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    Anatomy General Anatomy Histology

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    Pushkar Raaj Patidar

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    GENERAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY HISTOLOGY EPITHELIUM 2 Epithelium isa sheet of ells whichis made up of layer or layers of cll that covers body surface, lines body cavities (pleura, peritoneum), ines interior of tubular organs (GIT, respiratory tract, blood vessels, genitourinary rat) and form the glands (exocrine and endocrine). Epithelium frm continuous laye/layers ands predominantly cellular with lil orno extracellolar matrix between them, Epithelium has high regeneration capacity!" ranging from a few days (epithelium of small intestine) to one month (epidermis of skin). The deep surface of epithelial layers rest on ‘basement membrane (basal lamina). Epitheivm s derived from all the three germ ayers. CLASSIFICATION 2 Bpithelium is classified into two main types: () Simple epithelium, and (i) compound (stratified) epithelium. ithe shot is made up of single layer of cell itis termed as simple epithelium and itis made up of multiple layers of cells itis termed as compound or stratified epithelium, A) Simple epithelium o Ifepithelium cel layers is made up ofa single layer of cells itis termed as simple epithelium. Depending upon the shape, i is clasified into three types ‘= Simple squamous epitheliuin (pavement epithelium): Itismade of fatened cells that are bound together in a mosaic like patern, c.g. endothelium of heart and blood vessels, mesothelium of serous cavity (peritoneuni*® and pleura), lung alveoli, loop of henle (Ansa nephroni"=*25) and parietal layer of Bowman's capsule. 2 Simple cuboidal epithelium :Itis made of cube-ike cells, eg, thyroid follicles, germinal epithelium of ovary, ducts of glands, proximal and distal convoluted tubules of kidney!» (cuboidal with microvilli. 2. Simple columnar epithelium : tis made up of tall cohumnar cells. Simple columnar cells may be }) Simple columnar epithelium (without cia and microvill) : Lining of stomach, large intestine and ‘cervical eanal 222, i) Columnarepithetium with striated border (regularly arranged microvilt) : Lining of small intestine il) Colunnar epithelium with brush borer (regularly placed microvili) : Lining of gallbladder" 5s) Cilated columnar epithelium (presence of cilia) : Lining of uterus®™, fallopion tube 22, custachian tube, tympanic cavity and central canal of spinal cord and ventricles 4. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium :Itis found in larynx (except vocal cord), trachea, bronchi, olfactory epithelium*"**, epididymis and parts of male urethra. B) Compound (stratified) epithelium 6 Itis made up of multiple layers of cells. Is of following types 1. Stratified squamous epithelium : The surface layer is made up of squamous epithelium. The basal layer of cells is cuboidal to columnar" that give ise to cells migrating towards the surface and becoming squamous. These are of two types : Stratified squamous keratinized : Squamous cells are keratinized, eg epidermis of skin, vestibule of nose, external auditory meatus and ducts of sebaceous glands i) Stratified squamous nonkeratinized : Squamous cells are nonkeratinized, eg. epithelium of ‘oral cavity, tongue, esophagus, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, part of anal canal, vagina =>, cornea 2 and conjunctiva, 2 Stratified columnar epithelium : The suriace layer is made up of columnar cells eg. large duets of glands 89, 3. Stratified cuboidal epithelium : The surface ayer is made up ofcube-shaped calls e.g. duets of sweat lands”, salivary glands", pancreas and seminiferous tubules, ‘Transitional epithelium © Itisa special variety of stratified epithelium which is generally 46 layered with superficial layer composed of large cells which are polypoid and referred to as umbrella shaped cells. These cells have an extra reserve of cell ‘membrane is also called wrothelium as itis found in urinary tract, e.g. renal pelvis”, calyees9.07, ureter““5%”, urinary bladder “2, and proximal portion of urethral", Glands © The glands are specialized epithelium cells which produce secretion. Based on types of secretory process, exocrine glands are divided into following types :- 1 Meroerine glands © Release their secretion by exocytosis without any loss of cellular components, © Examples : Sweat glands, secretion of protein casein by mammary gland, Pancreas, GENERAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY [410] IL Apocrine glands 9 Discharge apical