ).
parallel ,

V V_oc V V_bat
I_Bat
R_charge
A
V_R_discharge
i_bat_request V_Bat
V_Bat_OC

P/C |x|

P_Bat

P/C
SOC_init
1/C_Bat
K ʃ

Figure 13. Implementation of the Rint model.

Figure 13. Implementation of the Rint model.
3.3. Implementation of the Shepherd’s Model
3.3. Implementation of the Shepherd’s Model
The parameters for the Shepherd’s model are specified for one storage module (see Table 2).
The required
The three parameters for of
pairs thevoltage
Shepherd’s model arefor
and capacity specified for one
the 1C rate storage
based module
on the (see Table
data sheet of one2).cell
The
three required pairs of voltage and capacity for the 1C rate based on the data sheet
(Figure 6) and the number of cell connected in series in one module are given as follows:of one cell (Figure
6) and the number of cell connected in series in one module are given as follows:
f ull ==54.4
V f𝑉ull , Q, 𝑄 54.4V,𝑉,24
24Ah
𝐴ℎ (16)
(16)

Vexp exp ==
𝑉 , Q, 𝑄 52.8 V,𝑉,1.6
52.8 1.6Ah
𝐴ℎ (17)
(17)
Vnom , Qnom = 51.2 V, 22.8 Ah (18)
𝑉 ,𝑄 = 51.2 𝑉, 22.8 𝐴ℎ (18)
According Equation (11), the coefficient A is calculated as follows:
According Equation (11), the coefficient 𝐴 is calculated as follows:
A 𝐴==V𝑉f ull −−V𝑉
top ==54.4
54.4V𝑉−−52.8
52.8V 𝑉==1.6
1.6V𝑉 (19)
(19)
AccordingEquation
According Equation(12),
(12),the coefficientB 𝐵
thecoefficient is calculated
is calculated as as follows:
follows:
3 3 1
𝐵 =3 = 3 = 1.8751 (20)
B = 𝑄 = 1.6 𝐴ℎ= 1.875 𝐴ℎ (20)
Qtop 1.6 Ah Ah
Finally, the coefficient 𝐾 is calculated according to:
Finally, the coefficient K is calculated according to:
𝑄 −𝑄
𝐾 = 𝑉 −𝑉 + 𝐴 ∙ (𝑒 ∙ )−1 = 0.084 𝑉 (21)
    Q f ull −𝑄Qnom
−B·Qnom
K = V f ull − Vnom + A· e −1 = 0.084 V (21)
In [49], scalar factors were introduced to improve the fit Qnomto the investigated battery. As already
mentioned in Section
In [49], scalar 2.3.5,
factors theintroduced
were unit of thetocoefficient
improve the must fitbeto modified. Takingbattery.
the investigated into account scalar
As already
factors (0.95 and 0.175) found in the optimization of the model in this study and
mentioned in Section 2.3.5, the unit of the coefficient must be modified. Taking into account scalarcoefficients with
the correct
factors (0.95 units, Equations
and 0.175) found(9)inand
the (10) for determining
optimization the open
of the model circuit
in this studyvoltages for charging
and coefficients and
with
discharge can now be written in the following form:
the correct units, Equations (9) and (10) for determining the open circuit voltages for charging and
discharge can now be written in the following 𝑄 form: ∗ 𝑄 ∙
𝑉 , =𝑉 −𝐾 ∙𝑖 −𝐾 ∙ 𝑖𝑡 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑒 (22)
𝑖𝑡 − 0.1 ∙ 𝑄 𝑄 − 𝑖𝑡
Q Q
VOC,charge = V0 − K1 𝑄 ∗
·i∗ − K2 𝑄 ·it + A·e−B·it (22)
𝑉 , =𝑉 −𝐾 it − ∙𝑖 −𝐾
0.1·Q Q − ∙it𝑖𝑡 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑒 ∙ (23)
𝑄 − 𝑖𝑡 𝑄 − 𝑖𝑡
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 13 of 22

Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW Q ∗ Q 13 of 22
VOC,dis = V0 − K1 Ω·i − K2 ·it + A·e−B·it (23)
𝐾 =Q0.95
− it 𝐾 = 0.0798
Q − it Ω (24)
Ω𝑉
𝐾 = 0.95Ω 𝐾 = 0.0798 Ω (24)
K1 = 0.95 1 𝑉K = 0.0798 Ω 𝑉 (24)
𝐾 = 0.175V1 ∙ 𝐾 = 0.0147 𝑉 (25)
𝐴ℎ 𝐴ℎ
𝐾 = 0.1751 ∙ 𝐾 = 0.0147V (25)
Figure 14 depicts the implementation K2 = 0.175of 𝐴ℎthe = 0.0147
·K model 𝐴ℎ The equations for computing
in PSIM. (25)
the
Ah Ah
open circuit voltages 𝑉 ,
Figure 14 depicts the and 𝑉 ,
implementation of the model in PSIM. The equations for computing
are programmed in a C-block. The output variable of the the
Figure 14 depicts the implementation of the model in PSIM. The equations for computing the
open circuit
C-block is voltages
used to set𝑉a controlled
, 𝑉 ,
andvoltage are programmed
source accordingintoa theC-block.
openThe output
circuit variable
voltage. Theofseries
the
open circuit voltages VOC,charge and VOC,dis are programmed in a C-block. The output variable of the
resistance 𝑅 = 36 𝑚 Ω is calculated from the resistance of a single cell ( 𝑅 ,
C-block is used to set a controlled voltage source according to the open circuit voltage. = 18𝑚 Ω AC
The series
C-block is used to set a controlled voltage source according to the open circuit voltage. The series
resistance 𝑅of =
impedance 36 US26650
one 𝑚 Ω is calculated from[58]).
cell at 1𝑘𝐻𝑧 the Again,
resistancethe of cell ( 𝑅system
a singlestorage
complete , = 18𝑚 Ω AC
is assembled
resistance RS = 36 mΩ is calculated from the resistance of a single cell (RS,cell = 18 mΩ AC impedance
impedance of
considering theone
individual cell at 1𝑘𝐻𝑧
US26650modules [58]). in
connected Again,
seriesthe
(𝑛 )complete storage(𝑛system
and in parallel , ,𝑛 ).isAsassembled
described
of one US26650 cell at 1 kHz [58]). Again, the complete storage system is assembled considering the
considering the individual modules connected
in Section 3.1 and Section 3.2, the battery current 𝐼 in series (𝑛 ) and in parallel (𝑛 , , 𝑛 ). As
is generated by a controlled source with the described
individual modules connected in series (nS ) and in parallel (nm,P , nP ). As described in Sections 3.1
in Section
control 3.1 𝐼and Section
signal . 3.2, the battery current 𝐼 is generated by a controlled source with the
,
and 3.2, the
control 𝐼 ,current. IBat is generated by a controlled source with the control signal IBat,request .
battery
signal
V V_OC R_S V V_Bat
C/P V V_OC R_S V V_Bat
C-block C/P
i_bat_request
C-block V_Bat_OC V_Bat
V_OCV cal i_bat_request
V_Bat_OC V_Bat
V_OCV cal