part of cel as secretory product. ‘© Examples : Secretion of milk fat by mammary gland, specialized sweat glands in axilla and perineal area ML Holocrine glands © Cells themselves become the secretory product, © Example : Sebaceous glands*ih-ew-7) ABDOMINAL ORAGANS General microstructure of gut ‘© The gut wall has a layered arrangement composed of 4 main layers mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa and serosa (adventitia) from inside to outside. The mucosa is further subdivided into three strata-ining epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa, 1) Mucosa (Tunica mucosa) o Ithas three strata, from inside to outside i) Lining epithetium : It may vary from stratified squamous (Keratinized or non-keratinizing) to simple columnar according to functional demand, il) Lamina propria: I isthe subepithelial compact connective tissue layer rich in elastic fibers. It contains Iymphoid follicles with defensive functions, nerve'plexus and glands (e.g. gastric glands, crypt of licbeskubn), ii) Museularis mucosa : 1t is divided into an inner circular and an outer longitudinal muscle coats. It is especially well developed in esophagus and large intestine. 2) Submucosa 2 It is the strongest layer of gut wall containing large bundles of collagen. It also contains meissner’s plexus (submucosal plexus)”. 3) Muscularis propria (Muscularis externa or tunica muscularis) Tt consists of an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle fibers. Myenteric plexus (Auerbach’s plexus) is situated beoveen the circular and longitudinal muscle layers!" 7 Kor, #5190, 4) Serosa Adventia or mesothelium) ‘9 External surface ofthe gut is covered by visceral peritoncum, i.e. mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium 1290) supported by subserous connective tissue forming serosa. Serosa covers the part of alimentary canal in abdomen and pelvis related to peritoneal cavity. Serosa is replaced by adventitia in pharynx, most of esophagus and anal canal. Important features in oesophagus ‘9 Epithelium is stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium’, © Mascularis mucosa contains only longitudinal layer and no circular layer. ‘9 Mucosa is the toughest and strongest layer’. 9 Serosa is absent, ‘9 Muscularis externa is made up of skeletal muscle fibers only in the upper third, smooth muscles only in the lower third and both types of muscle fibers in middle third. At upper end the longitudinal coat splits into two bundles and the triangular interval between them is called Laimer’s tringle which is filled with circular muscle fibers. ‘Important features in stomach ‘9 Mucosa is thrown into temporary longitudinal folds rugae, which disappear when stomach is distended. ‘9 Lining epithelium is simple columnar epithelium with small irregular gastric pits, Several long, tubular gastric glands open in gastric pits, © Gastrie glands are divided into 3 groups |) Pylorie glands : In these glands mucus seereting cells predominate. These glands also contain neuroendocrine G cells (secreting gastrin) and cells which secret lysozyme. Parietal cells are few and chief cells are absent. i) Cardiac glands : These glands mainly contain mucus secreting eells. Chief and parietal cells are sparse. iil) Principal (main) glands : These glands are found in body and fundus". These glands contain mainy chief (peptic or zymogen) cells and parietal (oxyntic) cells“. These glands also contain mucous neck cells, stent cells and enteroendocrine cells (argentaffin cell) Important features of small intestine ‘9 Muicosa of small intestine is thrown into large transverse or slightly oblique erescentic folds known as circular folds (plicae cireulares or valves of kerkring or vatvulae conniventes). © Epithelium is simple columnar epithelium with microvilli. The epithelium of intestinal villi consists of three types of cells = GENERAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY [411] }) Enterocytes (surface absorptive cells). i) Goblet cells ; Secrete mucinogen and IgA antibodies, which provide mucosa immunity", ii) M cells" (microfold cells) : These ate antigen presenting cells transferring antigens (including micro- ‘organism) present in the lumen to the underlying lymphoid tissue (Peyer"s patches)", na propria contains numerous tubular perpendicular pits called intestinal glands or erypts of lieberkcuhn. Intestinal crypts of lieberleuhn contain following types of cells :~ |) Mucous cells : Similar to goblet cells. ii) Paneth cells 5% cells: These celis are rich in zine™*"\4”, rough endoplasmic reticulumem™=r.