P_Bat
i* P_Bat
i*
it
it ʃ
ʃ

SOC_init SOC
SOC_init SOC
1/C_Bat
1/C_Bat
K ʃ
K ʃ

Figure
Figure 14.14.Implementation
Implementationofof the
the Sherpherd’s
Sherpherd’s model.
model.
Figure 14. Implementation of the Sherpherd’s model.
3.4.
3.4.Implementation
Implementationofofthe theGeneric
GenericLibrary
LibraryModel
Model
3.4. Implementation of the Generic Library Model
AsAsexplained
explainedwith withthetheShepherd’s
Shepherd’smodel, model,the thelibrary
librarymodelmodelisisalso alsospecified
specifiedfor foroneonestorage
storage
As explained with the Shepherd’s model, the library model is also specified for one storage
module. The three required pairs of voltage and capacity (V , Q ), ( V , Q ) and ( V nom , , Q nom )
module. The three required pairs of voltage and capacity (𝑉 , 𝑄 ), (𝑉 , 𝑄 ) and (𝑉 , 𝑄𝑄 ) )
module. The three required pairs of voltage and capacity (𝑉 f ull , 𝑄f ull ), (𝑉exp , 𝑄 exp ) and (𝑉
are
aregiven according Equations (15)–(17). The cut-off voltage
voltage and and the the maximum
maximumcapacity
capacityare aresetset
are given
given according
according Equations (15)–(17). The
Equations (15)–(17). The cut-off
cut-off voltage and the maximum capacity are set toto
to𝑉Vcut−o f f==3232𝑉 Vandand𝑄Qmax==24.8 24.8𝐴ℎ.Ah.Like Like the Shepherd’s model, the internal resistor settoto𝑅𝑅to
is set
𝑉 = 32 𝑉 and 𝑄 = 24.8 𝐴ℎ. Like the the Shepherd’s
Shepherd’smodel, model,the theinternal
internalresistor
resistorisisset ==
RS36=𝑚36 Ω. mΩ.
As As described
described in in
thethe previous
previous subsections,
subsections, the
the complete
complete storage
storage system
system isisassembled
assembled
36 𝑚 Ω. As described in the previous subsections, the complete storage system is assembled
considering
considering the individual modules connected in series (nS ) and
(𝑛 )in parallel (nm,P , nP(𝑛
). Figure
, 𝑛).).15 depicts15
considering the the individual modules
individual modules connected
connected in series
in series (𝑛 ) and
and ininparallel
parallel (𝑛 , , , 𝑛 Figure
Figure 15
the arrangement
depicts in the PSIM schematic. The battery current I
batteryBat is again generated
current 𝐼 𝐼 isisagain by a controlled
depicts the
the arrangement
arrangement in in the
the PSIM
PSIM schematic.
schematic. The The battery current againgenerated
generatedbybya a
source with the control IBat,request
signalcontrol .
controlled
controlled source
source with
with the signal
the control signal 𝐼𝐼 , , ..

V
V
SOC I_Bat
I_Bat I_Bat_request
SOC I_Bat_request
AA
+
+
P_Bat
P_Bat

-
V_Bat
V_Bat

Figure 15. Arrangement of the PSIM battery model.

15. Arrangement
Figure 15. Arrangementof
ofthe
thePSIM
PSIMbattery
batterymodel.
model.

3.5. Model
3.5. Model Validation
Validation
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 14 of 22

3.5. Model Validation

Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
In order to validate the presented models, it is necessary to determine the precise load profile,
i.e., the exact battery current in the simulation. Since no currents are measured in the monitoring
In order to validate the presented models, it is necessary to determine the precise load profile,
system (see Figure 8), the current associated with the load distribution must be determined in a battery
i.e., the exact battery current in the simulation. Since no currents are measured in the monitoring
management system. The battery power PBat in the model is calculated from the difference between
system (see Figure 8), the current associated with the load distribution must be determined in a
the measured power of the load (consumer PCSR,m ) and the sources (PPV,m and PCG,m ):
battery management system. The battery power 𝑃 in the model is calculated from the difference
between the measured power of the load (consumer 𝑃 , ) and the sources (𝑃 , and 𝑃 , ):
PBat = PCSR,m − (PPV,m + PCG,m ) (26)
𝑃 =𝑃 , − 𝑃 , +𝑃 , (26)
The signal IBat,request , which is the control variable of the voltage-regulated current source (see
The signal 𝐼 , , which is the control variable of the voltage-regulated current source (see
Figures 11 and 13–15), can be calculated in the model from the power PBat and voltage VBat :
Figures 11 and 13–15), can be calculated in the model from the power 𝑃 and voltage 𝑉 :
P
𝐼IBat,request == 𝑃Bat (27)
(27)
, V𝑉bat

In this
this calculation,
calculation,ititisisnecessary
necessarytotoensure that
ensure thethe
that maximum
maximum charge
charge andand
discharge
dischargepower is not
power is
exceeded
not exceeded (𝑃 =
(Pdis,max , P = 𝑃
char,max =, 50 =
kW).50 𝑘𝑊).
Furthermore, it
Furthermore,must be
it noted
must bethat the
noted maximum
that the and
maximum minimum
and
SOC
minimum is taken
SOCinto account.
is taken As long As
into account. as the
longSOC is SOC
as the within the specified
is within (15% <
limits limits
the specified (15SOC% <<𝑆𝑂𝐶 <
95%),
I95 %), 𝐼 ,
Bat,request is calculated according to Equation (27), otherwise
is calculated according to Equation (27), otherwise I 𝐼 ,
Bat,request is zero ; I
is zero; 𝐼 ,
Bat,request = 0 =
A.
0 𝐴. The
The arrangement
arrangement of the DGDG
of the simulation
simulationmodel forfor
model validation
validationimplemented
implementedininPSIM PSIMisis depicted
depicted in
Figure 16.