«-09 and secretory granules containing lysozymel"4"-», defensins or eryptidins such as TNF-ot, Paneth cells ‘may also secrote guanylin. These cells exceptionally migrate towards the base of erypt of ieberkuhn instead of, going towards the tip of villi (all other cells migrate towards the tip/™**°), ii) Stem cells" : These are the most numerous cells and are responsible for continous renewel of villous epithelium every 2-5 days. iv) Enteroendocrine cells : These cells are I cells, § cells, K cells, L cells, D1 cells, EC cells, D cells and N cel", Most enteroendocrine cells are closed cells", and some are open, © Lamina propria also contains gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)"™”. ‘9 Submucosa of small intestine bas following important features :- 3) Branner’s gland in proximal (upper) part of duodenum U"9 CUPGEE SAIS, i) Peyer'spatches inthe ileum. All mature cells of intestinal epithelium are derived from a single stem coll population, located in the base of | intestinal gland (crypt). This zone of replication is restricted to lower half of erypt "=", Important features of large intestine © Epithelium of appendix, caecum, colon, rectum and upper part of anal canal up to pectinate (dentate) line is simple columnar epithelium. Epithelium of middle tanstional zone (pecten) of nal canals staiied squamous non-keratnizng ‘ype. Epithelium in the lower end of anal canal below white lines tru skin, ie stratified squamous keratinizing, © Cells in the epithetium are) absorptive cells, Gi) Goblet cells, (i) M cells and (iv) Brush cll. © Lamina propria contains intestinal glands (crypts) which are lind by following cells: (i) goblet cells, (i) columnar absorptive cells, (ii) stem cells, and iv) enteroendocrne cells (ew in number). © Outer longitudinal muscle of muscularis externa condense to form three bands i. taenta coll. Characteristic ppuckerings or haustrations are produced by ttenia coli, Taenfa col are not present inthe appendix, rectum and anal anal Important features of liver ‘The liver is the largest gland in the body. It is composed of mostly parenchymal cells (hepatocytes). Capsule covering the liver is called Glisson’s capsule. Important features of liver histology are 1. Cells : Hepatocytes (parenchymal clis), kuffer cells (stellate macrophages"), and ito cells" (perisinusoidal cells or lipocytes). Ito cells store fat and vitamin A“™” 2._Liver lobule : Livers divided into hexagonal hepatic lobules functional unit of liver ""*""%", Liver lobule encompasses the liver tissue that is drained by single branch of a central vein**""2"” (branch of hepatic ‘ein Hepatocytes (parenchymal cells) are arranged as seets or plates, ic. hepatic laminae (or hepatic cords), ‘which are one cell thick. A Liver acinus (portal acinus) isa conical segment ofa lobule having the branches of hepatic artery and portal vein at its base and the central vein at its apex. The portal acinus is divided into three |) Zone 1 (periportal : It is nearest to the branches of hepatic artery and portal vein in the portal tract Hepatocytes of this zone are exposed to blood having high nutrients, and oxygen™*""°, ii) Zone 2: Its exposed to blood having intermediate nutrients and oxyger. ii) Zone 3 (pericentral): is nearest to central vein and exposed to blood lov in nutrients and oxygen. 3. Portal tract (portal eanal) :Glissons's capsule extend into the liver around branches of hepatic artery, portal ‘vein and bie duets!"*"" as branching trabeculae called as portal tracts (portal canals). The combination of abile ductule, branch of hepatic artery, and branch of portal vein i refered to as portal triad, 4. Hepatic sinusoids : Between the hepatic laminae lie endothelial lined venous sinusoids. Hepatocytes of hepatic laminae are separated from venous sinusoids by perisinusoidal space of disse’"*, Hepatocytes around protal -riptyseat plate (physis or growth plate |g Metapnysis Ls Diaphysis ‘Metaphysis 3 > Growth plate © Epiphysis is the growing end of bone“"*** and growth occurs by growth activity of epiphyseal plate (physis or growth plate). At the epiphyseal growth plate (physes) new bone growth occuts by the process of endochondral ossification, ic. ossification of proliferating cartilage. This process sequentially involves proliferation and hypertrophy“ of cells (chondrocytes), their ealeificeation9 and vascular invasion’? and erosion!" (chondrolysis), followed by osteogenesis, © Metaphysis is the most vascular part of bone’, [is relatively weak part ofbone as itis largely composed of cancellous bone. Itis the most common site for hematogenous osteomyelitis!" © Diaphysis is the longest and strongest part of @ long bone as itis largely composed of cortical (compact) bone, 'ypes of epiphysis ‘0 The epiphysis are of following four types := 1. Pressure epiphysis: Itis covered by an articular cartilage and takes par in the transmission of body weight, e.g. head of femur™5°%, head of humerus, condyles of tibia™=", lower end of radius etc. 2. Traction epiphysis Itis non-articular and does not take partin weight transmission. Its produced by a pull of ‘the muscle. Examples are greater and lesser trochanters of femur 25-25%, ereqter and lesser tubercles of humerus"! and mastoid process". 3. Atavistic epiphysis : Itis an independent bone in lower mammals, which in man gets fused to the nearest bone to receive mutrition from the host bone. Examples are coracold process of seapula 45%), posterior tubercle of talus (os trigonum™), ete, 4. Aberrant epiphysis : It is an epiphysis which appears at unusual end of a short long bone, e.g. head of I ‘metacarpal and base of other metacarpals. mation © Bone formation (ossification) occurs by two methods: 1) Endochoneral ossification, 2) Intramembranous ossification © Tn both, mesenchymal connective tissue is replaced by bone but by different mechanics. 1) Endochondral ossification 2 This ype of ossification involves the replacement of a cartilaginous model by bone. Bone formation takes place in pre-existing cartilage. Mesenchymal issue first forms cartilage whichis latter ossified to become bone. Most ‘of the longs bones develop by endochondral ossification. Other bones are vertebrae, pelvis, skull base bones. Interstitial growth of long bone at epiphyseal cartilage oceurs by endochondral ossification, 2) Intramembranous osifieation 9 Meseneliymal cells give tise to osteogenic cells which develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblass begin to lay down osteoid which latter mineralized to form bone. Thus, theres direct formation of bone from mesenchymal tissue (with no cartilage formation as occurs in Endochondral ossification). This type of ossification transforms ‘membrane into bone, The bone formation occurs at the periphery wi layers of bone being lid down analogous to the ring-like diameter ofa tree. Ths type of growth is called appositional growth!™", Skull vault, ‘maxilla, most of the mandible" and clavicle®®" are formed by intramembranous ossification Ossiti ters bone 9 Ossification centers are the sites where bone formation begins. All long bones are formed by three ossification centers : one primary ossification center (forms the diaphysis) and one or more secondary ossification centers (form vo epiphyses).. GENERAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY [416] A. Primary center of ossification : It forms diaphysis. It appears before birth with some exceptions (viz. primary ‘conters of tarsal and earpal bones appear after birth except those of talus, calcancum and cuboid which appear before birth). B. Secondary centers of ossification : They form both ends (epiphyses) of long bones and as a rule appear after birth. Infetal life, primary center of ossification appears in the center of shaft (diaphysis) and this spreads towards the ends to form the diaphysis, Later (after birth) one or more secondary centers of ossification develop at each end and form. the epiphysis. Once the growth is complete, secondary center of ossification (ic. epiphysis) fuses with primary center (ie. diaphysis or shaf). w of ysis (Li cation) ‘In most of the fong bones the two epiphyses do not fuse simultaneously. The epiphyseal center (secondary center of ossification) which appears first unites last and the epiphyseal center which appears later unites first, except in case of fibula where the epiphyseal center for lower end appears first and also unites first, Ou the other hand, the epiphyseal ‘center for upper end appears late and also unites late, Thus flbula isthe only long bone which violates the law of union of epiphysis. 6 Ifthere are more then one epiphyseal centers (secondary centers of ossification) at one end. they frst unite with one ‘another to form a single epiphysis which later fuses with diaphysis (primary center of ossification), Li Important facts toremember 9 Primary center ofossification fr diaphysis of major long bones appear prensally, ie. diaphysis ofall long bones ae ossified at birth, Secondary centers of ossification for ends (epiphysis) of Tong bones appear aftr bith except forsecondary centers around knee (distal femur") and proximal tibia™™%* appear during last weeks of fetal life or immediately afer birt, 6 Beside diapiysis of long bones, other ossification centers which appear prenatally (ossified at birth) are skull talus, caleaneum"!