Figure
Figure 16.
16. Block diagram DG simulation model.

The input data

The input data are
are the
the power
power curves
curves of
of the consumers P𝑃CSR,m ,, the
the consumers the PV system P𝑃PV,m
PV system , and the CG
, , , and the CG
P
𝑃CG,m measured over one day in the monitoring system. The battery model itself is linked to thetosub-
measured over one day in the monitoring system. The battery model itself is linked the
,
sub-models
models CSR,CSR,PV, PV,
CG,CG,
andand GRID
GRID thatthat determine
determine thethe powerflow
power flowaccording
accordingtotothe theinput
input data
data in
in the
the
simulation.
simulation. With the help of this management system, the exact profile of the battery current can be
With the help of this management system, the exact profile of the battery current can be
generated.
generated. The
The output
output values
valuesare
arethe currentIBat𝐼 , voltage
thecurrent VBat𝑉
, voltage , power PBat , 𝑃and, SOC.
, power In thisInway,
and SOC. this itway,
can
be verified
it can whetherwhether
be verified the modelstheare suitable
models areforsuitable
a prediction
for aofprediction
the currentofand thevoltage
currentcharacteristics,
and voltage
as well as the SOC, in the described grid application.
characteristics, as well as the SOC, in the described grid application.
3.5.1. Predicting I–V Performance
3.5.1. Predicting I-V Performance
In a first validation step, the discussed models are investigated with regard to their suitability
In a first validation step, the discussed models are investigated with regard to their suitability
for predicting the current and voltage characteristics. For this purpose, one 24-h operating day with
for predicting the current and voltage characteristics. For this purpose, one 24-h operating day with
the system quantities illustrated in Figure 17 is analyzed. The top layer shows the load power PCSR
the system quantities illustrated in Figure 17 is analyzed. The top layer shows the load power
(grey curve) and the electrical power of the CG PCG (red line) (for variable assignment see Figure 8).
𝑃 (grey curve) and the electrical power of the CG 𝑃 (red line) (for variable assignment see
The subsequent layer show the grid power PGRID (positive power is drawn from the grid, negative
Figure 8). The subsequent layer show the grid power 𝑃 (positive power is drawn from the grid,
negative power is fed-into the grid), the PV power 𝑃 , and the battery power 𝑃 (positive power
indicates discharge, negative power charge). Finally the bottom layer displays the SOC.
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 15 of 22

power is fed-into the grid), the PV power PPV , and the battery power PBat (positive power indicates
discharge,
Inventions negative
2019, 4, x FOR power charge).
Finally the bottom layer displays the SOC.
PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

Figure 17.
Figure DGsystem
17. DG system quantities
quantities for
for aa 24-h
24-h operating
operating day.
day.

All power
All power values
values are
are measured
measured and andrecorded
recordedwith
withaasampling
samplingtime timeofof 11 min
min inin the monitoring
the monitoring
system and
system and assigned
assignedtotothe
thesimulation
simulation model
modelas input data.data.
as input As described
As described in Section 3.5, the3.5,
in Section loadtheprofile
load
of the battery can thus be specified. The output voltage
profile of the battery can thus be specified. The output voltage V and
Bat 𝑉 current I Bat
and current of the
𝐼 installed battery
of the installed
are recorded
battery by means
are recorded byof an oscillographical
means measurement
of an oscillographical for the same
measurement for the day with
same daya sampling time of
with a sampling
200 ms. In the course of the validation, the battery charging from 0 to 5 h and
time of 200 𝑚𝑠. In the course of the validation, the battery charging from 0 to 5 ℎ and discharge discharge from 16 to 23 h
are considered as follows. Figure 18a,b shows the simulated and measured
from 16 to 23 ℎ are considered as follows. Figure 18a,b shows the simulated and measured currentcurrent and voltage curves
for the
and Thevenin-based
voltage curves for model. The maximummodel.
the Thevenin-based absoluteTheerror is belowabsolute
maximum 2.5 V (relative
error error
is belowrelated2.5 to
𝑉
the full voltage 432.5 V is 0.6%) during charging. However, the simulation results
(relative error related to the full voltage 432.5 𝑉 is 0.6 %) during charging. However, the simulation during discharge
are quite
results inaccurate
during due are
discharge to the coarse
quite parameterization
inaccurate (errorparameterization
due to the coarse 7.5 V, 1.8%). The (error
model cannot
7.5 𝑉, 1.8follow
%).
dynamic load changes. Figure 19a,b illustrates the comparison of simulated
The model cannot follow dynamic load changes. Figure 19a,b illustrates the comparison of simulated and measured current
and measured
and voltage forcurrent
the Rintand
model.
voltageIn both cases,
for the Rintbattery
model.charging and discharge,
In both cases, the maximum
battery charging absolute
and discharge,
error
the is below absolute
maximum 2.5 V (0.6%).
error Figure
is below 20a,b
2.5 gives
𝑉 (0.6the
%).corresponding
Figure 20a,b gives results
thefor the Shepherd’s
corresponding model.
results for
It achieves a good accuracy in both cases, the maximum absolute error is below
the Shepherd’s model. It achieves a good accuracy in both cases, the maximum absolute error is below 3.8 V (0.8%). Finally,
Figure
3.8 21a,b
𝑉 (0.8 %).provides the related
Finally, Figure 21a,bcomparisons
provides thefor the PSIM
related library model.
comparisons for the A goodlibrary
PSIM accuracymodel.of the
A
simulation results can also be observed herewith. For battery charging and
good accuracy of the simulation results can also be observed herewith. For battery charging and discharge, the maximum
absolute error
discharge, is below 2.5absolute
the maximum V (0.6%). error is below 2.5 𝑉 (0.6 %).
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 16 of 22
Inventions 2019,
Inventions 4, x4,FOR
2019, PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 16 16 of 22
of 22

(a) (b)
(a) and measurement results for Thevenin-based model
Figure 18. Simulation (b) (a) charging and (b)
discharge.
18.Simulation
Figure 18. Simulationand
and measurement
measurement results
results for Thevenin-based
for Thevenin-based model
model (a) (a) charging
charging and (b)
and (b) discharge.
discharge.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 19.19. Simulationand
Simulation andmeasurement
measurementresults
results for
for Rint
Rint model
model (a)
(a) charging
chargingand
and(b)
(b)discharge.
discharge.
(a) (b)
Figure 19. Simulation and measurement results for Rint model (a) charging and (b) discharge.
Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 17 of 22
Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

(a) (b)
(a) and measurement results for Shepherd’s model(b)
Figure 20. Simulation (a) charging and (b)
discharge.
FigureFigure 20. Simulation
20. Simulation and measurement
and measurement resultsresults for Shepherd’s
for Shepherd’s modelmodel (a) charging
(a) charging and
and (b) (b)
discharge.
discharge.

(a) (b)
(a) and measurement results for PSIM
Figure 21. Simulation PSIM model
model (a) (b) and
(a) charging
charging and (b)
(b) discharge.
discharge.

Figure 21. Simulation and measurement results for PSIM model (a) charging and (b) discharge.
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 18 of 22
Inventions 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22