*”, cuboid, phalanges, girdle bones vertebral column, ribs and steraum. 6 Primary center of all tarsal bones (except talus, calcaneum and cuboid), and carpal bones appear after birth, ‘BLOOD SUPPLY OF A LONG BONE © The long bone is supplied by the following four sets of arteries :- 8) Nutrient arteries! 1b) Periosteal arteri ©) Metaphyseal arteries! 4) Epiphyseal arteries” Nutrient artery fo Ttenters the middle of the shaft through a nutrient foramen, runs obliquely through the cortex, and then divides into ascending and deseniding branches that run towards metaphysis‘£2, Fach branch subdivides into a number of smaller parallel vessels which enter the metaphysis and forni hair-pin loops. The loops anostomose with epiphyseal,metaphyseal and periosteal arteries. Therefore, metaphysis is the most vascular zone of the long bone. ‘The nutrient artery supplies the medullary cavity and inner-tvo third of cortical bone of diaphysis and metaphysis. ‘The nutrient artery of tibia s the largest mutrient artery. ihe po Periosteal arteries ‘These are numerous and ramify beneath the periosteum. They enter the bone through volkmann’s canals supply the outer one-third ofthe cortex. The periosteal vessels are especially mimerous beneath the muscular and ligamentous attachments. Metaphyseal (juxta-epiphyseal) arteries © They are divided from neighboring arteries and enter the metaphysis difectly along the attachment of joint capsule. Epiphyseal arteries © They are derived from arterial anastomosis around the joint (irculus vasculosus). They enter the epiphysis ether digeclly or after piercing the epiphyeal cartilage. CARTILAGE, © The cartilage is a spectalized connective tissue“? which provides rigidity along with elasticity. It consists of chondrocytes embedded ina gel-like matrix. Characteristic features of cartilage are as follows 1. Itis avascular, has no lymphatics, and has no nerves 224169, 2. itis surrounded by perichondrium. + The cartilages are classified into three types: 1) Hyaline cartilage ‘It is the most widely distributed cartilage in the body. All long bones (except clavicle) are preformed in hyaline cartilage and later ossiy to become in bone, ie. endochondral ossification involves hyaline cartilage. Examples ofbyaline cartilages are: Articular cartilage, arytenoid cartilage" (lower part) tyro cartilage, ericoid cartilage, epiphyseal growth plate (physis), costal cartilages!!, nasal cartilages, tracheal rings and bronchial cartilages. Important facts © Allhyaline cartilages are covered by perichondrium except articular cartilages 2 10, (o Hyaline cartilage has tendency to caleify except for articular eartilage’4™, © Articular eartilage lacks ability to repair and regenerate itself™2?" #0, 2) Elastic cartilage 9 This earilage contains rch nenwork of yellow elastic fbers. Examples of clastic cartilage are auricle (pinna), epiglottis“, corniculate cartilage, cuneiform cartilage, apex of arytenoid cartilage, auditory tube™ED, andexternal auditory canal. o Elastic eartilage s covered by perichondrium®!22, 3) Kibrocartilage © The characteristic feature of fibrocarilage is presence of abundant collagen. Examples of fibrocartilage are (W intervertebral disc“, (ii) interpubic dise (pubic symphysis), (iii) menisci of knee“, (iy) articular disc of temporomandibular°2£2, serno-clavicular and inferior radio-ulnar joints, (») articular cartilages of temporo-mandibula, sterno-clavicular and acromio-clavicular joints, and (vf) labrum of acetabulum and glenotd. o Fibrocartlage fs not covered by perichondrium, GENERAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY [418] Important facts @ All cartilages are covered by perichondrium except articular cartilage (a type of hyaline cartilage) and fibrocartilage. 9 Fibrocartilage contains type I collagen, and hyaline and elastic cartilages contain type Ul collagen. 9 Hyaline cartilage is blue, elastic cartilage is yellow and fibrocartilage is white 6 There is no mineral (inorganic) component in the ground substance of cartilage. JOINT: 9 Joint is a junction between two or more bones or cartilages. The joints can be classified according to their structure and function, INCTIONAL CLASSIEI «9 Itis based on degree of mobility. They are of three types 1) Immovable joints (synarthroses) : These joints have no mobility, e.g. lbrous joints and primary cartilaginous joints. 2) Silightly movable joints (amphiarthroses) : These joints show some degree of mobility, e.g. secondary cartilaginous Joints. 3) Freely movable joins (diarthroses) : These joints show maximum mobility, ¢.. synovial joints. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION Its based upon te type of eonnective tissue and presence or absence of joint cavity. The joins are classified into three types :() fibrous (i) cartilaginous, and (i) synovial Fibrous joints ‘© Here the bones forming the joint are united by fibrous connective tissue. Fibrous joints lack joint cavity. The fibrous joints are of three types : (a) sutures, (b) syndesmoses, and (c) gmphoses. A) Sutures 1 These are peculiar to skull and are immovable. The articular surfaces are connected by a thin layer of connective tissue (sutural ligaments). Depending upon the shape of articular surfaces and margins of the articulating ‘bones these joints are further divided into the following subtypes |) Plane suture : Articuler surfaces are plane, eg, intranasal suture and median palatine suture. i) Serrate or limbus suture : Articular surfuces are reciprocally serrated and interlock with each other in a jigsaw fashion, e.g. saginal sucure (interparietal suture). iil) Denticulate suture : Margins of sutures interlock with each other like teeth of saw, (parieto-occipital suture®2), and coronal suture (fronto-parietal suture”). iv) Squamous suture : Articular surfaces sre relatively flat and overlap each other, eg. temporo-parietal g. lambdoid suture suture. ¥) Sehindylesis : A ridge of one bone fits into groove of the other one, e.g. vomer-sphenoid rostrum junction r=" trme 1B) Syndesmosis #2” 12 These are joints where two adjacent bones are linked by a considerably greater amount of connective tissue than in sutures inthe form of interosseous ligaments and membranes. Examples are intersseous radio-ulnar Joints, interosseous tibiofibular joints, inferior tbiofibular joints!*”, joints between adjacent laminae of vertebrae, tympano-stapedial joint and posterior part of sacroiliac joint. ©. Gomphoses (peg and socket joint) 12 These are speciailzed fibrous joints restricted to fixation of teeth in alveolar sockets of mandible and maxilla, i.e. deno-alveolar peg. Cartilaginous joints © In this ype of joint the bones are joined by cartilage, cither hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage, Cartilaginous joints also lack joind cavity. These are of two types 1) Primary cartilaginous joints (synchondrosis, or hyaline cartilage joints) {a The joints forming bones are united by a plate of hyaline cartilage. These joints are immovable and temporary in nature; as the cartilaginous plate is replaced by bone after completion of growth, ic. synostosis. These joints are :- 8) Joint between epiphysis and diaphysis ofa growing long bone!“ ) Joint beeween basi sphenoid and basiocciput (sphenoceipital joint). ©) First costosternal joint!” (first chondrosternal joint"). @)Costochondral joints” ‘growth plate”), GENERAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY [419] 2) Secondary cartilaginous joints (symphyses or brocartilaginous joints) 10 The articular surfaces are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage and united by a dsc of fibrocartilage, These joints are permanent and persist throughout lif. Examples are symphysis pubis, sacrococeygeal Joint", manubriosternal joint’!”:*™*, intervertebral discs and symphysis menti (not true symphysis). Typically the secondary cartilaginous joints occur in the median plane of the body and permit limited ‘movements due to compressible pad of fibrocartilage 0 Symphysis menti is a misnomer as itis a synostosis. ‘Synovial joints (diarthrodial joints) ‘o These joints are most evolved and most mobile type joints. These joints possess a cavity and articular surfaces are surrounded by fibrous capsule. The articular surface is covered by a thin plate of articular cartilage. The articular cartilage ofall synovial joints in the body are hyaline cartilage except those of temporomandibular, sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints, which are fibrocartilage“"™’, Articular cartilage is avascular”, non-nervous”? and devoid of perichondrium", It does not have the espacity to repair and regenerate™, Articular cartilage provides slippery surfaces for free movements", Synovial joints are also called dlarthrodial joints freely movable Joints). © Synovial joints are classified as flows, 1) Planesynovial joints (fiat joints) « Articular surfaces are nearly flat (plane) and permit gliding movements (translations) in various directions These are the simplest type of joint movements. The examples are intercarpal joints, intertarsal joints, intermetatarsal joints, intermetacarpal joints, joints between articular processes of vertebrae (

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