Inventions
3.5.2. 2019, 4, SOC
Predicting x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22
3.5.2. Predicting SOC Performance
Performance
For
3.5.2. the
the development
ForPredicting of
of an
SOC Performance
development an advanced
advanced powerpower management
management in in grid
grid applications,
applications, e.g., e.g., dynamic
dynamic
control
control Forof loads
of loads and
and load
load shifting
shifting for
for demand
demand side
side management,
management, accurate
accurate knowledge
knowledge of
of the
the state
state ofof
the development of an advanced power management in grid applications, e.g., dynamic
charge
charge is
is necessary.
necessary. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the simulated
simulated and
and the
the measured
measured SOC
SOC for
for aa 24-h
24-h operating
operating day
day of
of the
the
control of loads and load shifting for demand side management, accurate knowledge of the state of
DG are
are now
DGcharge now compared. For
compared.Therefore, this purpose,
For this purpose, the SOC is
the SOC measured and recorded with aa sampling time of
is necessary. the simulated and is measured
the measuredand SOC recorded
for a 24-hwith sampling
operating day of time
the of
15 min
15 DG
minarein the
innow monitoring
the compared.
monitoringFor system
system (a sampling
(a sampling
this purpose, time
the SOC timeof 1 min could
of 1 min and
is measured not
could be set when
not bewith
recorded recording
set when
a sampling the
recording SOC).
time ofthe
Since the
15 min
SOC). Sincesimulated
in the SOC
the simulated and
monitoringSOC battery
system power
and(abattery
samplingPpower
Bat is identical
time 𝑃of 1 is min for all
identicalfour
could not models
forbeallset
four examined,
when models only
examined,
recording one
the
curve
only for the
one Since
SOC). results
curvethe of the
for simulated model
the resultsSOC is
of the
andshown
model below.
is shown
battery Figure
power 𝑃 22
below. depicts the
Figure 22for
is identical simulated
depicts and
themodels
all four the
simulated measured
and the
examined,
SOConlyandone
measured battery
curve
SOC power
and thePresults
forbattery for of
Bat powercharging,
𝑃 model
the and
for is Figure
shown 23
charging, forFigure
below.
and discharge.
Figure23 22forAsdischarge.
mentioned
depicts Asinmentioned
the simulated Section
and the 3.5.1,
in
the battery is charged with negative 𝑃
power (P < 0) and discharged
Section 3.5.1, the battery is charged with negative power (𝑃 < 0) and discharged with positive
measured SOC and battery power for charging,
Bat and Figure 23 with
for positive
discharge. Aspower
mentioned( P Bat >
in 0).
The comparison
(𝑃 3.5.1,
Section
power > 0).in The
theboth cases
battery is shows
comparisonchargedina reasonable
with cases
both negativeaccuracy
showspowera of < 0) and
(𝑃the model
reasonable results. These
discharged
accuracy findings
of the with
model reveal
positive
results.
that
power
These (𝑃 >reveal
thefindings
investigated 0). Themodels theare
comparison
that suitable
in both
investigated forcases
SOCshows
models evaluation,
are asuitable infor
reasonableaddition
accuracy
SOC to adequate
of the model
evaluation, incurrent
results.
addition andto
These
voltage findings
performance reveal that the
prediction. investigated
adequate current and voltage performance prediction. models are suitable for SOC evaluation, in addition to
adequate current and voltage performance prediction.

Figure22.
Figure
Figure 22.SOC
22. SOCand
SOC andpower
and power 𝑃Bat during
power 𝑃
P during charging.
during charging.
charging.

Figure23.
Figure 23. SOC power 𝑃
SOC and power during discharge.
PBat during
Figure 23. SOC and power 𝑃 during discharge.
Inventions 2019, 4, 41 19 of 22

4. Discussion
From consideration of the variety of models for batteries, in particular for lithium-ion batteries,
the discussion focuses on the problems of parameterization and implementation in a simulation
environment. In principle, the Thevenin-based, the Rint, and the Shepherd’s models, as well as the
PSIM model, are suitable for the simulation-based development of power supply networks, smart grids,
and distributed power generation. The determination of the network elements of the Thevenin-based
model demands a parameter extraction based on a measurement procedure of the used battery.
Similarly, the internal resistance of the Rint model must be obtained from measurements. Both models
require knowledge of the open circuit voltage as a function of the SOC. It was shown how these models
can be parameterized, even without available laboratory samples, with the help of the presented case
study. The parameterization of the Shepherd’s and PSIM models is rather uncomplicated, since all
necessary parameters can be taken from the data sheet of the cell type utilized. The validation carried
out shows that all four models provide adequate simulation results.

5. Conclusions
In this study, it was discussed that distributed energy generation represents a significant
contribution to the use of renewable energies. By utilizing lithium-ion batteries to store electrical energy
in these systems, there is a need to provide appropriate battery models for the design of advanced
power managements in the future. It was pointed out which requirements are demanded of suitable
models. For this purpose, a brief review of the most important models was given first, followed by a
discussion of electrical equivalent circuit models. In this context, the advantages and disadvantages
of the individual models were outlined. Subsequently, the parameterization and implementation of
three commonly known models and one library model in an electrical circuit simulator was presented.
Finally, all four models were validated using a case study. Here it could be shown that very good
simulation results can be achieved with regard to voltage and current characteristics. With regard to
the prediction of the state of charge, adequate results were achieved.
In this work, no temperature effects on the cell behavior were considered. In addition, it was
assumed that the battery capacity does not change with the current amplitude. Therefore, in continuing
work, models will be identified taking into account the Peukert effect in order to improve the prediction
of the state of charge.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank Jonas Kilz and Robert Klemmer from Süwag Grüne Energien
GmbH in Frankfurt, Germany for their support in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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